Design of Waste Heat Boiler

Commission of the European Communities
energy
DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT BOILERS

FOR THE RECOVERY OF ENERGY
FROM ARC FURNACE WASTE GASES
Blow-up from microfiche original
Commission of the European Communities
energy
DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT BOILERS

FOR THE RECOVERY OF ENERGY
FROM ARC FURNACE WASTE GASES
J. DIXON, S. BRAMFOOT
British Steel Corporation
9, Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SN
Great Britain
Contract No. EE-B-2-160-UK(N)

FINAL REPORT
Research financed by the Commission of the European Communities

within the frame of the energy R & D programme
- ENERGY CONSERVATION -
Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development
1985
EUR 9850 EN
Published by the
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General
Information Market and Innovation
Btiment Jean Monnet
LUXEMBOURG
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf
of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the following
information
ECSCEEG EAEC Brussels - Luxembourg, 1985
III -

THE FEASIBILITY OF USING WASTE HEAT BOILERS TO RECOVER ENERGY
FROM THE EXHAUST GASES OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACES
EEC Agreement No. EE-B-2-160-UK(N)
SUMMARY
Energy can be rejected in the waste gases of a UHP electric arc furnace at
rates of up to about 15 MW, accounting for 200 kW h/t of liquid steel. The
possibility of recovering a significant proportion of this energy as steam
using a waste heat boiler has been investigated. The options of using the
steam to satisfy the in-works demand or for generating electricity or a
combination of the two have been considered.
Extensive measurements of the conditions existing in the waste gas stream have
been made throughout the steelmaking cycle for furnace practices involving
oxygen blowing, continuous charging and supplementary firing with oxyfuel
burners.
Various practical implications of the use of a waste heat boiler have been
studied. These include the location of the boiler, the accretion of solid
matter on tubes, the effect of the presence of the boiler on gas cleaning and
the control of furnace extraction to achieve optimum performance.
The economics of using a waste heat boiler on a 180 t furnace to supply part of
the steam demand from a works producing special steels have been examined.
Payback periods of between 1.7 and 2.9 years according to the fraction of the
load supplied are indicated. The rate of return on investment is forecast to
be in the range 33-58%.
The use of waste heat steam to generate electricity is not attractive under
present circumstances unless generating capacity already exists. This
conclusion applies to a large user of energy in the UK; the economics could be
more favourable in other EEC countries where different tarrif structures and
energy price relativities pertain.
Further tests on the performance of tube arrays in the waste gas stream of an
electric arc furnace and the installation of a full-scale boiler could form the
basis of a suitable Demonstration Project.
IV
Page
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
THE WASTE GASES OF THE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE
3.
WASTE HEAT UTILISATION
4.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS INVOLVED IN THE USE OF A

WASTE HEAT BOILER
5.
4.1
General Considerations
4.2
Location
4.3
Control of Inlet Gas Temperature
4.4
Fouling
4.5
Gas Cleaning
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
5.1
Steam Demand
5.2
Case Studies
5.3
Increased Steam Usage
5.4
Electricity Generation
6.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT
7.
CONCLUSIONS
8.
REFERENCES
9.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLES
FIGURES
APPENDICES
8
9
9
9
10
11
19
30
LIST OF TABLES
1.
Approximate Concentrations of the Main Constituents of

Electric Arc Furnace Fume (Particle Size 0.03-1 urn)
2.
Steam Demand for Electric Arc Works
3.
Waste Gas Temperature and Flow for a Typical Cast
4.
Performance of Boiler - Base Load Case

*
5.
Cost Balance - Base Load
6.
Performance of Boiler - Intermediate Case
7.
Cost Balance - Intermediate Case
8.
Performance of Boiler - Maximum Demand
9.
10.
Cost Balance - Maximum Demand Satisfied

Steam Turbine Performance - Large Boiler Producing for
Electrical Generation Only
11.
Steam Turbine Performance - Large Boiler Satisfying

Base Load, Turbine Using Surplus Steam
12.
Steam Turbine Performance - Small Boiler Producing for

13.
Steam Turbine Performance - Small Boiler Satisfying

Base Load, Turbine Using Surplus Steam
14.
Cost Balance - Large Boiler Producing for

15.
Cost Balance - Large Boiler Satisfying Base Load,

Surplus Generating
16.
Cost Balance - Small Boiler Producing for Electrical

Generation Only
17.
Cost Balance - Small Boiler Satifying Base Load,

Surplus Generating
LIST OF APPENDICES
1.
Waste Gas Measurements
2.
New Offtake Elbow
3.
Model Similarity Theory
4.
Performance of the Extraction System with Enlarged Elbow
LIST OF APPENDICES TABLES

A2.1
Relationships Between Elbow Gas Flow (Q ) , Slice Air Flow (Q ) ,

a
Temperature (T) and Chamber Suction Level (S)
A2.2
Predicted Elbow Gas Flows (Q ) and Chamber Suction Levels (S)
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
1.
Waste gas conditions - 180 t furnace
2.
Typical waste heat rejection cycle - 180 t furnace
3.
Typical waste heat rejection cycle - 180 t furnace

with continuous feeding
4.
General layout of electric arc furnace and associated waste gas ducting.
Possible boiler sites
5.
Waste gas conditions for 180 t furnace with modified extraction system
6.
Section through the probe
7.
Deposit on test probe
8.
Heat transfer coefficients
9.
Effect of water vapour on precipitator efficiency
10.
Diagram showing the monthly variation in steam demand for Works A
11.
General arrangement of boiler
LIST OF APPENDICES FIGURES

A2.1
Measurement positions
A2.2
Entry port and elbow diameter combinations
A2.3
General view of the model
A2.4
Graph of relationship between Q:Qe and elbow gas temperature, T
A2.5
A4.2
Graph showing relationship between chamber suction level, S

and slice air flow, Q_
a
Graph showing relationship between elbow flow and heat flow
for a series of carbon removal rates
Graph of elbow flow for original extraction system
A4.3
Graph of elbow flow for modified extraction system
A4.1
VII
LA FAISABILITE DE L'UTILISATION DE CHAUDIERES DE RECHAUFFAGE
POUR RECUPERER L'ENERGIE PROVENANT DES GAZ D'ECHAPPEMENT
DE FOURS A ARC ELECTRIQUES
Accord CECA n EE-B-2-160-UK(N)
RESUME
L ' n e r g i e peut t r e r e f o u l e dans les e f f l u e n t s gazeux d'un f o u r arc
l e c t r i q u e UHP au taux d ' e n v i r o n 15MW pour 200kW h / t d ' a c i e r l i q u i d e .
L'on a t u d i l a p o s s i b i l i t de rcuprer une p r o p o r t i o n i m p o r t a n t e
de c e t t e nergie sous forme de vapeur en u t i l i s a n t une chaudire de
r c h a u f f a g e . L'on a galement t u d i les d i v e r s choix p o s s i b l e s :
u t i l i s e r l a vapeur pour s a t i s f a i r e les besoins d'une a c i r i e ou bien
pour gnrer de l ' l e c t r i c i t , ou encore les deux.
L'on a e f f e c t u des s r i e s de mesures des c o n d i t i o n s auxquelles sont soumis
les e f f l u e n t s gazeux l o r s du processus de f a b r i c a t i o n de l ' a c i e r dans
des f o u r s , y compris le s o u f f l a g e d'oxygne, l e chargement c o n t i n u e t
l a mise feu supplmentaire l ' a i d e de b r l e u r s o x y f u e l .
L'on a t u d i les d i v e r s e s i m p l i c a t i o n s p r a t i q u e s de l ' u t i l i s a t i o n d'une
chaudire de r c h a u f f a g e , parmi l e s q u e l l e s l'emplacement de la
chaudire, les c o n c r t i o n s q u i se forment sur les t u b e s , l ' e f f e t de l a
prsence de la chaudire sur l ' p u r a t i o n des gaz e t le c o n t r l e du
processus d ' e x t r a c t i o n du f o u r ncessaire la performance o p t i m a l e
de ce d e r n i e r .
L'on a t u d i la r e n t a b i l i t d'une chaudire de rchauffage u t i l i s e sur
un f o u r de 180t pour f o u r n i r une p a r t i e de l a vapeur ncessaire
une a c i r i e p r o d u i s a n t des a c i e r s s p c i a u x . L'on s ' e s t rendu compte
qu'en f o n c t i o n de l a q u a n t i t de vapeur f o u r n i e , i l f a u d r a i t de
1,7 2,9 ans pour r e n t a b i l i s e r l ' i n s t a l l a t i o n .
L'on p r v o i t un
taux de rendement d ' e n v i r o n 33 58%.
Dans les c i r c o n s t a n c e s a c t u e l l e s , i l n ' e s t gure i n t r e s s a n t d ' u t i l i s e r
de la vapeur de rchauffage pour gnrer de l ' l e c t r i c i t , sauf s i
l ' o n dispose dj d'une g n r a t r i c e . Cette c o n c l u s i o n est v a l a b l e
pour un grand consommateur d ' n e r g i e au Royaume-Uni; l a r e n t a b i l i t
p o u r r a i t t r e s u p r i e u r e dans d ' a u t r e s pays de la CEE o l e s
s t r u c t u r e s t a r i f a i r e s e t l e cot de l ' n e r g i e sont d i f f r e n t s .
Une a u t r e s r i e d ' e s s a i s sur l a performance des tubes dans l e s q u e l s
c i r c u l e n t les e f f l u e n t s gazeux d'un f o u r arc l e c t r i q u e e t
l ' i n s t a l l a t i o n d'une chaudire la cote p o u r r a i e n t c o n s t i t u e r
la base d'un p r o j e t de dmonstration adquat.
VIII
SOMMAIRE
Page
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
LES EFFLUENTS GAZEUX DU FOUR A ARC ELECTRIQUE
3.
UTILISATION DE LA CHALEUR PERDUE
4.
LES ASPECTS PRATIQUES DE L'UTILISATION D'UNE

CHAUDIERE DE RECHAUFFAGE
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
2
3
3
4
5
5.
Considrations d'ordre gnral

