Chapter 6

Design in timber to
BS 5268

This chapter is concerned with the design of timber

elements to British Standard 5268: Part 2, which is
based on the permissible stress philosophy. The chapter
describes how timber is specified for structural purposes
and discusses some of the basic concepts involved such
as stress grading, grade stresses and strength classes.
The primary aim of this chapter is to give guidance on
the design of flexural members, e.g. beams and joists,
compression members, e.g. posts and columns and load
sharing systems, e.g. stud walling.

6.1 Introduction
Wood is a very versatile raw material and is still
widely used in construction, especially in countries
such as Canada, Sweden, Finland, Norway and
Poland, where there is an abundance of goodquality timber. Timber can be used in a range
of structural applications including marine works:
construction of wharves, piers, cofferdams; heavy
civil works: bridges, piles, shoring, pylons; domestic housing: roofs, floors, partitions; shuttering
for precast and in situ concrete; falsework for brick
or stone construction.
Of all the construction materials which have
been discussed in this book, only timber is naturally
occurring. This makes it a very difficult material to
characterise and partly accounts for the wide variation in the strength of timber, not only between
different species but also between timber of the
same species and even from the same log. Quite
naturally, this led to uneconomical use of timber
which was costly for individuals and the nation as
a whole. However, this problem has now been
largely overcome by specifying stress graded timber (section 6.2).
There is an enormous variety of timber species.
They are divided into softwoods and hardwoods, a
botanical distinction, not on the basis of mechanical strength. Softwoods are derived from trees with

needle-shaped leaves and are usually evergreen,

e.g. fir, larch, spruce, hemlock, pine. Hardwoods
are derived from trees with broad leaves and are
usually deciduous, e.g. ash, elm, oak, teak, iroko,
ekki, greeheart. Obviously the suitability of a particular timber type for any given purpose will depend upon various factors such as performance,
cost, appearance and availability. This makes specification very difficult. The task of the structural
engineer has been simplified, however, by grouping timber species into sixteen strength classes for
which typical design parameters, e.g. grade stresses
and moduli of elasticity, have been produced (section 6.3). Most standard design in the UK is with
softwoods.
Design of timber elements is normally carried
out in accordance with BS 5268: Structural Use of
Timber. This is divided into the following parts:
Part 2: Code of Practice for Permissible Stress Design,
Materials and Workmanship.
Part 3: Code of Practice for Trussed Rafter Roofs.
Part 4: Fire Resistance of Timber Structures.
Part 5: Code of Practice for the Preservative Treatment of Structural Timber.
Part 6: Code of Practice for Timber Frame Walls.
Part 7: Recommendations for the Calculation Basis for
Span Tables.
The design principles which will be outlined in
this chapter are based on the contents of Part 2 of
the code. It should therefore be assumed that all
future references to BS 5268 refer exclusively to
Part 2. As pointed out in Chapter 1 of this book,
BS 5268 is based on permissible stress design rather
than limit state design. This means in practice that
a partial safety factor is applied only to material
properties, i.e. the permissible stresses (section 6.4)
and not the loading.
Specifically, this chapter gives guidance on the
design of timber beams, joists, columns and stud
walling. The design of timber formwork is not
279

Design in timber to BS 5268

covered here as it was considered to be rather too
specialised a topic and, therefore, inappropriate
for a book of this nature. However, before discussing the design process in detail, the following
sections will expand on the more general aspects
mentioned above, namely:
a) stress grading
b) grade stress and strength class
c) permissible stress.

6.2 Stress grading

The strength of timber is a function of several
parameters including the moisture content, density,
size of specimen and the presence of various
strength-reducing characteristics such as knots,
slope of grain, fissures and wane. Prior to the introduction of BS 5268 the strength of timber was
determined by carrying out short-term loading tests
on small timber specimens free from all defects.
The data were used to estimate the minimum
strength which was taken as the value below which
not more than 1% of the test results fell. These
strengths were multiplied by a reduction factor to
give basic stresses. The reduction factor made an
allowance for the reduction in strength due to
duration of loading, size of specimen and other
effects normally associated with a safety factor such
as accidental overload, simplifying assumptions
made during design and design inaccuracies,
together with poor workmanship. Basic stress was
defined as the stress which could safely be permanently sustained by timber free from any strengthreducing characteristics. Basic stress, however, was
not directly applicable to structural size timber since
structural size timber invariably contains defects,
which further reduces its strength. To take account
of this, timber was visually classified into one of
four grades, namely 75, 65, 50 and 40, which indicated the percentage free from defects. The grade
stress for structural size timber was finally obtained
by multiplying the grade designations expressed as
a percentage (e.g. 75%, 65% etc.) by the basic
stress for the timber.
With the introduction of BS 5268 the concept of
basic stress was largely abandoned and a revised
procedure for assessing the strength of timber
adopted. From then on, the first step involved grading structural size timber. Grading was still carried
out visually, although it was now common practice
to do this mechanically. The latter approach offered the advantage of greater economy in the use
of timber since it took into account the density of
280

timber which significantly influences its strength.

Mechanical stress grading is based on the fact
that there is a direct relationship between the modulus of elasticity measured over a relatively short
span, i.e. stiffness, and bending strength. The stiffness is assessed non-destructively by feeding individual pieces of timber through a series of rollers
on a machine which automatically applies small
transverse loads over short successive lengths and
measures the deflections. These are compared with
permitted deflections appropriate to given stress
grades and the machine assesses the grade of the
timber over its entire length.
When BS 5268 was published in 1984 the
numbered grades (i.e. 75, 65, 50 and 40) were
withdrawn and replaced by two visual grades: General Structural (GS) and Special Structural (SS) and
four machine grades: MGS, MSS, M75 and M50.
The SS grade timber was used as the basis for
strength and modulus of elasticity determinations
by subjecting a large number of structural sized
specimens to short-term load tests. The results were
used to obtain the fifth percentile stresses, defined
as the value below which not more than 5% of test
results fell (Fig. 6.1). The fifth percentile values
for other grades of the same species were derived
using grade relativity factors established from the
same series of tests. Finally, the grade stresses were
obtained by dividing the fifth percentile stresses
by a reduction factor, which included adjustments
for a standard depth of specimen of 300 mm, duration of load and a factor of safety. The two visual
grades are still referred to in the latest revision of
BS 5268 published in 2002. However, machine
graded timber is now graded directly to one of sixteen strength classes defined in BS EN 519, principally on the basis of bending stress, mean modulus
of elasticity and characteristic density, and marked
accordingly.

6.3 Grade stress and

strength class
Table 6.1 shows typical timber species/grade combinations and associated grade stresses and moduli
of elasticity. This information would enable the
designer to determine the size of a timber member
given the intensity and distribution of the loads to
be carried. However, it would mean that the contractors choice of material would be limited to
one particular species/grade combination, which
could be difficult to obtain. It would obviously be
better if a range of species/grade combinations could

Grade stress and strength class

Frequency of
occurrence

Mean strength

1.64 s.d.

Flexural strength
5% test results

Fifth percentile stress

Fig. 6.1 Frequency distribution curve for flexural strength of timber.

