Structure of Atom

Physics by : Shubham Chourasia Chemistry by: Kailash Sir Math by: Tarun Sir
Structure of Atom
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
##
Universe : Matter + Energy

Energy: EM Radiation, Its spectrum
Matter: Continuum Th. + Atomisation Th.
Daltons Atomic Th.
Lead(agrasar) towards Particle nature of subatomic composition: Vacuum tube experiments
5.1. Cathode rays : Discovery of e-, Thomsons Atomic Model
5.2. Anode rays
5.3. Radioactivity: Discovery of X-rays, Contribution of Becquerel, Curies pair,
Discoveries of , & rays, explanation of what radioactivity is.
5.4. Gold foil experiment: discovery of nucleus, Rutherford atomic model
5.5. Discovery of proton, Discovery of neutron
5.6. Some Terminologies related with atom: At. No., Mass no., Isotopes, Isobars,
Isotones, Isoelectronic
Light: Its Timeline fluctuating between its particle n wave nature, evidences of its wave
nature, evidence of its particle nature (Photoelectric effect), Its current intuition, light as a
part of EM radiation.
To explain J Balmer hydrogen spectrum (1885) Niels Bohr on 1913 attempted to wield
together the Plancks quantization theory and a mechanical model of atom.
Quantum mechanics: Development (Black Body Radiation, de-Broglie hypothesis,
Uncertainty principle, Schrodingers wave equation), Introduction to its Postulates.
Quantum mechanical model
Before Bohr, emission of EM radiation from matter was thought to be by atomic oscillator
(hypothetical).
~1~
Daltons At. Theory

Dalton in 1803 proposed a set of features about atoms, called Atomic Theory.
Postulates:
1} All matter is made up of extremely small particles, called atoms.
2} Atoms are the ultimate particles of matter and cannot be further subdivided into more smaller
particles.
3} Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
4} All atoms of same elements are identical in all respects, i.e. they have same mass, size and
chemical properties.
5} Atoms of different elements are different in physical and chemical properties, like size, mass,
ionization energy, electronegativity
6} Atoms are the smallest particles that can take part in chemical reactions. In chemical
reactions, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged.
7} Atoms of same or different elements combine in small whole no. ratios to form molecule of
any compound.
Merits:
By his theory, Dalton explained some of the laws governing chemical combinations observed by
the scientist of that time
1} Law of Conservation of Mass: In all physical changes and chemical reactions, the total mass
of products formed is always same as the total mass of reactants taken part in that
reaction/change.
Explanation: Because atoms neither be created nor be destroyed, in any chemical reaction all the
atoms are still present in same no. even after the formation of products. Hence mass dont
change.
..
..
...
.
Limitations:
1} Could not explain Gay Lussacs Law of volume combination.
2} It failed to explain why atoms of different elements differ in mass, size, and valence.
3} It dont tell why atoms combine to form molecule.
4} Dont speak about the binding forces which bind atoms to form a visible matter.
5} Does not account for the difference between allotropes, e.g. charcoal, graphite, diamond.
Drawbacks : With time, further studies by scientist showed some flaw in Daltons Theory.
1} Atom is not the ultimate, instead it is further made up of some subatomic particles. However,
saying an atom is the smallest particle that takes part in chemical reactions is true.
~2~
2} After the discovery of Isotopes, we knew that an element may have two or more atoms
having different masses.
3} Discovery of Isobars showed us that atoms of different elements can also resemble in mass.
With time a new theory, called Modern Atomic Theory got developed removing the limitations
and drawbacks of Daltons Theory.
Modern Atomic Theory

Postulates:
1} Atom is not the ultimate particle, instead it is further made up of subatomic particles like,
electron, proton, neutron (mesons, pions, quarks). But still, atom is the smallest particle of
matter that can take part in reaction.
2} All atoms of an element has same no. of protons (atomic no.), but they are not necessarily
same in mass, as in case of isotopes.
3} Atoms of different elements has to be necessarily different in no. of protons, but they may
have same mass as in case of Isobars.
4} Atom is destructible. In nuclear reactions, mass of atoms get converted into energy in the
form of , & rays and heat. And hence mass is no more conserved.
~3~
1654- Invention of Vacuum Pumps