Emplacement
Contrle de la temprature du gaz d'arrive
Impurets
Epuration des gaz
EVALUATION ECONOMIQUE
5.1 Demande en vapeur

5.2 Etudes sur le terrain
5.3 Augmentation de l'usage de vapeur
6
6
8
5.4 Gnration d'lectricit
6.
TRAVAUX SUPPLEMENTAIRES
7.
CONCLUSIONS
8.
REFERENCES
9.
REMERCIEMENTS
10
TABLEAUX
11
FIGURES
19
APPENDICES
30
IX
LISTE DES TABLEAUX

1.
Concentration approximative des principaux constituants des fumes de

four arc lectrique (particule de 0,03 1 um)
2.
Demande de vapeur des installations arc lectriques
3.
Temprature et dbit des effluents gazeux pour une coule typique
4.
Performance de la chaudire - Charge de base
5.
Balance des cots - Charge de base
6.
Performance de la chaudire - Cas intermdiaire
7.
Balance des cots - Cas intermdiaire
8.
Performance de la chaudire - Demande maximum
9.
Balance des cots - Demande maximum satisfaite
10.
Performance de la turbine vapeur - Grosse chaudire utilise uniquement pour

la gnration d'lectricit
11.
Performance de la turbine vapeur - Grosse chaudire satisfaisant la charge

de base, turbine utilisant la vapeur excdentaire
12.
Performance de la turbine vapeur - Petite chaudire utilise uniquement

pour la gnration d'lectricit
13.
Performance de la turbine vapeur - Petite chaudire satisfaisant la charge

de base, turbine utilisant la vapeur excdentaire
14.
Balance des cots - Grosse chaudire utilise uniquement pour la gnration

d'lectricit
15.
Balance des cots - Grosse chaudire satisfaisant la charge de base,

gnration d'un surplus
16.
Balance des cots - Petite chaudire utilise uniquement pour la gnration

d'lectrici t
17.
Balance des cots - Petite chaudire satisfaisant la charge de base,

gnration d'un surplus
LISTE DES APPENDICES

1.
Mesures des effluents gazeux
2.
Nouveau coude d'vacuation
3.
Thorie de la similarit des
4.
Performance du systme d'extraction avec plus grand coude
modles
LISTE DES TABLEAUX DES APPENDICES

A2.1 Rapports entre l'coulement des gaz dans le coude (Q ), le dbit d'air de
lance (Q ) , la temprature (T) et le niveau d'aspiration de la chambre (S)
a
A2.2 Dbits gazeux prvus dans le coude (Q ) et niveaux d'aspiration de la chambre (S)
9
LISTE DES FIGURES
1.
Effluents gazeux - four de 180 t
2.
Cycle typique de refoulement de la chaleur perdue - four de 180 t
3.
Cycle typique de refoulement de la chaleur perdue - four de 180 t

alimentation continue
4.
Agencement gnral d'un four arc lectrique et de la tuyauterie pour les

effluents gazeux. Emplacements possibles des chaudires
5.
Effluents gazeux pour un four de 180 t avec systme d'extraction modifi
6.
Section de la sonde
7.
Dpt sur la sonde d'essai
8.
Coefficients de transfert de chaleur
9.
Effet de la vapeur d'eau sur l'efficacit du prcipitateur
10.
Diagramme montrant la variation mensuelle de la demande de vapeur pour

1'installation A
11.
Agencement gnral de la chaudire
LISTE DES FIGURES DES APPENDICES

A2. 1 Positions
des mesures
A2.2 Combinaisons d'orifice d'entre et de diamtre de coude

A2.3 Vue gnrale du modle
A2.4 Graphique du rapport entre Q :Q et la temprature des gaz du coude, T
9 e
9
A2.5 Graphique montrant le rapport entre le niveau d'aspiration de la chambre, S
et le dbit d'air de la lance, Q
a
A4.1 Graphique montrant le rapport entre le dbit du coude et le dbit de chaleur
pour une srie de vitesses d'enlvement du carbone
A4.2 Graphique du dbit du coude pour le systme d'extraction d'origine
14.3 Graphique du dbit du coude pour le systme d'extraction modifi
XI

Die Eignung des Einsatzes von Abhitzkesseln fr Wiedergewinnung
der Energie aus den Abgasen der Lichtbogenfen
EWG Vertrag Nr. EE-B-2-160-(N)
Zusammenfassung
Energie kann in den Abgasen eines Lichtbogenofens, der mit
ultrahoher Kraft angetrieben wird, in Mengen bis zu ca. 15 MW
ausgestoen werden, und das macht 200 kW h/t des Flssigstahls
aus. Die Mglichkeit, einen bedeutenden Anteil dieser Energie
als Dampf unter Einsatz eines Abhitzkessels wiederzugewinnen, ist
untersucht worden. Die Wahl zwischen dem Einsatz des Dampfes, um
die Nachfrage im Stahlwerk zu befriedigen, oder um Elektrizitt
zu erzeugen, oder eine Kombination der beiden, ist auch bercksichtigt worden.
Eingehende Messungen der Bedingungen, die im Abgasflu existieren, sind berall im Stahlherstellungsproze fr Ofenverfahren gemacht worden, und das betrifft Sauerstoffblasen,
kontinuierliche Beschickung und zustzliche Befeuerung mit
Brennern, die mit Sauerstoff und Brennstoff beheizt werden.
Verschiedene praktische Auswirkungen des Einsatzes von Abhitzkesseln sind untersucht worden, und diese betrafen den Standort
des Kessels, die Zunahme an Trockensubstanz in den Rohren, die
Auswirkung auf die Gasreinigung, wenn ein Kessel gebaut wird, und
die Steuerung der Ofenextraktion, um optimale Leistungen zu
e rzielen.
Die Rentabilitt des Einsatzes eines Abhitzkessels in einem 180 t
Ofen, um Teil der Dampfnachfrage in den Stahlwerken zu befriedigen, wo Spezialsthle hergestellt werden, ist untersucht
worden. Rckzahlungszeitrume von zwischen 1,7 und 2,9 Jahren
werden angedeutet, dies hngt von dem Anteil der beschickten
Ladung ab. Man schtzt, da die Kapitalverzinsung der
Investierung zwischen 33-58% liegt.
Der Gebrauch von Abwrmedampf, um Elektrizitt zu erzeugen, ist
unter den heutigen Umstnden nicht attraktiv, es sei denn, da
Erzeugungskapazitt bereits existiert. Diese Schlufolgerung
trifft auf einen groen Energieverbraucher in Grobritannien zu;
die Ersparnisse knnten in anderen EWG Lndern gnstiger sein, wo
andere Tarifgefge und Energiepreisbedingungen vorherrschen.
Weitere Untersuchungen der Rohranordnungsleistung im Abgasflu
eines Lichtbogenofens und die Installation eines Kessel im
Mastab 1:1 knnten die Grundlage fr ein geeignetes Demonstrationsprojekt bilden.
XII
PE 1 0 6 - 6 841
EE-B-2-1
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Seite
1.
Einleitung
2.
Die Abgase des L i c h t b o g e n o f e n s
3.
Abwrmeverwertung
4.
P r a k t i s c h e A s p e k t e , d i e den E i n s a t z e i n e s
Abhitzkessels betreffen
4.1
4.2
4*3
4.4
4*5
2
3
3
4
5
5.
A l l g e m e i n e Erwgungen
Standorte
Steuerung der einstrmenden Gastemperatur
Verunreinigung
Gasreinigung
Wirtschaftliche
5.1
5.2
53
5.4
60-UK(N)
Bewertung
Dampfnachfrage
Einzelfallstudien
Zunehmender Dampfgebrauch
Elektrizittserzeugung
6
6
6
8
8
6.
Schlufolgerungen
7.
Literaturverzeichnis
8.
Danksagungen
10
Tabellen
1 1
Abbildungen
19
Anhnge
30
XIII
Aufstellung der Tabellen
1.
Ungefhre Konzentrationen der Hauptbestandteile des Licht

bgenofenrauches (Teilchengre 0,031 )
2.
Dampfnachfrage fr Lichtbogenfen in Stahlwerken
3.
Abgastemperatur und Flu fr einen typischen Gu
4.
Leistung des Kessels Grundbelastungsfall
5.
Kostenbilanz Grundbelastung
6.
Leistung des Kessels dazwischenliegender F all
7.
Kostenbilanz dazwischenliegender F all
8.
Leistung des Kessels maximale Nachfrage
9.
Kostenbilanz maximale Nachfrage befriedigt
10.
Dampfturbinenleistung groer Kessel erzeugt nur Elektrizitt
11.
Dampfturbinenleistung groer Kessel befriedigt die

Grundbelastung, Turbine benutzt berschigen Dampf
12.
Dampfturbinenleistung kleiner Kessel erzeugt nur Elektrizitt
13.
Dampfturbinenleistung kleiner Kessel befriedigt die

Grundbelastung, Turbine benutzt berschigen Dampf
14.
Kostenbilanz groer Kessel erzeugt nur Elektrizitt
15.
Kostenbilanz groer Kessel befriedigt die

Grundbelastung, berschu wird erzeugt
16.
Kostenbilanz kleiner Kessel erzeugt nur Elektrizitt
17.
Kostenbilanz kleiner Kessel befriedigt die

Grundbelastung, berschu wird erzeugt
Aufstellung der Anhnge

1.
Abgasmessungen
2.
Neues Abzugknierohr
3.
hnlichkeitstheorie des Modells
4.
Leistung des Extraktionssystems mit vergrertem Knierohr
Aufstellung der Anhnge zu den Tabellen

A2.1 Verhltnisse zwischen dem Knierohrgasflu (Q ) , dem Luftdurch
flu im Zwischenraum (Q ) , der Temperatur (T? und den Kammerabsaugniveaus (S)
a
A2.2 Vorhergesagte Durchflsse durch das Knierohr (Q ) und den
Kammerabsaugniveaus (S)
XIV
Aufstellung der Abbildungen

1.
Abgasbedingungen ISO t Ofen
2.
Typischer Verwerfungszyklus der Abwrme 180 t Ofen
3.
Typischer Verwerfungszyklus der Abwrme 180 t Ofen

mit kontinuierlicher Beschickung
4.
Allgemeine Anlage des Lichtbogenofens und dazugehrige