Table 6.1 Grade stresses for softwoods graded in accordance with BS 4978: for service classes 1
and 2 (Table 10, BS 5268)
Standard name

Redwood/whitewood
(imported)
British larch
British pine
British spruce
Douglas fir
(British grown)
Parana pine
(imported)
Pitch pine
(Caribbean)
Western red cedar
(imported)
Douglas fir-larch
(Canada and USA)
Hem-fir
(Canada and USA)
Spruce-pine-fir
(Canada and USA)
Sitka spruce
(Canada)
Western whitewoods
(USA)
Southern pine
(USA)

Grade

SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS
SS
GS

Bending
parallel
to graina

Tension
parallel
to graina

N/mm 2
7.5
5.3
7.5
5.3
6.8
4.7
5.7
4.1
6.2
4.4
9.0
6.4
10.5
7.4
5.7
4.1
7.5
5.3
7.5
5.3
7.5
5.3
6.6
4.7
6.6
4.7
9.6
6.8

Compression

N/mm 2

Parallel
to grain
N/mm 2

Perpendicular
to grainb
N/mm 2

4.5
3.2
4.5
3.2
4.1
2.9
3.4
2.5
3.7
2.6
5.4
3.8
6.3
4.4
3.4
2.5
4.5
3.2
4.5
3.2
4.5
3.2
4.0
2.8
4.0
2.8
5.8
4.1

7.9
6.8
7.9
6.8
7.5
6.1
6.1
5.2
6.6
5.2
9.5
8.1
11.0
9.4
6.1
5.2
7.9
6.8
7.9
6.8
7.9
6.8
7.0
6.0
7.0
6.0
10.2
8.7

2.1
1.8
2.1
1.8
2.1
1.8
1.6
1.4
2.4
2.1
2.4
2.2
3.2
2.8
1.7
1.6
2.4
2.2
1.9
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.5
1.7
1.5
2.5
2.2

Shear
parallel
to grain

Modulus of elasticity
Mean

Minimum

N/mm 2

N/mm 2

N/mm 2

0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.64
0.64
0.88
0.88
1.03
1.03
1.16
1.16
0.63
0.63
0.85
0.85
0.68
0.68
0.68
0.68
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.98
0.98

10 500
9 000
10 500
9 000
10 500
9 000
8 000
6 500
11 000
9 500
11 000
9 500
13 500
11 000
8 500
7 000
11 000
10 000
11 000
9 000
10 000
8 500
10 000
8 000
9 000
7 500
12 500
10 500

7 000
6 000
7 000
6 000
7 000
6 000
5 000
4 500
7 000
6 000
7 500
6 000
9 000
7 500
5 500
4 500
7 500
6 500
7 500
6 000
6 500
5 500
6 500
5 500
6 000
5 000
8 500
7 000

Notes. a Stresses applicable to timber 300 mm deep (or wide): for other section sizes see 2.10.6 and 2.12.2 of BS 5268.
b
When the specifications specifically prohibit wane at bearing areas, the SS grade compression perpendicular to grain stress may
be multiplied by 1.33 and used for all grades.

281

Design in timber to BS 5268

Table 6.2 Softwood combinations of species and visual grades which satisfy the requirements for
various strength classes
Standard name

Strength classes
C14

Imported
Parana pine
Caribbean pitch pine
Redwood
Whitewood
Western red cedar
Douglas fir-larch (Canada and USA)
Hem-fir (Canada and USA)
Spruce-pine-fir (Canada and USA)
Sitka spruce (Canada)
Western whitewoods (USA)
Southern pine (USA)
British grown
Douglas fir
Larch
British pine
British spruce

C16

C22

GS

C24

C27

C30

SS
GS

SS

GS
GS

SS
SS

GS

SS
GS
GS
GS

SS
SS
SS

GS
GS

SS
SS
GS

GS

SS

SS
GS

SS

GS
GS

be specified and the contractor could then select

the most economical one. Such an approach forms
the basis of grouping timber species/grade combinations with similar strength characteristics into
strength classes (Table 6.2).
In all there are sixteen strength classes, C14,
C16, C18, C22, C24, TR26, C27, C30, C35, C40,
D30, D35, D40, D50, D60 and D70, with C14
having the lowest strength characteristics. The
strength class designations indicate the bending
strength of the timber. Strength classes C14 to C40
and TR26 are for softwoods and D30 to D70 are
for hardwoods. Strength class TR26 is intended
for use in the design of trussed rafters. The grade
stresses and moduli of elasticity associated with
each strength class are shown in Table 6.3. In the
UK structural timber design is normally based on
strength classes C16 to C27. These classes cover a
wide range of softwoods which display good structural properties and are both plentiful and cheap.

6.4 Permissible stresses

The grade stresses given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 were
derived assuming particular conditions of service
282

C18

SS
SS

and loading. In order to take account of the actual

conditions that individual members will be subject to during their design life, the grade stresses
are multiplied by modification factors known as
K-factors. The modified stresses are termed permissible stresses.
BS 5268 lists over 80 K-factors. However, the
following subsections consider only those modification factors relevant to the design of simple flexural
and compression members, namely:
K 2:
K 3:
K 5:
K 7:
K 8:
K 12:

Moisture content factor

Duration of loading factor
Notched ends factor
Depth factor
Load-sharing systems factor
Compression member stress factor.

6.4.1 MOISTURE CONTENT, K 2

The strength and stiffness of timber decreases with

increasing moisture content. This effect is taken
into account by assigning timber used for structural work to a service class. BS 5628 recognises
three service classes as follows:
Service class 1 is characterised by a moisture content in the material corresponding to a temperature

Permissible stresses
Table 6.3 Grade stresses and moduli of elasticity for various strength classes: for service classes 1
and 2 (based on Tables 8 and 9, BS 5268)
Strength
class

C14
C16
C18
C22
C24
TR26
C27
C30
C35
C40
D30
D35
D40
D50
D60
D70
1
2

Bending
parallel
to grain
(m,g,|| )
N/mm 2
4.1
5.3
5.8
6.8
7.5
10.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
9.0
11.0
12.5
16.0
18.0
23.0

Tension
parallel
to grain
N/mm 2

Compression
parallel
to grain
(c,g,|| )
N/mm 2

Compression
perpendicular
to grain1
(c,g, )
N/mm 2 N/mm 2

Shear
parallel
to grain
(g )
N/mm 2

E mean
N/mm 2

2.5
3.2
3.5
4.1
4.5
6.0
6.0
6.6
7.2
7.8
5.4
6.6
7.5
9.6
10.8
13.8

5.2
6.8
7.1
7.5
7.9
8.2
8.2
8.6
8.7
8.7
8.1
8.6
12.6
15.2
18.0
23.0

2.1
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.0
2.8
3.4
3.9
4.5
5.2
6.0

0.60
0.67
0.67
0.71
0.71
1.10
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.40
1.70
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60

6 800
8 800
9 100
9 700
10 800
11 000
12 300
12 300
13 400
14 500
9 500
10 000
10 800
15 000
18 500
21 000

1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.2
2.6
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.6

Modulus
of elasticity

Characteristic
density 2

Average
density 2

E min
N/mm 2

k
kg/m 3

mean
kg/m 3

4 600
5 800
6 000
6 500
7 200
7 400
8 200
8 200
9 000
10 000
6 000
6 500
7 500
12 600
15 600
18 000

290
310
320
340
350
370
370
380
400
420
530
560
590
650
700
900

350
370
380
410
420
450
450
460
480
500
640
670
700
780
840
1 080

When the specification specifically prohibits wane at bearing areas, the higher values may be used.
For the calculation of dead load, the average density should be used.

of 20C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65% for a few weeks per year.
Timbers used internally in a continuously heated
building normally experience this environment. In
such environments most timbers will attain an average moisture content not exceeding 12%.
Service class 2 is characterised by a moisture
content in the material corresponding to a temperature of 20C and the relative humidity of the
surrounding air only exceeding 85% for a few weeks
per year. Timbers used in covered buildings will
normally experience this environment. In such environments most timbers will attain an average
moisture content not exceeding 20%.
Service class 3, due to climatic conditions, is
characterised by higher moisture contents than
service class 2 and is applicable to timbers used
externally and fully exposed.
The grade stresses and moduli of elasticity shown
in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 apply to timber exposed to
service classes 1 and 2. According to clause 2.6.2
of BS 5268 where service class 3 exists, the values
in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 should be multiplied by a
modification factor K2 given in Table 16 of BS 5268,
reproduced here as Table 6.4. Clause 2.6.1 also

Table 6.4 Modification factor K 2 by which

stresses and moduli for service classes 1 and 2
should be multiplied to obtain stresses and moduli
applicable to service class 3 (Table 16, BS 5268)
Property

K2

Bending parallel to grain

Tension parallel to grain
Compression parallel to grain
Compression perpendicular to grain
Shear parallel to grain
Mean and minimum modulus of elasticity

0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.8

notes that because it is difficult to dry thick timber,

service class 3 stresses and moduli should be used
for solid timber members more than 100 mm thick,
unless they have been specially dried.