!705- Noticed, spark travel longer dist. In low pressure
1838 Faraday noticed an Light arc in with electricity in vacuum tube
1857 Geissler evacuated below 10-3 atm and found that glass tube started to glow
1870s Crookes evacuated below 10-6atm. Rays become invisible but glass itself started to glow
1895- Roentgen discovered a new type of invisible ray, able to impress a photographic film, and
named X-rays.
1896- Becquerel discovered -rays
1897- Thompson confirm e- by his 3 experiments
1899- Rutherford discovered -rays
1900 Paul Villard discovered -radiation, while studying radiation emitted from radium
Discovery of Electron
J.J. Thomson in 1897 recognized that the constituting particles of cathode rays (which were for
the first time observed by William Crookes in his Vacuum Tube Experiment, 1870s) are one of
the subatomic particles out of which atoms are made. Let us explain his modified Cathode Ray
Experiment which he used to analyze the cathode rays:
Experimental Setup: A genuine CRT is basically a glass tube as shown in daig. Equipped with
two metal plates connected with a high voltage battery. The plate connected with ve terminal is
called Cathode and with +ve terminal is called Anode. Some florescent/Phosphorescence
material( like ZnS) is coated on the inner glass of anode side. The tube is evacuated to 10 -2 to 106
atm and perfectly sealed.
~4~
For his experiments, Thomson modified the above CRT a little bit. The glass tube was as shown
below. A hole was made in Anode plate. He also made arrangements for applying electric and
magnetic fields on the ray. He evacuated below 10-6atm.
Observations and Conclusions:

(1)Observation: At near vacuum (below 10-6atm), all type of colorful rays/light/glow
disappears. But the inner glass of anode side itself started to glow. Bright spots were forming on
ZnS screen
Conclusion: There must be something invisible moving towards anode end of the glass tube
because bright spots are formed on ZnS screen whenever it is stroked by a ray or a particle.
(2) Obs: Shadow of the objects were formed when they were placed anywhere in between
cathode and screen.
Con: Formation of shadow suggest that there must be something travelling in straight lines
which originates at cathode. Hence these were called cathode rays.
(3) Obs: Cathode rays can rotate and move the fan or wheel placed in there path.
Con: To rotate or move wheel cathode rays must have kinetic energy and for K.E. they must
have mass. Hence Cathode rays must be constituted of material particles (particles, because they
form distinct spots).
~5~
(4) Obs: In the presence of electric field the spots starts to form on that half of the screen which
was towards +ve plate i.e. cathode rays were getting attracted by +ve plate. In presence of
magnetic field also cathode rays showed behavior as if they possess ve charge.
Con: Cathode particles are vely charged.
(5) Obs: The mass to charge ratio of cathode particle was very less than the smallest charged
atom known (H+ or H-).
Con: They were the subatomic particles.
(6) Obs: The natures of cathode rays were independent of the materials used for electrode and
gas inside the tube.
Con: These were the fundamental particles which are the necessary constituent of the atoms
of all elements.
In 1894 G.J Stoney had proposed the atoms of electricity i.e. cathode particles should be called
electrons. Thus, electrons are the fundamental subatomic particles which have some definite
mass and carry a negative charge.
Q: Write down properties of cathode rays.
Ans: Cathode rays have following properties:
(1) Cathode rays travel in Straight lines and hence cast shadow of the object
placed in their path.
(2) They are consist of matter particles and hence possess kinetic energy.
Thats why they can move a wheel/fan placed on their path and produce
heat on striking.
(3) Cathode rays are constituted of vely charged particles and hence deflects
in electric and magnetic field.
(4) They cause fluorescence to the glass on which they fall.
(5) They can penetrate through thin metallic sheets.
(6) They ionize the gas through which they travel.
Thomsons Atomic Model

After his discovery of electron in 1897, Thomson thought atoms to be composed of e -s and a
+vely charged shell only that remains when all the e-s of an atom is taken out and proposed a
model for atoms in 1904 which was later called Thomsons Plum pudding model.
In This model the atoms were regarded as a sphere of radius about 1 , carrying positive charge
in which electrons were embedded in the same way as plums are embedded in pudding.
The positively charged sphere carry that much charge on it that is equal to the total charge on all
the electrons present in that atom and hence atoms are neutral.
This model got disproved in 1909 by Ernest Marsden and Hans Geigers Gold Foil Experiment.
This Gold Foil Experiment was interpreted by Ernest Rutherford in 1911 to suggest that there
must be a very small, massive and highly positive charged nucleus.
~6~
Anode rays
Goldstein in 1886 performed the same William Crookes Vacuum Tube Experiment with a little
modification and observed one more type of ray, which was coming out from anode and called
this anode ray.
Experimental Setups: A genuine CRT experiment was setup but instead of a simple metal plate
this time a perforated metal plate was used for cathode.
Observations and Conclusions:

(1) Obs: Faint luminous rays were issuing from cathode holes in just opposite direction to
cathode rays.
(2) Obs: They cast shadows of objects placed in their path.
Con: There must be something travelling in Straight lines coming out from anode. Hence,
they were called anode rays.
(3) Obs: They can rotate and move the wheel/fan placed in their path
Con: They must have been constituted of material particles.
(4) Obs: In presence of electric field the rays turns a bit towards ve plate. When rays are
subjected to magnetic field also, they show behavior as if they are +vely charged.
Con: Anode particles are +vely charged.
(5) Obs: The nature of the anode rays depend upon the nature of the gas taken in the discharge
tube. Different gasses produce different type of anode ray particles having difference in e/m
ratio or say difference in masses.
Con: Anode rays particles are not fundamental particles.
Later after discovery of proton, it is realized that the anode rays emitting out in case of
Hydrogen gas is nothing else but streams of protons, the another subatomic particle out of which
atoms are made up of.
Properties of Anode Rays:
(1) Aode rays travel in Straight lines and hence cast shadow of the object placed in
their path.
(2) They are consist of matter particles and hence possess kinetic energy. Thats why
they can move a wheel/fan placed on their path and produce heat on striking.
(3) Cathode rays are constituted of +vely charged particles and hence deflects in
~7~
electric and magnetic field.
(5) The value of +ve charge on anode particles depends on nature of gas.
(6) The value of e/m ratio also, depends upon the nature of the gas taken in the discharge
tube.
Discovery of Radioactivity (Tools to see inside an atom)

Wilhelm Roentgen on 18th of nov 1895 was working with his CRT experiments when he saw
a surprising phenomena. The screen placed nearby his CRT apparatus seemed to be shining
some green light while he had covered that apparatus with a black strong paper. Moreover, the
screen shows the shadow of his hand-bones placed before the screen. At the end of December,
he published a short article, claiming for a fantastic discovery: The existence of an unknown and
strange radiation which can cause photographic plate. This ray was quickly named as X-rays.
For this discovery, he received the first physics Noble Prize in 1901.
X-rays are produced in a CRT when cathode ray hits the anode plate. Atoms of anode plate gets
excited on getting stroked by e- beams and when they return to their normal state, they do show
by emitting EM radiations of different frequencies, part of which is X-rays.
X-ray are penetrating rays and can penetrate through strong black paper and human muscles/
flesh but are stopped by their calcium bones.
In those times Henri Becquerel was studying the fluorescence phenomena of uranium salts.
Once exposed to sunlight (UV rays) those salts can radiate visible light even in dark. This is
called fluorescence. He decided to study the existence of a possible relation between those
famous X-rays and the Fluorescence phenomena.
He placed uranium salts (exposed to sunlight) close to photographic plates covered with black
strong paper. The development of the plates shows that uranium salts radiates X-rays, the only
known radiation capable of impressing the plates through black paper.
The following week, the sky of Paris was grey and covered, no way to expose uranium salts to
the sun. Becquerel stows his covered photographic plats and his uranium salts in a drawer. By
chance, the sun was absent during many days and the plates were left in the drawer during
these days. Finally Henri Becquerel decided nevertheless to develop his unexposed plates. Very
surprised he remarks that the plates are impressed. When to further investigate he subjected
those rays to electric and magnetic field, they showed deviations. X-rays dont deflect by
electric and magnetic field. Hence he thought this to be a new type of radiation emitted by a
non-fluorescent uranium that can go through the black strong paper and named them U-rays.
Radiation spontaneously being emitted by a material at rest without any trapped energy before!
Becquerel found this very strange and continued his studies but only with uranium salts. It made
him impossible to do the great things latter realized by Pierre and Marie Curie.
Some hundred meters from the "Jardin des Plantes", where is working Becquerel, a young
polish woman, Marie Sklodowska has just get married with Pierre Curie, director of studies at
the Physics and Chemistry School of Paris. She works with him in his small laboratory .
Eighteen months later, she presents her PhD thesis about the U-rays (radioactivity) of Henri
Becquerel. She shows that, like uranium, the thorium is radioactive. And, in July of 1898, with
~8~
the help of Pierre, she succeeds in isolating a new material, a million time more radioactive than
uranium, that she calls "polonium". Then, from penchblende ore (many tons!), Pierre and Marie
extract by hand some milligrams of an other new material, 2.5 millions times more radioactive
than uranium: the radium. For this discovery, Pierre and Marie Curie receive the physics Nobel
prize in 1903. Some years later, Marie Curie, alone since the death of Pierre in 1906, isolates
metallic radium with an electrolytic procedure and receives the Nobel price of Chemistry, in
1911. One kilogram of radium during 1600 years gives more than 60 billions of Joules,
equivalent to the electricity consumption of a Paris inhabitant in one year! Where does this
considerable amount of energy come from, like from a magic source?...
In 1899, Rutherford found that there were two types of radiations (U-rays) coming out from
radioactive elements, one was less penetrating and other was high penetrating. He named them
and -rays. In 1900, Paul Villard discovered a new type of radiation coming out from
radioactive elements which has very much greater penetrating power. In 1903 Rutherford named
it -rays.
With time it was recognized that -particles are nothing else but doubly ionized Helium atom or
you can say the Helium Nucleus. Thus -particle carries 2 unit +ve charge and 4u mass. particle was recognized to be a similar particle with e- i.e. it carry 1 unit negative charge and
mass equal to that of an e-. -rays where the very high energy EM radiation (photons).
Thus there were three types of rays:
Ray
Resemble
2+
Mass
Charge
2e
-ve plate
1e
+ve plate
No charge
dont bends
He
4u
e-
1
1800
EM radiation
Zero rest mass
Bends towards
Distinction between X and Gamma rays