Abgasrohrleitungen mgliche Kesselstandorte
5.
Abgasbedingungen fr einen 180 t Ofen mit modifiziertem

Extraktionssystem
6.
Querschnitt durch die Sonde
7.
Ablagerung auf der Versuchssonde
8.
Koeffizienten der Wrmebertragung
9.
Auswirkung des Wasserdampfes auf die rationelle

Arbeitsweise des Niederschlagapparates
10.
Diagramm, gezeigt wird die monatliche Schwankung der

Dampfnachfrage im Stahlwerk A
11.
Allgemeine Anordnung des Kessels
Aufstellung der Anhnge zu den Abbildungen

A2.1
Messungspositionen
A2.2
Kombinationen der Eingangsffnung und dem Knierohrdurchmesser
A2.3
Allgemeine Ansicht des Modells
A2.4
Graphische Darstellung des Verhltnisses zwischen Q :Q

und der Knierohrgastemperatur, T
A2.5
Graphische Darstellung, gezeigt wird das Verhltnis zwischen

dem Kammerabsaugniveau, S und dem Luftdurchflu im
Zwischenraum, Q
A4.1
Graphische Darstellung, gezeigt wird das Verhltnis zwischen

dem Knierohrflu und dem Wrmeflu fr eine Reihe von
Kohlenstoffbeseitigungsmengen
A4.2
Graphische Darstellung des Knierohrflusses fr das ursprngliche

Extraktionssystem
A4.3
Graphische Darstellung des Knierohrflusses fr das modifizierte

Extraktions system
OL

THE FEASIBILITY OF USING WASTE HEAT BOILERS TO RECOVER
ENERGY FROM THE EXHAUST GASES OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACES
EEC Agreement No. EE-B-2-160-UK (N)
FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT
1.
INTRODUCTION
The proportion of steel manufactured by the electric arc process has steadily
increased over the past 30 years. In 1982, it accounted for about 34% of UK
liquid steel production, and there are over 250 electric arc furnaces in
operation within the ECSC.
Electrical energy is a major contributor to the overall manufacturing cost, and
its conservation is of prime importance. The largest single source of energy
loss from an electric arc furnace is via the waste gas stream, and urgent
consideration is being given to methods of reducing the quantity of energy lost
in this way, and to recovering heat from the exhaust gases. Scrap preheating
is potentially the most attractive method of energy recovery, but its
effectiveness is often restricted because of practical considerations. In
general, steelworks use considerable quantities of steam for various purposes.
The objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using a waste
heat boiler to generate steam using energy recovered from the exhaust gases of
an electric arc furnace. The steam produced in this manner would replace that
generated in conventional boiler plant, thereby reducing energy costs.
Case studies, based on a furnace producing special steels within the British
Steel Corporation, have been used to demonstrate the advantages and
disadvantages of this method of energy recovery in practical and economic
terms.
2.
THE WASTE GASES OF THE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE
The volume, temperature, composition, and hence the energy content, of the
waste gases vary throughout the furnace cycle, and depend on such variables as
the charge material, melt down rates, oxygen practice, supplementary firing
practice and the type of steel being produced'. A survey of the literature was
carried out at the beginning of the project and revealed a diversity in the
reports of the quantity of energy contained in the waste gases. Of the total
energy input to the furnaces, fractions of between 5 and 29%, accounting for 30
to 130 kW h/t of liquid steel, were estimated to be lost in the exhaust
gases 2-1 *. In order to produce reliable information, detailed measurements were
made on a number of furnaces within BSC using techniques developed specially
for use in the aggressive conditions to be found in the waste gases of electric
arc furnaces 5 ' 6 . Figure 1 shows the data obtained from a typical cast on a
180 t UHP electric arc furnace; an average waste heat cycle is shown in
Fig. 2. When continuous charging techniques or supplementary firing with
oxyfuel burners are employed, the rate of energy rejection in the waste gases
may be increased. Figure 3 is an average waste heat cycle for 180 t furnace
with continuous feeding of granulated iron. In this case, the average rate of
energy rejection is 15.5 MW, which for a charge of 180 t is equivalent to a
loss of about 200 kW h/t of liquid steel. Details of the measurements made and
the techniques used are given in Appendix 1.
3.
WASTE HEAT UTILISATION
In considering the practical applications of recovered waste heat from the arc
furnaces, the following factors should be taken into account:1.
Changes in heat flow within the furnace cycle.
2.
Forms in which the waste heat is recovered (e.g. scrap preheating,

steam, electricity generation).
3.
Destination and transportation of recovered energy.
4.
Reliability of recovery equipment, maximisation of furnace

availability and ease of maintenance.
5.
Effect of the presence of the waste heat recovery unit on

the operation of other items of plant.
6.
Capital and operating costs.
The exhaust gas leaves the arc furnace at a high temperature and in principle
should have considerable potential for energy recovery. However, its dirty
condition and variable nature create significant difficulties in achieving this
end. Much of the effort devoted to energy recovery has justifiably been
concentrated on scrap preheating because the recovered heat is returned to the
process. Some examples of the scrap heating techniques are basket preheaters,
the BBC/Brusa rotary kiln process and the twin-shell method'-11*. The first of
these has been the most widely applied because of its relative simplicity and
its ability to be retrofitted in an established melting shop. A number of
installations are now operating successfully, but experience has shown that the
quantity of energy which can be recovered is restricted by practical
considerations such as the need to avoid overheating the charging basket, and
to prevent welding and bridging in the charge. The reported energy savings are
in the region of 20 to 50 kW h/t, representing 10 to 25% of the total energy in
the waste gas.
The more elaborate techniques suffer from the disadvantage of high capital
cost, high maintenance costs and unsuitability for incorporation into existing
melting shops.
Consideration could be given to other uses for the waste heat, such as the
production of
hot water for boiler feeding, space heating, district heating and
amenity use 15 . However, a more attractive alternative would be to provide
energy for steam raising. Most steelworks require considerable quantities of
steam for process and heating purposes, and its generation from waste heat
would reduce the consumption of fuels in steam raising plant. The use of a
waste heat boiler would be particularly advantageous either in a melting shop
where practical considerations render scrap preheating uneconomic or in tandem
with a preheater which removes only a small fraction of the energy in the waste
gas stream.
To realise its economic potential, a waste heat boiler system must fulfil a
number of requirements:1.
It should be capable of incorporation into the extraction system

of the furnace with minimum reorganisation of the melting shop
facilities and the existing waste gas handling equipment.
2.
The steam cycle must be capable of being matched to the works

demand and complemented by existing steam raising plant.
3.
The boiler must be reliable and easily maintained so that

production stoppages are avoided.
4.
The waste gas extraction system must operate without the boiler
in service, if necessary.
The various aspects of the use of a waste heat boiler have been considered in
this project.
4.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS INVOLVED IN THE USE OF A WASTE HEAT BOILER
4.1
General Considerations
A number of practical aspects involved in the use of a waste heat boiler have
been considered in detail involving experimentation on plant or in the

laboratory where appropriate. The main factors discussed in Section 4.2 are:(a)
The location of the boiler within the waste gas handling system.
(b)
Maximisation of energy recovery by control of the waste gas

conditions.
(c)
The effect of the accretion of solid material on boiler tubes,

and its effect on heat transfer.
(d)
The effect of the presence of the boiler on gas cleaning.
4.2
Location
Figure 1 indicates that the gases from the furnace contain up to 55% of carbon
monoxide. Furthermore, at certain parts of the furnace cycle, up to 10% of
hydrogen may be involved. The variable composition of the gases render their
collection extremely difficult. The practice adopted within BSC is to mix the
gases with air and burn them in a brick lined combustion chamber. The volume
of air added is designed to ensure that the temperature of the gases after
combustion is never greater than 1250C. The combusted gases are then cooled
further, either by water in a spray tower, or by mixture with large quantities
of air drawn from the roof extraction hoods of the melting shop. Finally, the
gases are cleaned using wet or dry electrostatic precipitators, or bag filters.
An alternative method of cleaning not commonly used on the electric arc furnace
plants of BSC, would be a high pressure-drop Venturi scrubber.
To ensure safe operation of a boiler, it is considered necessary to retain the
use of the brick lined combustion chamber. The gases would continue to be
mixed with sufficient air to ensure complete combustion, and to reduce their
temperature to an acceptable level. The waste heat boiler would be situated
immediately after the combustion chamber and fitted with a hot gas by-pass to
avoid interruption to furnace operation in the event of boiler problems.
Consideration was given to the replacement of the combustion chamber by a shell
boiler but this course of action was rejected because it would not be possible
to extract an acceptable amount of heat within the dimensions available. Also,
a failure of the boiler could result in an interruption to furnace operation.
Figure 4 indicates suggested locations for the boiler.
The most desirable site for the boiler is considered to be immediately
downstream of the combustion chamber for the following reasons:(a)
The gases leaving the furnace have mixed and burned in the
air indrawn at the slice gap, and hence are at their
maximum temperature at the end of the combustion chamber.
(b)
Large particulates will have dropped out of the gas stream

in the combustion chamber and will not reach the boiler.
(c)
The conditioning tower, if used, does not require lining to

withstand high temperatures and can function as before when
the boiler is by-passed at times of low steam demand, or in
an emergency situation.
(d)
This position requires the shortest possible length of lined

ductwork.
Should it be desirable to use a boiler in conjunction with a scrap preheater,