6.4.2 DURATION OF LOADING, K3

The stresses given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 apply to

long-term loading. Where the applied loads will
act for shorter durations e.g. snow and wind, the
283

Design in timber to BS 5268

Table 6.5 Modification factor K 3 for duration of loading (Table 17, BS 5268)
Duration of loading

Value of K 3

Long term (e.g. dead + permanent imposeda)

Medium term (e.g. dead + snow, dead + temporary imposed)
Short term (e.g. dead + imposed + windb, dead + imposed + snow + windb)
Very short term (e.g. dead + imposed + windc)

1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75

Notes. a For uniformly distributed imposed floor loads K 3 = 1.00 except for type C3 occupancy (Table 1, BS 6399: Part 1:
1996) where for foot traffic on corridors, hallways, landings and stairways only, K 3 may be assumed to be 1.5.
b
For wind where the largest diagonal dimension of the loaded area a, as defined in BS 6399: Part 2, exceeds 50 m.
c
For wind, very short-term category applies to classes A and B (3 s or 5 s gust) as defined in CP3 : Chapter V : Part 2 or,
where the largest diagonal dimension of the loaded area a, as defined in BS 6399: Part 2, does not exceed 50 m.

grade stresses can be increased. Table 17 of BS

5268, reproduced here as Table 6.5, gives the modification factor K 3 by which these values should be
multiplied for various load combinations.

1. For a notch on the top edge (Fig. 6.2(a)):

K5 =

h(he a ) + ahe
h2e

for a he

K 5 = 1.0 for a > he

6.4.3 NOTCHED ENDS, K 5

Notches at the ends of flexural members will result in high shear concentrations which may cause
structural failure and must, therefore, be taken into
account during design (Fig. 6.2).
In notched members the grade shear stresses
parallel to the grain (Tables 6.1 and 6.3) are multiplied by a modification factor K 5 calculated as
follows:

(6.1)
(6.2)

2. For a notch on the underside (Fig. 6.2( b)):

K5 =

he
h

(6.3)

Clause 2.10.4 of BS 5268 also notes that the

effective depth, he, should not be less than 0.5 h,
i.e. K 5 0.5.

6.4.4 DEPTH FACTOR, K 7

he

The grade bending stresses given in Table 6.3 only

apply to timber sections having a depth h of 300
mm. For other depths of beams, the grade bending
stresses are multiplied by the depth factor K 7,
defined in clause 2.10.6 of BS 5268 as follows:
K 7 = 1.17 for solid beams having a depth
72 mm

300
K7 =

(a)

0.11

for solid beams with

72 mm < h < 300 mm

he

K7 =

(6.4)

0.81(h2 + 92 300)
for solid beams
(h2 + 56 800)
with h > 300 mm

(b)

Fig. 6.2 Notched beams: (a) beam with notch on

top edge; ( b) beam with notch on underside ( Fig. 2,
BS 5268).

284

6.4.5 LOAD-SHARING SYSTEMS, K 8

The grade stresses given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3

apply to individual members, e.g. isolated beams
and columns, rather than assemblies. When four

Symbols
or more members such as rafters, joists or wall
studs, spaced a maximum of 610 mm centre to
centre act together to resist a common load, the
grade stress should be multiplied by a load-sharing
factor K 8 which has a value of 1.1 (clause 2.9,
BS 5268).

6.4.6 COMPRESSION MEMBERS, K 12

The grade compression stresses parallel to the grain

given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 are used to design struts
and columns. These values apply to compression
members with slenderness ratios less than 5 which
would fail by crushing. Where the slenderness ratio
of the member is equal to or greater than 5 the
grade stresses should be multiplied by the modification factor K12 given in Table 22 of BS 5268,
reproduced here as Table 6.6. Alternatively Appendix B of BS 5268 gives a formula for K12 which
could be used. This is based on the Perry-Robertson
equation which is also used to model the behaviour
of steel compression members (section 4.9). The
factor K12 takes into account the tendency of the
member to fail by buckling and allows for imperfections such as out of straightness and accidental
load eccentricities.
The factor K12 is based on the minimum
modulus of elasticity, Emin, irrespective of whether
the compression member acts alone or forms part
of a load-sharing system and the compression stress,
c,||, is given by:
c,|| = c,g,||K3

(6.5)

6.5 Timber design

Having discussed some of the more general aspects, the following sections will consider in detail
the design of:
1. flexural members
2. compression members
3. stud walling.

6.6 Symbols
For the purposes of this chapter, the following symbols have been used. These have largely been taken
from BS 5268.

GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES
b
h
A

breadth of beam
depth of beam
total cross-sectional area

i
I
Z

radius of gyration
second moment of area
elastic modulus

BENDING
L
M
MR
m,a,||
m,g,||
m,adm,||

effective span
design moment
moment of resistance
applied bending stress parallel to grain
grade bending stress parallel to grain
permissible bending stress parallel to
grain

DEFLECTION
t
m
v
p
E
Emean
Emin
G

total deflection
bending deflection
shear deflection
permissible deflection
modulus of elasticity
mean modulus of elasticity
minimum modulus of elasticity
shear modulus

SHEAR
Fv
a
g
adm

design shear force

applied shear stress parallel to grain
grade shear stress parallel to grain
permissible shear stress parallel to grain

BEARING
F
lb
c,a,
c,g,
c,adm,

bearing force
length of bearing
applied compression stress
perpendicular to grain
grade compression stress perpendicular
to grain
permissible bending stress perpendicular
to grain

COMPRESSION
Le

N
c,a,||
c,g,||
c,adm,||
c,||
e

effective length of a column

slenderness ratio
axial load
applied compression stress parallel
to grain
grade compression stress parallel
to grain
permissible compression stress parallel
to grain
compression stress = c,g,||K 3
Euler critical stress
285

Design in timber to BS 5268

286

Table 6.6 Modification factor K 12 for compression members (Table 22, BS 5268)
E/c,||

Value of K 12
Values of slenderness ratio (= L e/i)
<5
5
10
20
30
40

50

60

70

80

90

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

250

Equivalent L e /b (for rectangular sections)