X-rays and -rays are same but they are just different in their mode of production. X-rays are
produced by electronic jumps between atomic shells, while -rays are produced by radioactive
disintegration of atoms.
Radioactive disintegration: reason of radioactivity
Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

Rutherford found that a narrow beam of particles was broadened when it passed through a
thin film of mica or metal. He therefore asked his assistant Hans Geiger to measure the angle
through which these particles were scattered. In 1909 when performing experiments with Gold
Foil to measure the deviation angle, Geiger along with Ernest Marsden found -particles with
very high deflections, which was not expected acc. to any theory of matter at that time. Such
deflections, though very rare, were found and compelled (majbur) Rutherford to discard the
atomic model of his instructor & mentor on the model he previously had a strong belief and to
~9~
accept the existence of a center point in atom which must be very massive and highly positively
charged which he called Nucleus. Observations of this experiment led him to formulate a new
atomic model called s Atomic Model.
Experimental setup: A thin gold foil of thickness 0.0004 mm (a few hundreds of atoms thick)
was bombarded with -rays using a radioactive element as its source, kept inside a lead block. A
slit is placed in the path of -ray to obtain a narrow beam. The gold foil was surrounded by a
ZnS screen. The whole experimental setup was placed in an evacuated chamber to prevent
scattering by the air molecules.
Expectations of Rutherford: Rutherford had a strong belief on his mentor J.J. Thompsons
Plum Pudding Model of atom. So he thought that if an alpha particle will collide with an atom, it
will just fly straight through (as if some rockets were shooted on our solar system from some
were outside the galaxy, assuming planets only in our solar system and representing e-). It would
be affected only by the atoms electric fields, and Thomsons at. model predicted that the
electric fields in an atom are just too weak to affect alpha particles. Hence even if there will be
deviations, deviations will be very small.
Observations:
i.
Most of the rays (approx. 99%) passed with very small deviations.
ii.
Less than 1% rays showed larger deflections.
iii.
A very small fraction of rays also showed deflections by angle greater than 90 .
iv.
1 out of 8000 rays returned by 180 deflection.
Conclusions:
i.
First observation is in well accordance with Thomsons at. model acc. to which there
is nothing inside an atom that can deflect -ray with appreciable amount whose mass
is 4u and has very high velocities ( 5% of speed of light).
ii.
Last three observations cant be explained by Thomsons at. model and are against of
it.
iii.
Last three observations shows that there must exist some centre point in atom which
should be very massive and highly positively charged. Because the greater of
deflections of -particles seen can be caused from a highly positive charge massive
centre only.
Hence Rutherford discarded the Plum Pudding at. model of Thomson and proposed a new
atomic model in 1911, called Rutherford Atomic Model.
Postulates of Rutherford atomic model:
i.
An atom is composed of two parts, nucleus and extra nuclear portion. The nucleus is
at the centre of atom.
ii.
The nucleus contains almost of the mass of atom and that much positive charge which
is equal to the total negative charge caused by e-s in a neutral atom.
iii.
In extra nuclear portion, e-s exists which revolves around the nucleus in circular paths.
~ 10 ~
iv.
Volume of the nucleus is extremely small in comparison with the volume of the whole
atom. Radius of atom is of the order 10-10m (angstrom) while the radius of nucleus is
of the order 10-15m (fermi).
Explanation of the GF Experiment by Rutherford Model:

i.
Because almost of the volume of atom is empty space, almost of the rays passes
without any deviation.
ii.
When some rays passes near to nucleus (very less chance as it is just a point in a big
atom), because of its high positive charge and mass it repels the -particles. In case of
head-on-collisions, -particles can be reflected back, even by 180 .
Drawbacks of Rutherford Atomic Model:
i.
According to the Maxwells Theory of Classical Mechanics, when a charged particle
accelerates it must emit energy in the form of EM Radiations. The electrons in
Rutherford Atomic Model are in circular motion and anything in circular motion is
also in acceleration due to change in direction every second. Hence e-s must loose
energy, emitting the EM Radiation and with a lower energy they must come close to
the nucleus and revolve in a lower orbit with smaller radius. This happening every
moment, e- must follow a spiral path and ultimately fall on nucleus within 16 pico
seconds. But in reality, atoms are quite stable as they are the building block of all
stable macro material objects.
ii.
In 18__ Balmer observed the first emission spectrum of Hydrogen atom in visible
range. Since then many other series of lines were seen. The spectrum of hydrogen
atom was consist of light/EM radiations of some discrete frequencies only. While even
if Rutherford Model will attempt to explain it the emission should be continuous as
the e- will collapse with nucleus following a spiral path emitting energy in a
continuous manner.
Atomic Spectra
We know that when a white light is passed through a prism, it gets separated into its constituting
radiations viz. of deferent frequencies corresponding to visible reason. We obtain the refracted
light in a screen viz. a continuous pattern of colors (VIBGYOR), and call it spectrum of white
light.
We can also obtain the spectrum of EM radiations emitted by a source in invisible region, by
using a photographic plate (digital spectrometer these days) in place of screen. The instrument
(prism is the simplest one) used to separate and analyze the constituting frequencies of an EM
radiation beam is called Spectroscope.
Continuous spectrum of EM radiation emitted by a black body
~ 11 ~
Continuous Spectrum: When a white light is
passed through a prism it splits into light of
different frequencies, and in case of white light we
have all the frequencies of a certain region (visible
region in this case) causing the bands of different
color to merge with each other. Such a spectrum
which contains all the frequencies of certain region
is called Continuous spectrum.
Emission Spectrum: Emission spectrum of a

substance can be obtained by giving energy
to the sample by heating it or electric
discharge method, to excite itself. This
energized sample emits EM radiations which
can be analyzed by a spectroscope. The
spectrum found in case of different elements
as sample is a set of some certain fixed
frequencies only. Such a spectrum is called
Line Emission Spectrum.
Absorption Spectrum: When before
analyzing a continuous spectrum is passed
through a substance, it absorbs certain
frequencies (that it would have emitted in
experiment of emission spectrum) and
hence when the radiation going out of the
sample is analyzed, it lacks those particular
frequencies which otherwise would have
been a continuous spectrum. Such a spectrum is called Line absorption spectrum.
Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
When radiation emitted by a Hydrogen sample is analyzed, the spectrum obtained contains
various frequencies lying in UV region, Visible region as well as in Infrared region.
The first set of lines in emission spectrum of hydrogen were seen by Balmer in 18__, in visible
region. This is called Balmer series. By using a photographic plate instead of a simple screen,
Lyman in ____ observed a set of frequencies emitted by hydrogen in UV region. This is called
Lyman series. With advancement of spectroscopes different scientist observed three more set of
frequencies lying in infrared regions.
~ 12 ~
Rydberg In 1890 gave a simple equation for calculation of wavelength (and hence frequency)
whose solutions were exactly those frequencies, which are emitted in a Hydrogen spectrum.
This is called Rydberg Formula and is given as
1
RH
1
n12
n12 ; n1,n2 are integers.