it is preferable to locate the boiler upstream of the preheater, thereby
presenting gases at the highest possible temperature to the boiler and
maximising its efficiency. In this case, the boiler should be designed to have
an exhaust gas temperature in the region of 700C maximum which would be
adequate for the scrap preheater in which a final steel temperature in the
region of 400C is desirable.
4.3
Control of Inlet Gas Temperature
Whilst the maximum temperature of the combusted waste gases is designed to be
1250C, this figure is seldom reached in practice. During the cast illustrated
in Fig. 1, the maximum temperature was in the region of 800C, and for much of
the time a lower value was achieved. To obtain the maximum benefit from a
waste heat recovery system, it is essential to avoid degradation of the waste
gas temperature. Furthermore, to obtain the most efficient overall performance
in energy terms, it is necessary to ensure that as far as possible combustion
takes place within the furnace, rather than externally in the combustion
chamber. The arrangement of the waste gas extraction system and its control
must, therefore, be designed to allow the most suitable conditions for heat
transfer in the furnace whilst achieving simultaneously the maximum efficiency
of the waste heat recovery unit. A study has been made of methods of changing
the geometry of the furnace offtake elbow, the air infiltration gap and the
combustion chamber to effect better control of the absolute and relative rates
of furnace extraction and air infiltration.
An isothermal model was used to determine the most appropriate geometry and the
results indicated that an increase in the diameter of the offtake from 1.0 to
1.4 m diameter would produce the best performance. The layout of the water
cooled roof panels precluded an elbow of the ideal size, and a compromise
diameter of 1.3 m was found to be acceptable. The model tests and their
results are described in detail in Appendices 2 and 3.
The new elbow was designed, constructed and installed on the furnace and
extensive waste gas measurements were made to assess the benefits of the new
arrangement. Appendix 4 describes the approach made to optimise the release of
heat in the furnace and the operation of the waste gas extraction system.
The experimental trials showed that it was possible to control the furnace
pressure to a level which would permit the inspiration of sufficient air into
the furnace to combust carbon monoxide fully. Consequently, the release of
chemical heat in the furnace would be at the highest level. The trials also
indicated that it should be possible to control the rate of extraction of waste
gases to avoid excessive infiltration of air during periods of low gas emission
from the furnace, thereby avoiding excessive heat losses and the degradation of
the waste gas temperature level. Some further adjustment of the geometry of
the air infiltration gap and the combustion chamber entry was shown to be
desirable in order to increase further the temperature of the gases reaching
the boiler. Figure 5 shows typical operating conditions experienced during the
trials.
4.4
Fouling
The waste gases from an electric arc furnace contain large amounts of
particulate matter; concentrations of up to 200 g/m3 have been measured. At
the outlet of the combustion chamber, the material will be in solid form with
the typical size range and composition shown in Table 1. The accretion of
solid matter on the tubes of a waste heat boiler would present a maintenance
problem as well as a reduction in its efficiency. To simulate a boiler tube,
probes were constructed to the design shown in Fig. 6. The probes were
constructed with concentric water passages so that they could be readily
inserted into the measurement positions and removed for inspection.
To simplify the experimental procedure, the flow of water through the probe was
selected to avoid boiling and the production of steam. The experimental
measurements made were as follows:(a)
Heat flux intensity.
(b)
Gas temperature.
(c)
Gas flow rate.
(d)
Effect of accretion on heat transfer rate.
(e)
Accretion of solid matter and its subsequent removal.
Two probes were installed at a point between the combustion chamber and the
conditioning tower in the extraction system of a 180 t arc furnace. This
position was chosen as it is the most probable location for a boiler and the
gas conditions would be similar to those encountered in a boiler. One probe

was installed horizontally and one vertically to allow the effect of the
orientation of a tube to be assessed. The position has good access to the
inside of the duct to allow in situ examination of the probes to be made.
The probes were left in position for three months during which the furnace was
in normal production. At the end of this period, there was only a thin, fairly
even deposit of material on the vertical probe. The horizontal tube showed an
accretion of material on the downstream segment of its surface. The deposit
was fine and powdery, crusting in places and easily friable. The maximum
thickness was less than 8 mm. The nature of the material suggested that it
would be readily removed with conventional soot-blowing equipment. Figure 7
shows photographs of the horizontal probe at the end of the test.
Figure 8 shows the variation of the heat transfer rate with gas temperature,
and indicates the importance of keeping the latter at the highest possible
level. No significant change in this relationship was detected over the trial
period.
The position of the probes had been selected to allow them to be subjected to
similar gas temperatures and dust loadings to those existing in a boiler.
However, the velocity of the gas at the experimental position was higher by a
factor of approximately five than would exist in a boiler. Clearly this
unrepresentative velocity may have an effect on the extent of fouling.
Therefore, one probe was resited in the combustion chamber close to the exit
where the gas velocities are more comparable with those in a boiler. It
remained in this position for two months, during which time the accretion of
material was similar in nature and extent to that experienced in the original
location.
As a more rigorous test of the accumulation of deposit in a boiler, it would be
advantageous to insert a bank of steam tubes into the combustion chamber. It
is planned that an experiment of this nature should take place, but it was not
possible to carry out this work within the time scale of this project.
The experimental work carried out has been encouraging in that the extent of
fouling has been less than was feared, and its influence on heat transfer rates
was not serious.
4.5
Gas Cleaning
The methods commonly used for gas cleaning are as follows:(a)
Dry electrostatic precipitator.
(b)
Wet electrostatic precipitator.
(c)
Bag filter.
(d)
Wet scrubber.
In every case, the temperature of the gases would be reduced by the addition of
air or by water sprays before entry to the gas cleaning system. The presence
of the boiler would reduce substantially the cooling requirement although it
would be necessary to retain the facility to cater for periods when the boiler
was inoperative.
The reduction in temperature of the waste gases leaving the boiler would create
a problem with the operation of dry precipitators. The efficiency of this type
of plant is critically dependent on the humidity of the gases as shown in
Fig. 9. Water is usually added in the spray quenching carried out in the
conditioning tower. It would be impossible to achieve the desired
concentration of 15% water vapour with gases which have left the boiler at
700C, or less. To restore the humidity by the addition of steam, would negate
the benefits of the waste heat boiler. It is concluded, therefore, that the
use of a dry precipitator would be incompatible with a waste heat boiler, or
other device giving a similar level of energy recovery.
With wet electrostatic precipitators, there is a danger that material deposited
on the electrodes may become caked and difficult to remove should the humidity
of the waste gases be low. The reduced requirement for water addition which
will exist if a boiler is used could produce problems of this nature, but past
experience indicates that these would not be insuperable.
The other methods of gas cleaning involve no particular problem when applied to
a system which incorporates a waste heat boiler.
5.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
5.1
Steam Demand
To obtain the best return on investment, it is necessary to match the output of

a waste heat boiler to steam users in the steelworks, and elsewhere. The
demand for steam will vary from works to works and will be to some extent
variable within an individual plant. A survey was carried out in the Sheffield
area of BSC in order to obtain information about the extent of the steam
demand.
Table 2 gives a summary of the information collected. The quantity entitled
'base load' is the lowest demand encountered under normal production
conditions. The steam demand varies throughout the year, and Fig. 10 shows a
typical pattern. It is significant that the quantity of steam used by the
various works has been reduced substantially over the last two years by energy
conservation measures, plant rationalisation and conversions to other sources
of energy. It is vital that plans to reduce the steam demand be considered
when assessing the viability of a waste heat boiler.
The choice of the quantity of steam to be produced and hence the number and
sizes of boilers depends on the economic viability of a number of stages of
increasing steam production. These are as follows:(a)
Satisfy base load only.
(b)
Generate enough steam to satisfy loads up to the highest

existing demand, by-passing the boiler when necessary.
(c)
Increase the works demand for steam, or export to other users.
(d)
Electricity generation.
5.2
Case Studies
5.2.1
General Principles
Case studies involving these options for Works A have been made. A number of
manufacturers were invited to submit proposals for waste heat boilers to
operate under the typical conditions defined by the initial extraction system
surveys. Detailed discussions were conducted with one manufacturer who showed
particular interest. Outline designs were prepared for the boilers needed to
produce steam at the rates and pressures required to satisfy the demand for
various options, and budget costs estimated. The cost of the modifications
required to incorporate the boilers into the plant was estimated by BSC staff.
The information gained from the extraction system surveys was used to define
the waste gas conditions for an average cast (Table 3 ) . These results combined
with the design characteristics of the boiler, were used to forecast the steam
generation cycle. In order to estimate the annual savings, it was assumed that
the furnace produced 40 casts/week, operating over 120 h, with 48 weeks
production per year. Because the steam production from an arc furnace is
variable, and will fall to zero for short periods between casts or longer
periods in the event of a plant stoppage, it is necessary to provide some
accumulation capacity and also maintain conventional boiler plant on standby.
For flexible and reliable operation it is considered that one fuel fired boiler
should be kept in production at all times at its minimum firing rate so that it
can fulfill the works demand without interruption to production when required.
For the works under study, the boiler would be fired with heavy fuel oil at a
minimum rate of 5000 kg/h and produce steam at a marginal cost of 11.43/t.
With the boiler operating on minimum flow, its efficiency is assumed to fall by
4% and this change is recognised by an increased cost for the production of
steam in these circumstances.
A preliminary economic evaluation was included in earlier reports of this
project 16 and this has been refined in the light of the following information:(a)
Downward revision of the steam demand for Works A.
(b)
Furnace steam cycle considered in more detail.
(c)
Practice for operating conventional boilers amended.
Additionally, further cases have been examined.