< 1.4 1.4
2.9
5.8
8.7
11.6

14.5

17.3

20.2

23.1

26.0

28.9

34.7

40.5

46.2

52.0

57.8

63.6

69.4

72.3

400
500
600
700
800
900

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000

0.975
0.975
0.975
0.975
0.975
0.976

0.951
0.951
0.951
0.951
0.952
0.952

0.896
0.899
0.901
0.902
0.903
0.904

0.827
0.837
0.843
0.848
0.851
0.853

0.735
0.759
0.774
0.784
0.792
0.797

0.621
0.664
0.692
0.711
0.724
0.734

0.506
0.562
0.601
0.629
0.649
0.665

0.408
0.466
0.511
0.545
0.572
0.593

0.330
0.385
0.430
0.467
0.497
0.522

0.271
0.320
0.363
0.399
0.430
0.456

0.225
0.269
0.307
0.341
0.371
0.397

0.162
0.195
0.226
0.254
0.280
0.304

0.121
0.148
0.172
0.195
0.217
0.237

0.094
0.115
0.135
0.154
0.172
0.188

0.075
0.092
0.109
0.124
0.139
0.153

0.061
0.076
0.089
0.102
0.115
0.127

0.051
0.063
0.074
0.085
0.096
0.106

0.043
0.053
0.063
0.072
0.082
0.091

0.040
0.049
0.058
0.067
0.076
0.084

1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000

0.976
0.976
0.976
0.976
0.976
0.976

0.952
0.952
0.952
0.952
0.952
0.952

0.904
0.905
0.905
0.905
0.906
0.906

0.855
0.856
0.857
0.858
0.859
0.860

0.801
0.804
0.807
0.809
0.811
0.813

0.742
0.748
0.753
0.757
0.760
0.763

0.677
0.687
0.695
0.701
0.707
0.712

0.609
0.623
0.634
0.643
0.651
0.658

0.542
0.559
0.573
0.584
0.595
0.603

0.478
0.497
0.513
0.527
0.539
0.550

0.420
0.440
0.457
0.472
0.486
0.498

0.325
0.344
0.362
0.378
0.392
0.405

0.255
0.272
0.288
0.303
0.317
0.330

0.204
0.219
0.233
0.247
0.259
0.271

0.167
0.179
0.192
0.203
0.214
0.225

0.138
0.149
0.160
0.170
0.180
0.189

0.116
0.126
0.135
0.144
0.153
0.161

0.099
0.107
0.116
0.123
0.131
0.138

0.092
0.100
0.107
0.115
0.122
0.129

1600
1700
1800
1900
2000

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000

0.976
0.976
0.976
0.976
0.976

0.952
0.952
0.952
0.952
0.952

0.906
0.906
0.906
0.907
0.907

0.861
0.861
0.862
0.862
0.863

0.814
0.815
0.816
0.817
0.818

0.766
0.768
0.770
0.772
0.773

0.716
0.719
0.722
0.725
0.728

0.664
0.669
0.673
0.677
0.681

0.611
0.618
0.624
0.629
0.634

0.559
0.567
0.574
0.581
0.587

0.508
0.518
0.526
0.534
0.541

0.417
0.428
0.438
0.447
0.455

0.342
0.353
0.363
0.373
0.382

0.282
0.292
0.302
0.312
0.320

0.235
0.245
0.254
0.262
0.271

0.198
0.207
0.215
0.223
0.230

0.169
0.177
0.184
0.191
0.198

0.145
0.152
0.159
0.165
0.172

0.135
0.142
0.148
0.154
0.160

Flexural members

Bearing e.g. wall plate

Bearing
Clear span
Effective span

Fig. 6.3 Effective span of simply supported beams.

6.7 Flexural members

Beams, rafters and joists are examples of flexural
members. All calculations relating to their design
are based on the effective span and principally involves consideration of the following aspects which
are discussed below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

bending
deflection
lateral buckling
shear
bearing.

d
x

Fig. 6.4 Section modulus.

Generally, for medium-span beams the design process follows the sequence indicated above. However,
deflection is usually critical for long-span beams and
shear for heavily loaded short-span beams.

6.7.1 EFFECTIVE SPAN

According to clause 2.10.3 of BS 5268, for simply
supported beams, the effective span is normally
taken as the distance between the centres of bearings (Fig. 6.3).

6.7.2 BENDING
If flexural members are not to fail in bending, the
design moment, M, must not exceed the moment
of resistance, MR
M MR

(6.6)

The design moment is a function of the applied

loads. The moment of resistance for a beam can be
derived from the theory of bending (equation 2.5,
Chapter 2) and is given by
MR = m,adm,||Z xx

(6.7)

where
m,adm,|| permissible bending stress parallel to grain
Z xx
section modulus
For rectangular sections Z xx =

bd 2
6

(Fig. 6.4)

where
b breadth of section
d depth of section
The permissible bending stress is calculated by
multiplying the grade bending stress, m,g,||, by any
relevant K-factors:
m,adm,|| = m,g,||K 2 K 3 K 7 K 8 (as appropriate)
(6.8)
For a given design moment the minimum required
section modulus, Z xx req, can be calculated using
equation 6.9, obtained by combining equations 6.6
and 6.7:
M
(6.9)
Z xx req
m,adm,||
A suitable timber section can then be selected
from Tables NA.2, NA.3 and NA.4 of BS EN
336: Structural timber. Sizes permitted deviations.
These tables give the commonly available sizes of,
respectively, sawn timber, timber machined on the
width and timber machined on all four sides. Table NA.2 is reproduced here as Table 6.7. Table 6.8
is an expanded version which includes a number of
useful section properties to aid design. Finally, the
chosen section should be checked for deflection,
lateral buckling, shear and bearing to assess its suitability as discussed below.
287

Design in timber to BS 5268

Table 6.7 Commonly available target sizes of sawn softwood
structural timber (based on Table NA.2, BS EN 336)
Thickness (mm)
(to tolerance
class 1)
22
38
47
63
75
100
150
300

Width (to tolerance class 1) (mm)

75

100

125

x
x
x

x
x

150

175

200

225

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

250

300

x
x

x
x
x
x

Note 1 Timber in other sizes is available to order

Note 2 In the UK the above sizes are commonly available in strength classes
C16 and C24

Table 6.8 Geometrical properties of sawn softwoods

Customary
target size*

Area

mm

10 3mm 2

About xx
103mm3

About yy
103mm3

About xx
106mm4

About yy
106mm4

22 100

2.20

36.6

8.1

1.83

0.089

28.9

38
38
38
38
38

100
150
175
200
225

3.80
5.70
6.54
7.60
8.55

63.3
143
194
253
321

24.1
36.1
42.1
48.1
54.2

3.17
10.7
17.0
25.3
36.1

0.457
0.686
0.800
0.915
1.03

28.9
43.3
50.5
57.7
65.0

11.0
11.0
11.0
11.0
11.0

47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47

75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
300

3.53
4.70
5.88
7.05
8.23
9.40
10.6
11.8
14.1

44.1
78.3
122
176
240
313
397
490
705

27.6
36.8
46.0
55.2
64.4
73.6
82.8
92.0
110

1.65
3.92
7.65
13.2
21.0
31.3
44.6
61.2
106

0.649
0.865
1.08
1.30
1.51
1.73
1.95
2.16
2.60

21.7
28.9
36.1
43.3
50.5
57.7
65.0
72.2
86.6

13.6
13.6
13.6
13.6
13.6
13.6
13.6
13.6
13.6

63
63
63
63

150
175
200
225

9.45
11.0
12.6
14.2

236
322
420
532

99.2
116
132
149

17.7
28.1
42.0
59.8

3.13
3.65
4.17
4.69

43.3
50.5
57.7
65.0

18.2
18.2
18.2
18.2

288

Section Modulus

Second of moment area

Radius of gyration
About xx
mm

About yy
mm
6.35

Flexural members
Table 6.8 (contd )
Customary
target size*

Area

mm

10 3mm 2

About xx
103mm3

7.50
11.3
13.1
15.0
16.9
18.8
22.5

125
281
383
500
633
781
1130

93.8
141
164
188
211
234
281

6.25
21.1
33.5
50.0
71.2
97.7
169

100
150
200
225
250
300

10.0
15.0
20.0
22.5
25.0
30.0

167
375
667
844
1010
1500

167
250
333
375
417
500

150 150
150 300

20.0
30.0

563
2250

300 300

90.0

4500

75
75
75
75
75
75
75

100
100
100
100
100
100

100
150
175
200
225
250
300

Section Modulus
About yy
103mm3

Second moment of area

About xx
106mm4

About yy
106mm4

Radius of gyration
About xx
mm

About yy
mm

3.52
5.27
6.15
7.03
7.91
8.79
10.5

28.9
43.3
50.5
57.7
65.0
72.2
86.6

21.7
21.7
21.7
21.7
21.7
21.7
21.7

8.33
28.1
66.7
94.9
130
225

8.33
12.5
16.7
18.8
20.8
25.0

28.9
43.3
57.7
65.0
72.2
86.6

28.9
28.9
28.9
28.9
28.9
28.9

563
1130

42.2
338

42.2
84.4

43.3
86.6

43.3
43.3

4500

675

86.6

86.6

675

Note. * Desired size of timber measured at 20% moisture content

6.7.3 DEFLECTION
Excessive deflection of flexural members may
result in damage to surfacing materials, ceilings,
partitions and finishes, and to the functional needs
as well as aesthetic requirements.
Clause 2.10.7 of BS 5268 recommends that
generally such damage can be avoided if the total
deflection, t, of the member when fully loaded
does not exceed the permissible deflection, p:
t p

(6.10)

The permissible deflection is generally given by

p = 0.003 span

(6.11)

but for longer-span domestic floor joists, i.e. spans

over 4.67 m, should not exceed 14 mm:
p 14 mm

(6.12)

The total deflection, t, is the summation of the

bending deflection, m, plus the shear deflection,
v:
t = m + v

(6.13)

Table 6.9 gives the bending and shear deflection

formulae for some common loading cases for
beams of rectangular cross-section. The formulae
have been derived by assuming that the shear
modulus is equal to one-sixteenth of the permissible modulus of elasticity in accordance with clause
2.7 of BS 5268.
For solid timber members acting alone the deflections should be calculated using the minimum
modulus of elasticity, but for load-sharing systems the deflections should be based on the mean
modulus of elasticity.