2
Where RH is a constant, called Rydberg constant and has a value 109677 cm-1 or 10967700 m-1.
Line spectrum of elements are called the
Finger Prints of the elements, because all
the elements have unique set of
frequencies in there line spectrum.
Hydrogen and Helium atoms are there in
sun; this fact was also discovered by
seeing line spectrum of sunlight.
Development of Bohrs model

Niels Bohr studied physics throughout his undergraduate and graduate years and earned a
doctorate in physics in 1911 at the age of just 26. In 1912, under Rutherfords tutelage, Bohr
began studying the properties of atoms. Bohr was very much impressed by Rutherfords atomic
model and was not ready to drop this model because of a technical difficulty produced by
Maxwells theory. He had so strong belief in the results of Rutherford experiments and on its
conclusion that he was ready to arbitrarily assume that the Rutherford model exist and is stable
irrespective of the constraints produced by classical mechanics, though for the time being, he
was unable to figure out how?.
He had the determination then and tried to explain the stability of that model by combining
Rutherfords atomic model and Plancks Quantum Theory.
Bohrs starting point was to realize that classical mechanics by itself could never explain the
atoms stability. A stable atom has a certain size so that any equation describing it must contain
some fundamental constant or combination of constant with a dimension of length. The classical
fundamental constants, namely- Charge and Mass of the electron and the nucleus cannot be
combined to make a length. Bohr noticed, however, that a constant formulated by a German
physicist Max Planck has dimensions which, when combined with the mass and charge of the
electron, produce a measure of length. Numerically, close to the known size of atoms. This
encouraged Bohr to use Plancks constant in searching for a better theory of the atom.
Planck had introduced his constant in 1900 in a formula explaining the light radiation emitted
from heated bodies. According to classical theory, light energy by a heated body should be
produced at all frequencies and in comparable amount. This is not only contrary to the
observations, but also implies the absurd result that the total energy radiated by a heated body
should be infinite (since there are infinite frequencies possible). Planck postulated that
~ 13 ~
Discovery of Proton
In 1919, Rutherford became the first person to deliberately transmute one element into another.
In this experiment, he had discovered some peculiar radiations when alphas were projected into
air. When he did this experiment with pure nitrogen, he observed there some oxygen atoms too
after the experiment. He used alpha radiation to convert Nitrogen atoms into atoms of Oxygen
acc. to the nuclear reaction (known today):
14
+ 2He4 8O17 + p+
7N
The proton was not known then. So, in this experiment, Rutherford identified the unknown
radiation (p+-ray) as the Hydrogen nuclei, by seeing their similarity to the radiation emitted
during his earlier experiment when he had bombarded Hydrogen gas with -particles to knock
out hydrogen nuclei from hydrogen atoms.
This experiment showed Rutherford that hydrogen nuclei were a part of nitrogen nuclei (and by
inference, probably other nuclei as well). Such a construction had been suspected for many years
on the basis of atomic weights which were whole numbers of that of hydrogen (Prouts
hypothesis). Rutherford decided that a hydrogen nucleus was possibly a fundamental building
block of all nuclei, and also possibly a new fundamental particle as well, since nothing was
known from the nucleus that was lighter. Thus Rutherford postulated the hydrogen nucleus to be
a new fundamental particle in 1920, and called them protons.
Discovery of neutrons
In 1921, Rutherford theorized about the existence of neutrons, which could somehow
compensate for the repelling effect of the positive charges of protons by causing an attracting
nuclear force and thus keep the nuclei from flying apart by the repulsion between protons.
Rutherfords theory of neutrons was proved in 1932 by his associate James Chadwick, who
recognized neutrons immediately when they were produced by other scientists and later himself,
in bombarding beryllium with alpha particles. In 1935, Chadwick was awarded the noble prize
in physics for this discovery.
~ 14 ~

Structure of Atom

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Structure of Atom

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Physics by : Shubham Chourasia Chemistry by: Kailash Sir Math by: Tarun Sir

Universe : Matter + Energy

Daltons At. Theory

Modern Atomic Theory

1654- Invention of Vacuum Pumps

Observations and Conclusions:

Thomsons Atomic Model

Observations and Conclusions:

Discovery of Radioactivity (Tools to see inside an atom)

Zero rest mass

Distinction between X and Gamma rays

Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

Explanation of the GF Experiment by Rutherford Model:

Emission Spectrum: Emission spectrum of a

n12 ; n1,n2 are integers.

Development of Bohrs model

Potrebbero piacerti anche