For each example studied, the simple payback of capital and the rate of return
on investment have been calculated following the procedure recommended in the
Commissions's Document No. XII/962-2/81-EN, 'Guidelines for the presentation of
periodic and final reports. Energy savings evaluation and cost/benefit
calculation'. The economic life time of the installation has been taken to be
10 years.
5.2.2
Case 1 - Satisfy Base Load
This boiler would produce enough steam to satisfy the works demand (less the
minimum output of the conventional boiler plant) during the summer months. At
other times, the balance of the demand would be produced by the regular boiler
plant. The general arrangement of the boiler is illustrated in Fig. 11. The
heat exchanger would consist of two banks of plain tubes of 50.8 mm outside
diameter arranged in rows on 100 mm centres. Each bank would be 23 tubes wide
and 7 deep being 4 m in length. The two pass arrangement allows the gases to
be returned to the existing extraction system with least modification. Steam
would be produced at a pressure of 1.1 MN/m2 from deaerated feed-water at
105C. The boiler would be fed from existing water treatment plant. Table 4
shows the variation of steam production throughout a furnace cycle.
Table 5 shows the cost balance for this arrangement for which the payback
period is slightly less than 2.9 years, and the rate of return on investment is
32.9%.
5.2.3
Intermediate Case
The boiler for this case would have the general arrangement shown in Fig. 11
but would consist of two banks of 5.5 m tubes arranged 33 wide by 13 deep. The
steam condition would be the same as for the previous case. The output of this
boiler would exceed the base load for a substantial part of the year, and on
occasions it would be necessary for some of the waste gases to by-pass the
boiler. However, the steam demand is well above the base load for most of the
year and the full output of the boiler will be absorbed. Table 6 shows the
steam cycle for this unit, and Table 7 summarises the economic balance.
5.2.4
Maximum Demand-
The final case to be considered is that of a boiler sized to meet the maximum
normal demand of the works. The main boiler plant would operate for the
majority of time on its minimum firing rate, and would act solely as a standby
unit. No detailed proposal for a boiler of this duty was obtained from a
manufacturer, and the cost and performance estimates have been extrapolated
from the information supplied for other units. The accuracy of this prediction
will be inferior to the others, but indicates the effect of the scale of the
installation. The forecast steam cycle is shown in Table 8, and the economic
balance in Table 9. The simple payback of capital would be 1.72 years, and
the rate of return on investment is 57.6%.
5.2.5
Comments on In-Works Steam Use
The case studies above show that the maximum demand for Works A could be
satisfied by a boiler on a single furnace. Whilst supply and demand could be
more conveniently met by smaller boilers on two or three furnaces, the costs
involved in modifying the existing equipment in the melting shop would render
the use of more than one boiler uneconomic. The analyses show that it is
beneficial to size the boiler to generate more than the base load, even though
this will involve partially by-passing the boiler at certain times. The
indication is that there is an optimum size for the boiler which lies towards
meeting the maximum demand. All three cases yield a return on investment which
would be acceptable to many companies, though the smallest boiler may not meet
the economic criteria demanded in the present circumstances.
5.3
Increased Steam Usage
As indicated earlier a survey of electric arc furnace plants in BSC showed that
the maximum potential for steam generation from waste heat far exceeds the
current demand. In recent years the drive for economies in the use of energy
have led to reductions in steam consumption from all areas within the
steelworks. This reduction has been effected both by energy management schemes
and by the replacement of steam by other media such as compressed air in
atomisation applications and hot water for heating.
Opportunities for using additional steam within the steelworks are limited by
the quest for continual reduction in energy costs unless the economic benefits
of employing waste heat steam are attractive. A return to using steam for
items such as burner atomisation is not favourable even with waste heat
generated steam as the variable nature of this supply requires that fuel fired
boilers are needed to maintain the supply to match the continuous demand. The
melting shop does not necessarily operate during periods when the potential
steam users are active and vice versa, leading either to extensive use of fuel
fired boilers or over production by the waste heat boilers.
It is apparent from previous work that few new applications for large steady
steam consumption will arise and on this basis consideration must be given to
the export of steam to other works or to the generation of electricity via a
steam turbine.
The export of steam depends on the availability of suitable users in the
locality and the existence of a distribution network. The export of steam from
a waste heat boiler is again complicated by its variability of the level of
supply. Whenever the waste heat boiler is non-productive steam has to be
generated and exported from primary fuel fired boilers, and the pricing of any
exported steam must take these periods into account.
5. 4
Electricity Generation
Consideration has also been given to using excess steam to generate

electricity. The economic analysis will also indicate the value of electricity
generation to works where the steam demand is too low to justify the
installation of a waste heat boiler.
Discussions were held with boiler and turbine manufacturers, and it was
considered that the most straightforward approach would be to use saturated
steam from the boiler to drive a single stage turbine. Although the generation
efficiency would be lower than that achieved with a multistage machine, the
added complications of superheating the steam and the more stringent control of
steam temperature and pressure would be avoided.
Four cases relating to Works A were considered in detail:(a)
The boiler sized to meet the maximum steam demand delivering

excess steam to a turbine.
(b)
The same boiler producing steam for electricity generation

only.
(c)
The boiler sized to meet the summer base load delivering steam to
the turbine during limited periods when production exceeds demand.
(d)
The small boiler producing steam for generation only.
In each case, the steam production cycle was forecast as previously and the
quantity of electricity generated calculated from the operating characteristics

of suitably sized turbines.
The electricity generation patterns are shown in Tables 10 to 13 respectively,
and the economic balances in Tables 14 to 17.
It would seem that the installation of a waste heat boiler and turbine for
generation only is uneconomic under present circumstances. The use of a
turbine to use excess steam is a better proposition, but gives a poorer return
on investment than direct use of the steam. In the case of the smallest
boiler, the use of a turbine is clearly uneconomic.
Where surplus generating facilities already exist, of course, there will be a
direct saving with little capital outlay. The main cost involved in this
situation would be the provision of a steam main from the melting shop to the
generating plant plus any control equipment which is necessary.
The above cases were based on the relative costs of energy to a large user in
the UK. Electricity generation may warrant further consideration in other
EEC countries where different tarrif structures and price relativities exist.
6.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT
The case studies have shown that the recovery of energy from the exhaust gases
of an electric arc furnace can yield an attractive return on investment. There
are apparently no insuperable technical or logistical problems. The insertion
of a water cooled probe into a typical waste gas stream indicated that fouling
would be tolerable and that the heat transfer performance of a boiler would not
deteriorate at an unacceptable rate. However, final confirmation of this view
could only be obtained by tests using an array of boiler tubes in a situation
which is closely representative of the conditions in a full sized boiler.
It is recommended that a prototype boiler section be installed on a suitable
furnace to be followed, if successful, by a full scale installation. These
tests could form the basis of an EEC-sponsored Demonstration Project.
Recent charges in the demand for stream and its availability from other sources
have rendered the installation of a boiler less attractive on the site
originally envisaged. However an alternative site within the British Steel
Corporation is now being examined.
7.
CONCLUSIONS
The energy rejected in the waste gases of a UHP electric arc furnace has been
shown to be in the region of 200 kW h/t of liquid steel.
Economic case studies of using steam derived from a waste heat boiler to
supply part of the demand for a works producing special steels indicate that a
payback of capital may be obtained over periods of 1.7 to 2.9 years. Based on
an economic lifetime of ten years, the rate of return on investment would range
from 33-58%. The installation of a boiler would therefore be a suitable topic
for a Demonstration Project.
The use of waste heat steam to generate electricity is not attractive under the
present circumstances relating to a large user of energy in the UK. unless
surplus generating capacity already exists. It is possible that the economics
may be more favourable in other EEC countries where different tarrif structures
and energy price relativities pertain.
Various practical factors including modifications to existing plant, the effect
of gas cleaning, the fouling of boiler tubes and the optimisation of the
overall energy balance of the furnace and boiler have been considered.
8.
REFERENCES
1.
Johnson, J.E., 'Electric Arc Furnaces : Technical Aspects of

Fume Control', Environmental Pollution Management,
January/February 1980, pp 20-25.
2.
Blank, J.R. and Garbutt, F.R., 'Energy Conscious Electric Are

Steelmaking', Leoben Conference 1980, Metals Society,
Book 270, 1981.
3.
Pantz, J. 'Recovery of Energy from Arc Furnaces', Elektrowrme

International, Vol. 37, No. B2, April 1979, pp 86-92.
4.
Fernandez Lopez, M. et al, 'Uses of Arc Furnace Fume Energy',

Cenim Revista de Metalurgia, 15, (1), 1979, January/February,
pp 43-56.
5.
Smithson, D.J., 'Remote Monitoring of the Properties of

Untreated Effluent Gas from Oxygen Steelmaking Processes',
British Steel Corporation, ECSC Sponsored Research Project
6254.07/8/254.
6.
Page, R.A., 'Remote Monitoring of the Properties of the Waste

Gases from Steelmaking Processes', British Steel Corporation,
ECSC Sponsored Research Project 7257.03/351/08.
7.
Isenberg O'Laughling, J., EF Update '82 'Bearing Down on

Melting Costs', Metal Producing, November 1982, pp 45-56.
8.
Schermer, K., 'Reduction of Power and Consumption in Arc

Furnace Melting by Utilising the Exhaust Gas to Preheat Scrap',
Elektrowrme International, 'June 1981 (3), pp B138-B-142.
9.
Forestier, G. and Vervacke, J., 'NKK Process for Preheating

Scrap in the Arc Furnace', Revue de Metallurgie CIT, April 1983,
80 (4), pp 293-301.
10.
Watanabe, H. et al, 'Scrap Preheating for Electric Arc Furnace'

Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1983, 60, (4), pp 45-50.
11.
Prach, R.H., Leu, H.W. and Neumann, F., 'The BBC/Brusa Process
A Contribution to Economical Production of Arc Furnace Steel',
Brown-Boveri, Rev. 1/2 - 75.
12.
Fedele Dell' Oste, E., Galluzzo, S. and Garzitto, V.,

'Heat Recovery from an Electric Arc Furnace for Scrap
Preheating', 1st European Electric Steel Congress,
12-14 September, 1984, Aachen.
13.
Dening, W., Klein, K.H., Paul, G. and Schindler, J.,

'Scrap Preheating at Badische Stahlwerke', ibid.
14.
Hill, B. and Marshall, P., 'The Application of Scrap

Preheating to Electric Arc Furnace Practice', ibid.
15.
Ameling, D., Strunck, F.J. and Wolf, J., 'Energieruckgewinnung

bei Lichtbogenofen mit Hilfe eines kombinierten Heikuhlsystems',
ibid.
16.
Bramfoot, S., Dixon, J., Martin, J.R. and Page, P.A., 'The
Feasibility of Using Waste Heat Boiler to Recover Energy from
the Exhaust Gases of Electric Arc Furnaces', Energy
Conservation in Industry Conference, Dusseldorf, 1984.
9.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank staff of BSC Special Steels, Senior Green Ltd. and NEI-APE
Ltd. for assistance and advice given during this project.
AP/BL
10
TABLE 1
APPROXIMATE CONCENTRATIONS OF THE

MAIN CONSTITUENTS OF ELECTRIC
ARC FURNACE FUME
(PARTICLE SIZE 0.03-1 inn)
Concentration, %
TABLE 2
Sample 3
Sample 1
Sample 2
Fe 2 0 3
37
46
Fe 3 0 4
10
A1 2 0 3
CaO
16
17
MgO
MnO
ZnO
14
PbO
50
STEAM DEMAND FOR ELECTRIC ARC WORKS

Works
A
Base load, t/h
15
32
2.7
37
Maximum load, t/h
38
55
45
Pressure, bar
11
10-12
Temperature, C
Existing capacity, t/h
205
210
48
110.7
11
16
7-14.5
205
165-200
14
53.5
TABLE 3
WASTE GAS TEMPERATURE AND FLOW FOR A TYPICAL CAST

Gas Temperature
OC
Time into Cast

min
Mass Gas Flow

kg/h
0-20
111 130
33.6
525
20-25
30.78
32.0
725
25-30
93 890
92 250
30-35
73 930
26.2
1050
1250
Gas Molecular Weight
750
35-40
69 400
27.5
40-45
84 820
31.77
900
45-50
102 060
30.4
500
50-55
Scrap charging period.