289

Design in timber to BS 5268

6.7.4 LATERAL BUCKLING

Table 6.9 Bending and shear deflections

assuming G = E/16
Load distribution
and supports

Deflection at
Centre C or end E

C
L

W
C

L /2

L /2

L
w

C
L

W
L /2

L /2

w
E

W
L

Bending

Shear

wL4
5

EI
384

12 wL2

EA
5

WL3
48 EI

24 WL

5
EA

Wa L2
a2

6
EI 8

96 Wa

5
EA

wL4
384 EI

12 wL2

EA
5

WL3
192EI

24 WL

5
EA

If flexural members are not effectively laterally

restrained, it is possible for the member to twist
sideways before developing its full flexural strength
(Fig. 6.5 ), thereby causing it to fail in bending,
shear or deflection. This phenomenon is called
lateral buckling and can be avoided by ensuring
that the depth to breadth ratios given in Table 6.10
are complied with.

6.7.5 SHEAR
If flexural members are not to fail in shear, the
applied shear stress parallel to the grain, a, should
not exceed the permissible shear stress, adm:
a adm

(6.14)

Lateral
displacement
Original position of
beam shown dotted

an
Sp

wL
8 EI

48 wL

EA
5

WL3
3EI

96 WL

5
EA

Lateral displacement

Fig. 6.5 Lateral buckling.

Table 6.10

Maximum depth to breadth ratios (Table 19, BS 5268)

Degree of lateral support

Maximum depth
to breadth ratio

No lateral support
Ends held in position
Ends held in position and member held in line, as by purlins or
tie-rods at centres not more than 30 times the breadth of the member
Ends held in position and compression edge held in line,
as by direct connection of sheathing, deck or joists
Ends held in position and compression edge held in line, as by direct
connection of sheathing, deck or joists, together with adequate bridging
or blocking spaced at intervals not exceeding six times the depth
Ends held in position and both edges held firmly in line

2
3
4

290

5
6
7

Flexural members
For a beam with a rectangular cross-section, the
maximum applied shear stress occurs at the neutral
axis and is given by:

a =

3Fv
2A

(6.15)

where
Fv applied maximum vertical shear force
A cross-sectional area

Wane

The permissible shear stress is given by

adm = g K 2 K 3 K 5 K 8

(as appropriate)

Fig. 6.6 Wane.

(6.16)

where g is the grade shear stress parallel to the

grain (Tables 6.1 and 6.3).

6.7.6 BEARING PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN

Bearing failure may arise in flexural members which
are supported at their ends on narrow beams or
wall plates. Such failures can be avoided by ensuring that the applied bearing stress, c,a,, never
exceeds the permissible compression stress perpendicular to the grain, c,adm,:
c,a, c,adm,

(6.17)

The applied bearing stress is given by

c,a, =

F
bl b

(6.18)

where
F bearing force (usually maximum reaction)
b breadth of section
l b bearing length.

The permissible compression stress is obtained

by multiplying the grade compression stress perpendicular to the grain, c,g,, by the K-factors for
moisture content (K 2), load duration (K 3) and load
sharing (K 8) as appropriate:
c,adm, = c,g,K 2 K 3 K 8
(6.19)
It should be noted that the grade compression
stresses perpendicular to the grain given in Tables
6.1 and 6.3 apply to (i) bearings of any length at
the ends of members and (ii) bearings 150 mm
or more in length at any position. Moreover, two
values for the grade compression stress perpendicular to the grain are given for each strength class
(Table 6.3). The lower value takes into account the
amount of wane which is permitted within each
stress grade (Fig. 6.6). If, however, the specification
prohibits wane from occurring at bearing areas the
higher value may be used.

Example 6.1 Design of a timber beam (BS 5268)

A timber beam with a clear span of 2.85 m supports a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN including self-weight of
beam. Determine a suitable section for the beam using timber of strength class C16 under service class 1. Assume
that the bearing length is 150 mm and that the ends of the beam are held in position and compression edge held in
line.
W = 10 kN

150

2850

150

EFFECTIVE SPAN

Distance between centres of bearing (l ) = 3000 mm

291

Design in timber to BS 5268

Example 6.1 continued

GRADE STRESS AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY FOR C16
Values in N/mm2 are as follows

Bending parallel
to grain
m,g,||

Shear parallel
to grain
g

Compression
perpendicular to grain
c,g,

Modulus of
elasticity
Emin

5.3

0.67

1.7

5800

MODIFICATION FACTORS
K 2, moisture content factor does not apply since the beam is subject to service class 1
K 3, duration of loading factor = 1.0
K 8, load sharing factor, does not apply since there is only a single beam
0.11
300
K 7, depth factor =

h
Assume h = 250, K 7 = 1.020

BENDING
W l 10 3
=
= 3.75 kN m
8
8
m,adm,||(assuming h = 250) = m,g,||K 3 K 7 = 5.3 1.0 1.020 = 5.406 N/mm2
M=

Z xxreq

M
m,adm,||

3.75 106
= 694 103 mm3
5.406

DEFLECTION

Permissible deflection (p ) = 0.003 span

The deflection due to shear (s ) is likely to be insignificant in comparison to the bending deflection (b) and may be
ignored in order to make a first estimate of the total deflection (t ):
5Wl 3
(Table 6.9)
384E minI xx
5 104 30003
=
384 5800 I xx

t(ignoring shear deflection) =

Since p t
5 104 30003
384 5800 I xx
Ixx req 67.3 106 mm4

0.003 3000

From Table 6.8, section 75 250 provides

Z xx = 781 103 mm3
I xx = 97.7 106 mm4
A = 18.8 103 mm2
Hence total deflection including shear deflection can now be calculated and is given by

12 104 3000
5 104 30003
12Wl
5Wl 3
+
+
=
6
5 5800 18.8 103
384E minI xx 5E minA 384 5800 97.7 10
= 6.2 mm + 0.7 mm = 6.9 mm p = 0.003 3000 = 9 mm
Therefore a beam with a 75 250 section is adequate for bending and deflection.
292

Flexural members

Example 6.1 continued

LATERAL BUCKLING
d
= 5 (Table 6.10)
b
d 250
=
= 3.3 < permissible
Actual
b
75
Hence the section is adequate for lateral buckling.

Permissible

SHEAR
Permissible shear stress is
adm = g K 3 = 0.67 1.0 = 0.67 N/mm2
Maximum shear force is
Fv =

W 10 103
=
= 5 103 N
2
2

Maximum shear stress at neutral axis is

3
5 103
3 Fv
=
= 0.4 N/mm2 < permissible
2 18.8 103
2A
Therefore the section is adequate in shear.
a =

BEARING
Permissible bearing stress is
c,adm, = c,g,K3 = 1.7 1.0 = 1.7 N/mm2
End reaction, F, is

W 10 103
=
= 5 103 N
2
2
F
5 103
c,a, =
= 0.44 N/mm2 < permissible
=
blb 75 150
Therefore the section is adequate in bearing. Since all the checks are satisfactory, use 75 mm 250 mm sawn C16 beam.