Gas temperature too low for heat recovery
129 275
375
38.5
55-60
60-65
65-90
115 670
35.26
500
85 275
28.66
725
90-140
127 000
32.65
325
TABLE 4
PERFORMANCE OF BOILER - BASE LOAD CASE
Time into Cast

min
Gas Flow
kg/h
Average Steam
Production
kg/h
Gas Inlet
Temperature
0-20
111 130
3 825
525
20-25
25-30
93 890
92 250
5 910
725
750
30-35
35-40
73 930
69 400
11 755
40-45
84 820
7 865
45-50
102 060
3 230
50-55
55-60
129 275
0
1 850
375
60-65
115 670
3 550
500
85 275
5 485
725
127 000
1 040
325
65-90
90-140
6 145
9 120
1050
1250
900
500
200*
Boiler on By-pass
TABLE 5
COST BALANCE
BASE LOAD
k
Costs
Supply and installation
of boiler
150
Modifications to
melting shop
334
Savings
Value of steam
Running Costs
Reduced efficiency of
main boilers
Maintenance and fixed
costs
484
k/annum
187
-3
-15
169
Simple payback period

= 2.86 years
Rate of return on investment = 32.9%
12
PERFORMANCE OF BOILER INTERMEDIATE CASE
TABLE 6
Time into Cast

min
020
2025
2530
3035
3540
4045
4550
5055
5560
6065
6590
90140
Average Steam
Production
kg/h
Gas Flow
kg/h
111
93
92
73
69
84
102
130
890
250
930
400
820
060
10
15
15
21
28
16
7
129
115
85
127
275
670
275
000
5
9
12
4
Gas Inlet
Temperature
C
000
000
455
364
077
591
955
0
455
545
273
545
525
725
750
1050
1250
900
500
200*
375
500
725
325
* Boiler on Bypass
TABLE 7
COST BALANCE
Costs
INTERMEDIATE CASE
Savings

of boiler
300
Modifications to
melting shop
433
Value of steam
Running Costs
Reduced efficiency of
main boilers
costs
733
Ek/annum
418
7
15
396

1.85 years
13
TABLE 8
PERFORMANCE OF BOILER - MAXIMUM DEMAND
Time into Cast

min
0-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-90
90-140
Average Steam
Production
kg/h
Gas Flow
kg/h
111
93
92
73
69
84
102
130
890
250
930
400
820
060
23
28
29
37
43
30
17
129
115
85
127
275
670
275
000
16
22
24
14
Gas Inlet
Temperature
OC
636
636
091
273
182
682
727
0
364
273
091
545
525
725
750
1050
1250
900
500
200*
375
500
725
325
Boiler on By-pass
TABLE 9
COST BALANCE
MAXIMUM DEMAND SATISFIED

Savings
Costs
of boiler
550
Modifications to
melting shop
516
k/annum
Value of steam
653
Running Costs
Reduced efficie ncy of
main boilers
costs
-17
1066
-15
621

= 1.72 year!
14
TABLE 10
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE - LARGE BOILER PRODUCING FOP ELECTRICAL GENERATION ONLY
Time into Cast

min
0-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-90
90-140
TABLE 11
0-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-90
90-140
0-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-90
90-140
130
890
250
930
400
820
060
23
28
29
37
43
30
17
636
636
091
273
182
682
727
129
115
85
127
275
670
275
000
16
22
24
14
364
273
091
545
94
140
767
783
Gas Flow
kg/h
Average
Steam
Production
kg/h
Surplus
Available for
Generation
kg/h
111
93
92
73
69
84
102
130
890
250
930
400
820
060
23
28
29
37
43
30
17
636
636
091
273
182
682
727
14
19
19
27
33
21
8
129
115
85
127
275
670
275
000
16
22
24
14
364
273
091
545
6
12
14
5
at Turbine
kN/m2
140
1480
140
2000
590
2060
800
2920
700
3560
182
2200
300
860
Boiler on By-pass
864
720
770
1340
590
1530
050
520
Rate of
Electrical
Power
Production
kW
880
1380
1440
2180
2780
1560
330
Total
Electrical
Power
Production
kW h
293
115
120
182
232
130
27.5
220
730
930
100
18.3
60.8
388
83
Gas Flow
kg/h
Average Steam
Production
kg/h
111
93
92
73
69
84
102
130
890
250
930
400
820
060
7
10
11
15
20
13
6
170
735
120
910
175
955
100
129
115
85
127
275
670
275
000
3
6
9
2
790
695
870
405
Rate of
Electrical Power
Produced
kW
1500
380
2245
720
2330
750
3320
1160
4200
1540
2920
1000
1280
300
Boiler on By -pass
800
120
1400
350
2060
640
520
40
Total
Electrical Power
Produced
kW h
Steam Pressure
at Turbine
kN/m2
127
60
62
97
128
83
25
10
30
266
33
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE - SMALL BOILER SATISFYING BASE LOAD,

TURBINE USING SURPLUS STEAM
Time into Cast

min
0-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-90
90-140
111
93
92
73
69
84
102
Total
Electrical Power
Produced
kw h
1500
190
192
258
267
205
105
Rate of
Electrical Power
Produced
kW
2480
1800
3000
2280
3040
2300
3910
3100
4100
3200
3210
2460
1860
1260
Boiler on By -pass
1730
1130
2340
1680
2520
1840
1540
940
Steam Pressure
at Turbine
kN/m2
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE - SMALL BOILER PRODUCING FOR ELECTRICAL GENERATION ONLY
Time into Cast

min
TABLE 13
Average Steam
Production
kg/h
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE - LARGE BOILER SATISFYING BASE LOAD,

TURBINE USING SURPLUS STEAM
Time into Cast

min
TABLE 12
Gas Flow
kg/h
Gas Flow
kg/h
Average
Steam
Production
kg/h
111
93
92
73
69
84
102
130
890
250
930
400
820
060
7
10
11
15
20
13
6
170
735
120
910
175
955
100
129
115
85
127
275
670
275
000
3
6
9
2
790
695
870
405
Surplus
Available for
Generation
kg/h
1
1
6
10
4
235
620
410
675
455
Steam Pressure
at Turbine
kN/m2
280
360
1360
2240
940
Boiler on By-pass
370
15
_
-
Rate of
Electrical
Power
Production
kW
Total
Electrical
Power
Production
kW h
0
20
340
720
180
0
1.7
28.3
60
15
_
_
_
-
_
_
-
TABLE 14
COST BALANCE
LARGE BOILER PRODUCING FOR ELECTRICAL GENFRATION ONLY
Costs
Boiler
of boiler
550
Savings
ek
Value of steam
Maintenance and
fixed costs
Modifications to
melting shop
k/annum
Ek/annum
0
15
516
1066
Turbo Alternator
of turbine
15
1066
235
Provision of ancillaries,
pumps, building,
electrical connection,
etc.
Value of
electricity
183.4
Maintenance and
fixed costs
15
15
117.5
352.5
352.5
168.4
1418.5
168.4
153.4

9.25 years
TABLE 15
COST BALANCE LARGE BOILER SATISFYING BASE LOAD, SURPLUS GENERATING

Costs
Boiler
of boiler
Savings
k/annum
Value of steam
492.5
Reduced efficiency
of main boilers
17
Maintenance and
fixed costs
15
Ek/annum
550
Modifications to
melting shop
516
1066
Turbo Alternator
of turbine
460.5
1066
Value of
electricity
235
pumps, building,
etc.
Maintenance and
fixed costs
460.5
84
15
117.5
352.5
352.5
69
69
529.5
1418.5
Overall simple payback period
Overall rate of return on investment
Marginal payback on generation
Rate of return of investment on generation
16
2.68 years
35.5%
5.11 years
14.5%
TABLE 16
COST BALANCE - SMALL BOILER PRODUCING FOR ELECTRICAL GENERATION ONLY

Costs
Savings
Boiler
of boiler
250
Modifications to
melting shop
350
Value of steam
Maintenance and
fixed costs
600
Turbo Alternator
of turbine
Value of
electricity
Maintenance and
fixed costs
Ek/nnu
0
-15
-15
600
102
pumps, building,
etc.
Ek/annum
-15
46.9
-10
71.5
173.5
36.9
173.5
36.9
21.9
773.5
Simple payback period 3 5.3 years
Rate of return on investment negligible
TABLE 17
COST BALANCE - SMALL BOILER SATISFYING BASE LOAD, SURPLUS GENERATING

Costs
Boiler
of boiler
250
Modifications to
melting shop
Savings
Value of steam
Reduced efficiency
of main boilers
350
600
Turbo Alternator
of turbine
Maintenance and
fixed costs
Value of
electricity
Maintenance and
fixed costs
Ek/annum
315.5
-6
-15
294.5
600
102
pumps, building,
etc.
Ek/annum
294.5
5.5
-10
71.5
173.5
173.5
-4.5
773.5
-4.5
290
Overall simple payback period