Example 6.2 Design of timber floor joists (BS 5268)

Design the timber floor joist for a domestic dwelling using timber of strength class C18 given that:
a)
b)
c)
d)

the
the
the
the

joists are spaced at 400 mm centres;

floor has an effective span of 3.8 m;
flooring is tongue and groove boarding with a self-weight of 0.1 kN/m2;
ceiling is of plasterboard with a self weight of 0.2 kN/m2.
Floor deck
tongue and groove
boarding

400 mm

400 mm

Plasterboard
ceiling

293

Design in timber to BS 5268

Example 6.2 continued

DESIGN LOADING
Tongue and groove boarding
Ceiling
Joists (say)
Imposed floor load for domestic dwelling (Table 2.2)
Total load

=
=
=
=
=

0.10
0.20
0.10
1.50
1.90

kN/m2
kN/m2
kN/m2
kN/m2
kN/m2

Uniformly distributed load/joist (W ) is

W = joist spacing effective span load
= 0.4 3.8 1.9 = 2.9 kN

GRADE STRESSES AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY FOR C18

Values in N/mm2 are as follows

Bending parallel
to grain
m,g,||

Compression
perpendicular to grain
c,g,

Shear parallel
to grain
g

Modulus of
elasticity
Emean

5.8

1.7

0.67

9100

MODIFICATION FACTORS
K2, moisture content factor does not apply since joists are exposed to service class 2
K3, duration of loading = 1.0
K8, load-sharing system = 1.1
K7, depth factor

300
=

0.11

where
h = 225, K 7 = 1.032
h = 200, K 7 = 1.046
h = 175, K 7 = 1.061

BENDING
Bending moment (M) =

Wl 2.9 3.8
=
= 1.4 kN m
8
8
m,adm,||(ignoring K 7) = m,g,||K 3K 8 = 5.8 1.0 1.1 = 6.38 N/mm2
Zxxreq

M
m,adm,||

1.4 106
6.38

= 219 103 mm3

From Table 6.8 a 47 200 mm joist would be suitable (Z xx = 313 103 mm3, I xx = 31.3 106 mm4, A = 9.4 103 mm2).
Hence K 7 = 1.046. Therefore
Zxxreq =
294

219 103
= 209 103 mm3 < provided OK
1.046

Flexural members

Example 6.2 continued

DEFLECTION

Permissible deflection = 0.003 span

= 0.003 3800 = 11.4 mm
Total deflection (t) = bending deflection (m ) + shear deflection (v)
=

5Wl 3
12Wl
+
384E meanI xx 5E meanA

5 2.9 103 (3.8 103 )3

12 2.9 103 3.8 103
+
384 9.1 103 31.3 106
5 9.1 103 9.4 103

= 7.3 mm + 0.3 mm = 7.6 mm < permissible

Therefore 47 mm 200 mm joist is adequate in bending and deflection.

LATERAL BUCKLING
Permissible
Actual

d
= 5 (Table 6.10)
b
d 200
=
= 4.3 < permissible
b
47

Therefore joist is satisfactory in lateral buckling.

SHEAR
Permissible shear stress is
adm = g K 3 K 8 = 0.67 1.0 1.1 = 0.737 N/mm2
Maximum shear force is
Fv =

W
2.9 103
=
= 1.45 103 N
2
2

Maximum shear stress at neutral axis is

a =

3 Fv
3 1.45 103
=
= 0.23 N/mm2 < permissible
2A 2
9.4 103

Therefore joist is adequate in shear.

BEARING
Permissible compression stress perpendicular to grain is
c,adm, = c,g,K3K8 = 1.7 1.0 1.1 = 1.87 N/mm2
Maximum end reaction is
F=

W
2.9 103
=
= 1.45 103 N
2
2

Assuming that the floor joists span on to 100 mm wide wall plates the bearing stress is given by
c,a, =

F
1.45 103
=
= 0.31 N/mm2 < permissible
bl b
47 100

Therefore joist is adequate in bearing.

295

Design in timber to BS 5268

Example 6.2 continued

CHECK ASSUMED SELF-WEIGHT OF JOISTS

From Table 6.3, the average density of timber of strength class C18 is 380 kg/m3. Hence, self-weight of the joists is

(47 200 10 3 ) 380 kg/m3 9.81 10 3

= 0.088 kN/m2 < 0.10 kN/m2 (assumed)

0.4
Since all the checks are satisfactory use 47 mm 200 mm C18 sawn floor joists.

Example 6.3 Design of a notched floor joist (BS 5268)

The joists in Example 6.2 are to be notched at the bearings with a 75 m deep notch as shown below. Check that the
notched section is still adequate.

he = 125 mm

h = 200 mm

Notch = 75 mm

The presence of the notch affects only the shear stresses in the joists. For a notched member the permissible shear
stress is given by
adm = g K 3 K 5 K8
where
h
125
K5 = e =
= 0.625 > min. (= 0.5)
h
200
Hence
adm = 0.67 1.0 0.625 1.1 = 0.46 N/mm2
Applied shear parallel to grain, a (from above) is
0.23 N/mm2 < permissible
Therefore the 47 mm 200 mm sawn joists are also adequate when notched with a 75 mm deep bottom edge notch
at the bearing.

Example 6.4 Analysis of a timber roof (BS 5268)

A flat roof spanning 4.5 m is constructed using timber joists of grade GS whitewood with a section size of 47 mm
225 mm and spaced at 450 mm centres. The total dead load due to the roof covering and ceiling including the selfweight of the joists is 1 kN/m2. Calculate the maximum imposed load the roof can carry assuming that the duration
of loading is (a) long term (b) medium term.

DESIGN LOADING
Dead load = 1 kN/m2
Live load = q kN/m2
Uniformly distributed load/joist, W, is
W = joist spacing effective span (dead + live) = 0.45 4.5 (1 + q)
296

Flexural members

Example 6.4 continued

GRADE STRESSES AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Grade GS whitewood timber belongs to strength class C16 (Table 6.2). Values in N/mm2 are as follows:
Bending parallel
to grain
m,g,||

Compression
perpendicular to grain
c,g,

Shear parallel
to grain
g

Modulus of
elasticity
Emean

5.3

1.7

0.67

8800

MODIFICATION FACTORS

K 3, duration of loading (Table 6.5) = 1.0 (long term) = 1.25 (medium term)
K 8, load-sharing system = 1.1
0.11
300
K 7, depth factor =

h
where h = 225, K 7 = 1.032

GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES

From Table 6.8, 47 225 section provides:

Cross-sectional area, A
= 10.6 103 mm2
Elastic modulus about xx, Zxx
= 397 103 mm3
Second moment of area about xx, Ixx = 44.6 106 mm4

BENDING
Long term
Permissible bending stress parallel to grain is
m,adm,|| = m,g,||K 3 K 7 K 8 = 5.3 1.0 1.032 1.1 = 6.02 N/mm2
Moment of resistance, MR, is
MR = m,adm,||Z xx = 6.02 397 103 106 = 2.39 kN m
Design moment, M =

Wl
4.5
= 0.45 4.5(1 + q)
= 1.139(1 + q)
8
8

Equating MR = M,
2.39 = 1.139 (1 + q) q = 1.09 kN/m2

Medium term
From above
m,adm,|| = 6.02K3(medium term) = 6.02 1.25 = 7.52 N/mm2
MR = 7.52 397 103 106 = 2.98 kNm
Equating MR = M,
2.98 = 1.139(1 + q) q = 1.62 kN/m2

DEFLECTION

Maximum total deflection = bending deflection (m) + shear deflection (v)

0.003L =

12WL
5WL3
+
384E meanI xx 5E meanA
297

Design in timber to BS 5268

Example 6.4 continued

5 (4.5 103 )2
12
0.003 = W
+
6
3
384

8800

44.6

10

5
8800
10.6
10

= 6.975 107 W
W = 4300 N per joist
Load per unit area is
W
4.3
=
= 2.12 kN/m2
joist spacing span 0.45 4.5
Hence
q = 2.12 dead load = 2.12 1 = 1.12 kN/m2

SHEAR
W

W
2

W
2

Permissible shear parallel to grain is

adm = g K 3 K 8 = 0.67 1.0 1.1 = 0.737 N/mm2
2
Maximum shear force Fv = adm A (equation 6.15)
3
2

= 0.737 10.6 103 103 = 5.2 kN

3

Total load per joist = 2Fv = 10.4 kN

Load per unit area =

10.4
= 5.13 kN/m2
0.45 4.5

Hence
q = 5.13 1 = 4.13 kN/m2

(long term)

and
q = 5.43 kN/mm2 (medium term, K 3 = 1.25)
Hence the safe long-term imposed load that the roof can support is 1.09 kN/m2 (bending critical) and the safe
medium-term imposed load is 1.12 kN/m2 (deflection critical).

6.8 Design of compression

members
Struts and columns are examples of compression
members. For design purposes BS 5268 divides
compression members into two categories (1)
members subject to axial compression only and
(2) members subject to combined bending and axial
compression.
The principal considerations in the design of
compression members are:
298

1. slenderness ratio
2. axial compressive stress
3. permissible compressive stress.
The following subsections consider these more general aspects before describing in detail the design of
the above two categories of compression members.

6.8.1 SLENDERNESS RATIO

The load-carrying capacity of compression members is a function of the slenderness ratio, , which
is given by

Design of compression members

Table 6.11 Effective length of compression members (Table 21, BS 5268)
End conditions

Effective length
Actual length
(Le /L)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.7
0.85
1.0
1.5

Restrained at both ends in position and in direction

Restrained at both ends in position and one end in direction
Restrained at both ends in position but not in direction
Restrained at one end in position and in direction and at
the other end in direction but not in position
(e) Restrained at one end in position and in direction and free
at the other end

Le
i

(6.20)

6.8.2 AXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS

The axial compressive stress is given by
c,a,|| =

where
Le effective length
i
radius of gyration
According to clause 2.11.4 of BS 5268, the slenderness ratio should not exceed 180 for compression members carrying dead and imposed loads
other than loads resulting from wind in which case
a slenderness ratio of 250 may be acceptable.
The radius of gyration, i, is given by
i=

2.0

I/A

(6.21)

where
I moment of inertia
A cross-section area.

(6.22)

where b is the least lateral dimension.

The effective length, Le, of a column is obtained
by multiplying the actual length, L, by a coefficient
taken from Table 6.11 which is a function of the
fixity at the column ends.
Le = L coefficient

(6.24)

where
F axial load
A cross-sectional area.

6.8.3 PERMISSIBLE COMPRESSIVE STRESS

According to clause 2.11.5 of BS 5268, for compression members with slenderness ratios of less
than 5, the permissible compressive stress should be
taken as the grade compression stress parallel to the
grain, c,g,||, modified as appropriate for moisture
content, duration of loading and load sharing:
c,adm,|| = c,g,||K 2 K 3 K 8 for < 5 (6.25)

For rectangular sections

i = b/ 12

F
A

(6.23)

In Table 6.11 end condition (a) models the case of

a column with both ends fully fixed and no relative
horizontal motion possible between the column
ends. End condition (c) models the case of a pinended column with no relative horizontal motion
possible between column ends. End condition (e)
models the case of a column with one end fully
fixed and the other free. Figure 6.7 illustrates all
five combinations of end fixities.

For compression members with slenderness ratios

equal to or greater than 5, the permissible compressive stress is obtained in the same way but
should additionally be modified by the factor K12
c,adm,|| = c,g,||K 2 K3 K 8 K12

for 5 (6.26)

6.8.4 MEMBER DESIGN

Having discussed these common aspects it is now
possible to describe in detail the design of compression members. As pointed out earlier, BS 5268
distinguishes between two categories of members,
that is, those subject to (a) axial compression only
and (b) axial compression and bending.

6.8.4.1 Members subject to axial

compression only
This category of compression member is designed
so that the applied compressive stress, c,a,||, does
not exceed the permissible compressive stress parallel to the grain, c,adm,||:
299

(a)

(b)

(c)

Le = 2.0L

Le = 1.5L

Le = 1.0L

Le = 0.7L

Le = 0.85L

Design in timber to BS 5268

(d)

(e)

Fig. 6.7 End conditions.

c,a,|| c,adm,||

(6.27)

The applied compressive stress is calculated using

equation 6.24 and the permissible compressive
stress is given by equations 6.25 or 6.26 depending
upon the slenderness ratio.

6.8.4.2 Members subject to axial compression

and bending
This category includes compression members subject to eccentric loading which can be equated to
an axial compression force and bending moment.
According to clause 2.11.6 of BS 5268, members
which are restrained at both ends in position but
not direction, which covers most real situations,
should be so proportioned that
c,a,||
m,a,||
(6.28)
1
+
c,adm,||

1.5 c,a,||
K12
m,adm,|| 1
e

where
m,a,||
applied bending stress
m,adm,|| permissible bending stress
c,a,||
applied compression stress
c,adm,|| permissible compression stress
(including K12)
e
Euler critical stress = 2Emin /(Le /i )2
Equation 6.28 is the normal interaction formula used
to ensure that lateral instability does not arise in
compression members subject to axial force and
300

bending. Thus if the column was subject to compressive loading only, i.e. M = 0 and m,a,|| = 0, the
designer would simply have to ensure that c,a,||/
c,adm,|| 1. Alternatively, if the column was subject
to bending only, i.e. F = c,a,|| = 0, the designer
should ensure that m,a,||/m,adm,|| 1. However, if
the column was subject to combined bending and
axial compression, then the deflection as a result of
the moment M would lead to additional bending
due to the eccentricity of the force F as illustrated
in Fig. 6.8. This is allowed for by the factor
1
[1 (1.5 c,a,||K12 )/ e ]
in the above expression.
F
M

1 >

M
M
F

Fig. 6.8 Bending in timber columns.

Design of compression members

Example 6.5 Timber column resisting an axial load (BS 5268)

A timber column of redwood GS grade consists of a 100 mm square section which is restrained at both ends in
position but not in direction. Assuming that the actual height of the column is 3.75 m, calculate the maximum axial
long-term load that the column can support.

SLENDERNESS RATIO
= L e /i L e = 1.0 h = 1.0 3750 = 3750 mm

i =
=

I
=
A

db 3/12
=
db

b2
100
=
= 28.867
12
12

3750
= 129.9 < 180
28.867

OK

GRADE STRESSES AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Grade GS redwood belongs to strength class C16 (Table 6.2). Values in N/mm2 are as follows
Compression parallel to grain
c,g,||

Modulus of elasticity
E min

6.8

5800

MODIFICATION FACTOR
K3, duration of loading is 1.0
E min
5800
=
= 852.9
c,|| 6.8 1.0

and = 129.9

From Table 6.6 by interpolation K12 is found to be 0.261.

E min
c,||
800
852.9
900

120

129.9

140

0.280
0.293
0.304

0.261

0.217
0.228
0.237

AXIAL LOAD CAPACITY

Permissible compression stress parallel to grain is
c,adm,|| = c,g,||K 3 K12 = 6.8 1.0 0.261 = 1.77 N/mm2
Hence the long-term axial load capacity of column is
c,adm,||A = 1.77 104 103 = 17.7 kN
301

Design in timber to BS 5268

Example 6.6 Timber column resisting an axial load and moment

(BS 5268)
Check the adequacy of the column in Example 6.5 to resist a long-term axial load of 10 kN and a bending moment
of 350 kN mm.