2.67 years
Overall rate of return on investment = 35.7%
No marginal payback or return on investment for generation
17
CO concentration
% /
100
80
60
40
20
0
% v/v
40 \
r50
Elbow, CO,
Elbow, CO
. 40
r 30
concentration
% v/v
20
<MX^
10
0
Elbow O 2
30
20
10
Flow, m 3 / s
stp dry
CO,
40 \
30
f\
\-
Roof duct
After combustion
XX
>
20
10 J
0
Temperature,
C
1000 .
750 .
Tap No.
40
20
250 1
HO
400
% V/V
30
500 -i
0
Temperature,
C
50 H 2 0 concentration
, roof duct
Temp, after combustion
Heat flow roof duct

Temp, roof duct
40 Heat flow, MW
300
30
200
20
100
0
10
Oxygen lancing r a t e ^
o x y g e n lancing
rate, m3/s
l
1.2
0.8
8 -I
2
0 L.
0
20
40
60
80
Time from power o n , min
100
WASTE GAS CONDITIONS 180 t FURNACE
li n
0.4
120
FIG. 1
lp
140
Sample
ir.
\[
Melt
I Tapi
Refine
Melt
--oLC
Oxygen lance r a t e , m 3 / s
40
Waste gas
heat, MW
0.94
0.16
j.
40
60
Mean 14.5 MW
Two basket charge
20
Variable
80
100
120
Furnace time, min
140
160
FIG. 2
(R1/6232)
TYPICAL WASTE HEAT REJECTION CYCLE 180 t FURNACE

O
Sample
J [_
Melt
CL
Refine
| T a p JFettle
| Delays 3.2 min
03
Oxygen lance r a t e , m 3 / s
Waste gas
heat, MW
0.47
40 r
Variable
0.97
Mean 15.5 MW
One basket charge + continuous feed
30
^-V^__
20
f*-""""
^ ^
~*-^^
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Furnace time, min
140
180 t FURNACE
TYPICAL WASTE HEAT REJECTION CYCLE
WITH CONTINUOUS FEEDING
160
FIG. 3
(R1/6233)
To fume
cleaning
fume
Roof
extraction
hood
Spray
conditioning <
tower
Slice or air
infiltration
gaf
Fume elbow
Combustion
|chamber
\_.
Arc
'furnace
Possible
boiler sites
GENERAL LAYOUT OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

AND ASSOCIATED WASTE GAS DUCTING
POSSIBLE BOILER SITES
21
FIG. A
(R2/873)
Combusted gas
temperature, C
1000
Combusted gas temperature

Heat flow
Heat flow, MW
,-50
500 -
-2 5
Normalised combusted
gas flow, m-'/s stp
100 -,
50 -
Elbow flow, m-Vs stp

20
10
Carbon removal
rate, kg/s
r-2
Elbow flow
Carbon removal rate
^ V W\r- . . - t y M / l
"
20
40
60
80
Time,
100
min
120
140
160
WASTE GAS CONDITIONS FOR 180 t FURNACE WITH MODIFIED EXTRACTION SYSTEM
180
FIG. 5
(R2/873B)
Continued.
Transformer
Tap No.
10 -
Elbow CO
concentration
% v/v
1- 20
Elbow CO2
concentration
% v/v
40
20-
- 10
Elbow O2
concentration
% v/v
40
80
100
Time, min
180
FIG. 5
(R2/873B)
-< Copper - copper-nickel

thermocouple
Platinum - 13% rhodium/platinum

Thermocouple
SECTION THROUGH THE PROBE
FIG. 6
(R1/7609)
tf&&$? f*?.- *.
~:^x---^W^^m^^'^
Upstream
(a)
Top
(b)
(c)
Downstream
DEPOSIT ON TEST PROBE
25
FIG. 7
Heat flux, kW/m2

180
16
o
Symbols refer
to different
measurement periods
140
120
100
A
9
80
A
*
60
"od*
%
40
*
<*kT
20
200
400
600
800
Gas temperature, "C
1000
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
26
12*
FIG. 8
(R1/9708)
Precipitator
efficiency, %
100
99.5
99
98.5
98
97.5
97
4
12
16
20
24
I
28
Water vapour concentration, %

EFFECT OF WATER VAPOUR ON
PRECIPITATOR EFFICIENCY
27
FIG. 9
(R1/7608)
.Mid-week
Process steam demand, kg/h
25 OOOr
Weekend
20 000-
15 000-
N)
00
10 000-
5 000One boiler - minimum fire
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
JL
June
_L
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MONTHLY VARIATION IN STEAM DEMAND FOR WORKS A
Nov
Dec
FIG. 10
(R2/873A)
All dimensions in mm
3800
Water/steam
riser tubes
Steam
drum
6700
Membraned
wall tube
enclosure
o oo
2000
Dust
removal
hoppers
Tube nest comprises

50.8 mm OD plain tubes
at 100 mm by 100 mm
line centres
-o-o-o
Membraned division
wall to form two
gas passes
Tube bank
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF BOILER
20
FIG. 11
(R1/8615)
APPENDIX 1
Al.l
WASTE GAS MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENTS MADE
In order to assess fully the conditions in the waste gas extraction system of
an electric arc furnace the following measurements were required.
1.
Furnace Offtake
(a)
Oxygen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide concentrations.
(b)
Methane and hydrogen concentrations.
2.
After Combustion
(a)
Gas velocity and volume flow rate.
(b)
Gas temperature.
(c)
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide concentrations.
From the measured data the following waste gas parameters were calculated:(a)
Carbon removal rate from the furnace.
(b)
Waste gas flow and temperature in the furnace elbow.
(c)
The waste gas heat flows after combustion.
Figure Al.l is a schematic diagram showing the positions where measurements

were made.
Al.2
TECHNIQUES
Al.2.1
Gas Analysis
A gas sample was extracted by a peristaltic pump through a water cooled sample
probe inserted into the waste gas stream. The sample was cleaned and dried,
and analysed for carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide using LIRA 303 infra-red
analysers. A Taylor Servomex paramagnetic analyser was employed for the oxygen
analysis of the furnace offtake gas sample.
The water vapour concentration was measured with an on-line infra-red analyser
which obtains the analysis without sampling the waste gas. A narrow spectral
band of radiation, corresponding to a water vapour absorption band, is
transmitted across the ducting. The attenuation of the transmitted signal
resulting from the presence of water vapour is established, and then from a
knowledge of the waste gas temperature and the measurement path length
employed, the water vapour concentrations can be computed.
Al.2.2
Temperature
Waste gas temperatures were monitored using a 3 mm diameter chromel alumel

mineral insulated thermocouple supported by either the associated gas sampling
probe or a length of metal tubing.
Al.2.3
Flow
The technique employed to measure flow was infra-red cross correlation flow
analysis. The method resembles flow measurement with chemical, dye or
radioactive tracers between two measuring points a known distance apart.
However, instead of an artificial tracer being added the naturally occurring
fluctuations of the physical parameters of the gas stream are used as the
tracer. Hence, the basis of the technique is simple, consisting of measuring
the time taken for a characterisitic disturbance within a flow stream to travel
between two points of observation of known spacing. With a knowledge of this
transit time it is a simple calculation to determine the waste gas velocity and
hence flow.
30
APPENDIX 2
NEW OFFTAKE ELBOW
A2.1
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A2.1.1
General
The redesign of the elbow had the following aims:(a)
Improved combustion within the furnace by more precise

control of furnace pressure.
(b)
The maximum rate of extraction must allow the capture of all

of the gases evolved during steelmaking.
(c)
Control of the extraction rate to avoid the inspiration of

excessive amounts of air, and hence reduction in waste gas
temperature, during periods of low emission.
A2.1.2
Fume Offtake Elbow and Slice Gap Geometry
The extraction systems discussed in the feasibility study have a common feature
in the fume offtake elbow and associated slice gap and combustion chamber entry
port. The entry port is a large oval orifice which is necessary to allow fume
capture from the elbow during periods when the furnace is tilted for slagging
whilst oxygen lancing is still in progress.
On several furnaces a large water cooled oval flange is fitted to the slice gap
end of the fume offtake elbow. The purpose of this oval flange is to limit the
amount of air infiltrated at the slice gap in order to allow adequate
draughting from within the furnace. The layout of a typical arc furnace
extraction system is shown in Fig. A2.1.
A2.1.3
Design Parameters of the Existing System
The design was intended to cope with maximum oxygen lancing rates of 1.1 m 3 /s
and the tilting of the furnace 5 either side of its normal position during
oxygen lancing. The slice gap geometry between offtake elbow and combustion
chamber was designed in conjunction with the total extraction volume to provide
adequate furnace pressure control and capture of fume from within the furnace.
The design was also arranged to infiltrate adequate air into the combustion
chamber via the slice gap to combust fully with sufficient excess to reduce the
gas temperature to an acceptable level after mixing.
Air is forced into the combustion chamber to ensure all furnace gas is burned
at peak oxygen lancing rates and so eliminates any danger of explosive mixtures
being formed in the event of an extraction failure.
In addition to the oxygen added to the furnace via the lance, air is
infiltrated via doors and other apertures because of the suction applied to the
furnace. At a lance rate of 1.1 m 3 /s elbow gas compositions of 65% carbon
monoxide and 35% nitrogen are found with elbow gas flows of 4.75 m 3 /s stp. At
this flow and composition the heat contained in the gases is 40 MW of which the
sensible heat is 10 MW when the gas temperature is 1500C.
The temperature of the gases leaving the combustion chamber must be restricted
to 1250C by the use of excess air. Consequently, the flow rate at the exit of
the chamber is 24 m 3 /s stp. The combustion air from the forced draught fan is
7.3 m 3 /s stp, which is the stoichiometric air requirement. The elbow flow is
4.75 m 3 /s stp giving a flow of 13.5 m 3 /s stp through the slice gap.
The fume offtake elbow was 1.0 m inside diameter at the roof end expanding to
1.4 m inside diameter at the flanged end. Previous work has shown that the
slice gap must be no smaller than 130 mm, to enable the roof to swing away from
the combustion chamber during scrap charging, without fouling. However even at
this distance the oval flange must be shaped to ensure the passage is a clear
one. The entry port in the combustion chamber was 1.4 m high by 2.8 m wide,
allowing fume capture during 'tilt and blow periods'. Recently elbows having a
consistent diameter of 1.0 m throughout their length have been fitted to
several furnaces. This has required the reduction of entry port size to
31
maintain furnace extraction.