SLENDERNESS RATIO
= L e /i = 129.9 < 180 (Example 6.5)

GRADE STRESSES AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Values in N/mm2 for timber of strength class C16 are as follows

Bending parallel
to grain
mg,||

Compression
parallel to grain
c,g,||

Modulus of
elasticity
E min

5.3

6.8

5800

MODIFICATION FACTORS
K 3 = 1.0
0.11

0.11

300
300
K7 =
=
= 1.128
h
100
K12 = 0.261 (see Example 6.5)

COMPRESSION AND BENDING STRESSES

Permissible compression stress is
c,adm,|| = c,g,||K 3 K 12 = 6.8 1.0 0.261 = 1.77 N/mm2
Applied compression stress is
c,a,|| =

axial load 10 103

=
= 1 N/mm2
A
104

Permissible bending stress is

m,adm,|| = m,g,||K3 K7 = 5.3 1.0 1.128 = 5.98 N/mm2
Applied bending stress is
m,a,|| =

M 350 103
=
= 2.10 N/mm2
Z
167 103

Euler critical stress is

e =

2E min
2 5800
=
= 3.39 N/mm2
(Le /i )2
(129.9)2

Since column is restrained at both ends, in position but not in direction, check that the column is so proportioned
that
m,a,||
1.5 c,a,||

m,adm,|| 1
K 12
e

302

c,a,||
c,adm,||

Design of stud walls

Example 6.6 continued

Substituting
2.10
1
+
1.5 1

1.77
5.98 1
0.261

3.39
= 0.397 + 0.565 = 0.962 < 1
Therefore a 100 100 column is adequate to resist a long-term axial load of 10 kN and a bending moment of
350 kN mm.

6.9 Design of stud walls

In timber frame housing the loadbearing walls are
normally constructed using stud walls (Fig. 6.9).
These walls can be designed to resist not only the
vertical loading but also loads normal to the wall
due to wind, for example. Stud walls are normally
designed in accordance with the requirements of
BS 5268: Part 6: Code of Practice for Timber Frame
Walls; Section 6.1: Dwellings not exceeding four storeys.
They basically consist of vertical timber members,
commonly referred to as studs, which are held in
position by nailing them to timber rails or plates,
located along the top and bottom of the studs. The
most common stud sizes are 100 50, 47, 38 mm
and 75 50, 47, 38 mm. The studs are usually
placed at 400 or 600 mm centres depending upon

preference, or on the loads they are required to

transmit.
The frame is usually covered by a cladding material such as plasterboard which may be required
for aesthetic reasons, but will also provide lateral
restraint to the studs about the yy axis. If the wall
is not surfaced or only partially surfaced, the studs
may be braced along their lengths by internal
noggings. Bending about the xx axis of the stud is
assumed to be unaffected by the presence of the
cladding material.
Since the centre-to-centre spacing of the stud
is normally less than 610 mm, the load-sharing
factor K 8 will apply to the design of stud walls.
The design of stud walling is illustrated in the
following example.

Cladding
material

Top plate

A minimum of two 90 mm long

nails, offset to reduce risk of splitting

Studs
y

Noggings
y
x

Studs cut
square
and tightly
butted to
plates

Bottom (sole) plate

400 mm or 600 mm centre-to-centre
distance between studs
(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 6.9 Details of a typical stud wall: (a) elevation; ( b) section; (c) typical fixing of top and bottom plates to studs.

303

Design in timber to BS 5268

Example 6.7 Analysis of a stud wall (BS 5268)

A stud wall panel has an overall height of 3.75 m including top and bottom rails and vertical studs at 600 mm centres
with nogging pieces at mid-height. Assuming that the studs, rail framing and nogging pieces comprise 44 100 mm
section of strength class C22, calculate the maximum uniformly distributed long term total load the panel is able to
support.
Plasterboard
covering

44 mm

y
x

x
600 mm

100 mm

600 mm
y

1875

3750
Noggings

1875

SLENDERNESS RATIO
Effective height
L ex = coefficient L = 1.0 3750 = 3750 mm
L ey = coefficient L /2 = 1.0 3750/2 = 1875 mm

Radius of gyration
i xx =

I xx
=
A

(1/12) 44 1003
100
=
44 100
12

i yy =

I yy
=
A

(1/12) 100 443

44
=
44 100
12

Slenderness ratio
xx =

yy =

L ex
3750
= 129.9 < 180
=
i xx 100/ 12

L ey
i yy

1875
44/ 12

= 147.6 < 180

(critical)

Note that where two values of are possible the larger value must always be used to find c,adm,||.
304

Summary

Example 6.7 continued

GRADE STRESSES AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

For timber of strength class C22, values in N/mm2 are as follows:

Compression parallel to grain
c,g,||

Modulus of elasticity
E min

7.5

6500

MODIFICATION FACTORS
K 3 = 1.0

K8 = 1.1

6500
E min
E min
= 866.7 and = 147.6
=
=
c,|| c,g,||K 3 7.5 1.0

From Table 6.6 K12 = 0.212 by interpolation.

E min
c,||
800
866.7
900

140

147.6

160

0.217
0.230
0.237

0.212

0.172
0.183
0.188

AXIAL STRESSES

Permissible compression stress parallel to grain c,adm,|| is

c,adm,|| = c,g,||K3K8K12 = 7.5 1.0 1.1 0.212 = 1.75 N/mm2
Axial load capacity of stud is
c,adm,||A = 1.75 44 100 103 = 7.7 kN
Hence uniformly distributed load capacity of stud wall panel is
7.7/0.6 = 12.8 kN/m
Note that the header spans 0.6 m and that this should also be checked as a beam in order to make sure that it is
capable of supporting the above load.

6.10 Summary
This chapter has attempted to explain the concepts of stress grading and strength classes and the
advantages that they offer to designers and contractors alike involved in specifying timber for structural purposes. The chapter has described the design
of flexural and compression members and stud
walling, to BS 5628: Part 2: Structural Use of Timber,

which is based on permissible stress principles. In

the case of flexural members (e.g. beams, rafters and
joints), bending, shear and deflection are found to
be the critical factors in design. With compression
members (e.g. struts and columns), the slenderness ratio has a major influence on load-carrying
capacity. Stud walls are normally designed on the
assumption that the compression members act together to support a common load.
305

Design in timber to BS 5268

Questions
1. (a) Discuss the factors which influence
the strength of timber and explain
how the strength of timber is assessed
in practice.
(b) A simply supported timber roof
beam spanning 5 m supports a total
uniformly distributed load of 11 kN.
Determine a suitable section for the
beam using timber of strength class
C16. Assume that the bearing length
is 125 mm and that the compression
edge is held in position.
2. (a) Give typical applications of timber in
the construction industry and for each
case discuss possible desirable
properties.
(b) Redesign the timber joists in Example
6.2 using timber of strength class C22.
3. (a) Distinguish between softwood and
hardwood and grade stress and
permissible stress.
(b) Calculate the maximum long term
imposed load that a flat roof can
support assuming the following
construction details:
roof joists are 50 mm 225 mm
of strength class C16 at 600 mm
centres
effective span is 4.2 m
unit weight of woodwool (50 mm
thick) is 0.3 kN/m2

306

4. (a)

(b)

5. (a)

(b)

unit weight of boarding, bitumen

and roofing felt is 0.45 kN/m2
unit weight of plasterboard and
skim is 0.22 kN/m2
Discuss the factors accounted for by
the modification factor K 12 in the
design of timber compression
members.
Design a timber column of effective
length 2.8 m, capable of resisting the
following loading:
(i) medium term axial load of
37.5 kN
(ii) long term axial load of 30 kN
and a bending moment of
300 kN mm.
Explain with the aid of sketches
connection details which will give rise
to the following end conditions:
(i) restrained in position and
direction
(ii) restrained in position but not in
direction
(iii) unrestrained in position and
direction.
Design a stud wall of length 4.2 m
and height 3.8 m, using timber of
strength class C16 to support a longterm uniformly distributed load of
14 kN/m.