Fig. A2.2.
The elbow diameters and entry ports are shown in
A2.2
NEW FUME OFFTAKE ELBOW
A2.2.1
General
To provide higher and more stable temperatures in the fully combusted waste gas
presented to a waste heat boiler, it would be advantageous to use an offtake
elbow of greater diameter. There would also be consequent changes to certain
other components of the extraction system. It is also necessary to devise a
means of control of the extraction rate to optimise the temperature of the
gases entering the boiler. The design, construction and testing of a modified
extraction system were undertaken and the following actions carried out:(a)
The elbow was designed within the restrictions placed by

physical features such as the construction of the water cooled
roof of the furnace and the general layout of the furnace
superstructure.
(b)
Isothermal model tests were required to establish the geometry

of the slice gap and entry port and to determine the potential
extraction rate.
(c)
The construction and installation of the modified elbow and

associated roof panel.
(d)
Monitoring of the waste gas temperatures and flow rates and

consideration of a suitable control parameter for the
extraction rate.
(e)
The effects on temperature and flow rate and cycling of

temperature were monitored in detail to demonstrate the
benefits of the changed extraction system to a waste heat
recovery medium.
A2.2.2
Initial Design
In the early stages of the redesign it was considered that a maximum elbow
diameter of 1.4 m would be possible on the furnace. This dimension was largely
governed by the positioning and type of the water cooled roof which was fitted
to the furnace. The roof which exists is of the replaceable panel type and the
existing offtake elbow is fitted to an individual panel which imposes rigid
limits on its size.
It was not considered that a larger elbow could be fitted because a major
redesign of the water cooled roof system would have been necessary, involving a
considerable time delay and excessive cost. It was therefore decided that
modification of the individual panel only was desirable and early indications
suggested that a 1.4 m diameter elbow was indeed possible.
The model tests were carried out on the basis that a 1.4 m elbow could be used;
however at a later stage, after model tests were completed, it became apparent
that a maximum diameter of only 1.3 m could be accommodated within the
structure of the existing roof.
Calculations indicated that this slightly smaller elbow would also give
satisfactory results and it was considered unnecessary to repeat the model
wor k.
A2.3
MODEL STUDIES
A2.3.1
Procedure
Scale models of the elbows and flanges were fabricated in perspex. A

photograph of the model is shown as Fig. A2.3. A combustion chamber size of
3.65 m was modelled with a geometrically scaled oval entry hole. The chamber
was made several times longer than on plant, and with no combustion air ports
or right angled offtake.
32
This approach was adopted in order to simplify the construction of the models
and in no way affects the results obtained, because the combustion chamber
length and combustion air ports have no effect on the slice gap geometry as
they are well downstream.
The offtake elbow was attached to a chamber representing the furnace and the
slice gap was set to 130 mm, the minimum distance allowable for operational
reasons.
The pressure-flow characteristic across the elbow was determined before the
furnace elbow was installed on the overall model. With the elbow flow and
slice gap held constant at 130 mm, the extraction volume required to reduce
furnace pressure to zero was measured. This was carried out for a range of
elbow and entry port combinations.
A2.3.2
Tests
The offtake elbows and entry port combinations are listed below, entry port
geometries are detailed on Fig. 2.2.
Test 1
Original entry port (Fig. A2.2(a)), original cranked elbow.
Test 2
Original entry port (Fig. A2.2(a)), existing 1.0 m elbow.
Test 3
Reduced size of entry port (Fig. A2.2(b)), existing 1.0 m elbow.
Test 4
Original entry port (Fig. A2.2(b)), 1.4 m elbow.
Test 5
Reduced size of entry port (Fig. A2.2(c)), 1.4 m elbow.
Test 6
Existing entry port (Fig. A2.2(d)), existing 1.0 m elbow.
Test 7
Original entry port (Fig. A2.2(a)), 1.3 m elbow.
A2.3.3
Results
Using the similarity theory shown in Appendix 3 the relationships between elbow
gas temperature and the ratio of slice gap air flow to total entry port flow
are plotted on Fig. A2.4. The relationships between slice gap air flow and
combustion chamber suction are shown in Fig. A2.5.
The results of the model tests were then used to forecast the conditions which
will exist with a 1.3 m elbow using the original entry port design, i.e. one
diameter high by 2 diameters wide.
For any specific geometry the elbow gas flow is dependent on the elbow gas
temperature and the slice air flow. For convenience the suction level in the
combustion chamber can also be related to the slice air flow. The predictions
contained in Table A2.1 for Tests 1 to 6 are based on model tests and the
predictions for Test 7 are based on interpolation of the results.
The nomenclature and assumptions used in the similarity theory and for the
calculations are included along with the similarity theory in Appendix 3.
A2.3.4
Implications
The predicted performance of the various geometries is shown graphically in

Figs. A2.4 and A2.5. The elbow flow is a minimum at maximum temperature and a
value of 1800C can be used for comparison purposes.
The original design achieved a total3 extraction flow of 24-m3/s stp with a
forced combustion
air flow of 7.5 m /s stp giving an available flow through the
slice of 16.5 m3/s stp.
Removal of the forced combustion air could raise the
slice air flow to 24 m3/s stp however.3 It has been suggested that the present
value of total extraction flow is 20 m /s stp giving slice air flows of 12.5
and 20 m3/s stp. The predictions for the above conditions, for elbow gas flows
and chamber suction levels are shown in Table A2.2.
33
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
ELBOW GAS FLOW (Q ) ,
SLICE AIR FLOW (Qf),
TEMPERATURE (T)
AND CHAMBER SUCTION
LEVEL (S)
TABLE A2.1
s,
a's t p
Test
m3/s
N/ro2
1.00
Qa2
0 . 1 0 7 / T g Qg
0.84
Qa2
0.091 /T
1.35
Qa2
0.0509 / T
1.02
Qa2
Q
g g
0.0447 /T Q
1.47
Qa2
0.0784 /T
2.29
Q2
0.97
O2
0.083 /T
Q
g g
0.059 /T Q
TABLE A2.2
PREDICTED ELBOW GAS FLOWS (Q ) AND CHAMBER SUCTION

9
LEVELS (ST
T o t a l Flow E n t e r i n g Combustion Chamber
m3/s stp
Test
12.5
3/V
nr/s^stp
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2.65
2.15
2.4
3.75
4.15
2.75
3.4
S,
N/m 2
100
90
140
80
100
220
80
16.5
3 '
nr/s^stp
3.45
2.8
3.2
5.0
5.45
3.6
4.45
S,
N/m 2
170
160
240
140
180
380
140
34
20
Q
g'
nr/s^stp
3/
4.2
3.4
3.85
6.0
6.6
4.4
5.4
S
',
N/m 2
250
230
350
200
260
560
210
24
m3/systp
N/m 2
5.05
4.1
4.65
7.2
7.9
5.25
6.5
360
330
510
290
380
800
300
Electric arc furnace
.Fume offtake elbow

Large oval flange
Large oval entry port
Position
Conditioning
tower
Ti
Gas analysis (CO,

C0 2 , 02)
Position T,
Gas analysis (CO, CO,, 0,)
Temperature
MEASUREMENT POSITIONS
35
FIG. A2.1
(R1/9709)
Scale 2.0 m
(a)
Original entry port for cranked elbow
(b)
Reduced entry port for 1.0 m ID elbow
'
1
I
-'*(c)
Reduced entry port for 1.4 m ID elbow
(d)
ENTRY PORT AND ELBOW DIAMETER COMBINATIONS
- - '
Entry port now in use
FIG. A2.2
(R1/8613)
CENERAI. VIEW OF TUK MODEL
FIG. A2.3
, c
GRAPH OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Q g : Q P AND ELBOW GAS TEMPERATURE,
Q a , m 3 /s stp
22
FIG. A2.4
14
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
100
200
300
S, N/m 2
400
500
600
GRAPH SHOWING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHAMBER SUCTION LEVEL, S

AND SLICE AIR FLOW, Q-,
38
FIG. A2.5
(R1/8614)
APPENDIX 3
M ODEL SIM ILARITY THEORY
Geometrie models of the elbow and combustion chamber were fabricated in perspex
and operated isothermally. In using isothermal modelling to study a
non-isothermal system certain similarity criteria must be satisfied. The
geometric similarity is satisfied and the ratio of flow through the elbow to
that passing into the slice gap is distorted to provide a momentum flux ratio
in the model similar to that in the plant. In satifying the geometric and
momentum flux similarity the pressure drop across any part of the plant is
satisfied automatically in terms of velocity heads.
MOMENTUM FLUX SIM ILARITY

Let
subscripts
V
Q
A
T
h
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
momentum flux, N
actual velocity, m/s
flow rate, m 3 /s stp
cross sectional area, m2
absolute temperature, K
pressure drop, N/m 2
gas density, kg/m3 stp
theoretical mean velocity head, N/m 2
pressure drop coefficient (equal on model and plant)
scale factor, model:plant
g
a
e
c
t
o
m
=
=
=
=
=
=
elbow gas
slice air
total flow at entry port
forced combustion air
extraction flow leaving chamber
stp condition
model
plant
US = ^2E
M
am
(1)
ap
M = Ô AV2
T
->? h
substituting
p
(2) into (1) gives

T
A T
gm gm
gm
am o
A T
P Q 2 T
K
gm o
am v am
am
assuming that p__ = __
gp
ap
2
ap
Q 2
v
gp
(2)
gp
gp
gp
A T
gp o
A T
ap o
p Q z T
H
ap w a p
ap
am
Q
w
gm
(3)
gp
T
ap
ELBOW PRESSURE DROP

The pressure drop across the elbow in the model is related to that in the plant
through the equations
h = 0.5 pV 2
... (4)
39
assuming the elbow gas density (stp) in the plant to be similar to air
h = 0.5 1.29 ^ S _
T
o A g2
... (5)
with geometric similarity

p
gp=pgm
<6>
aR
gm
S u b s t i t u t i n g (5) i n t o (6) , w i t h an elbow gas t e m p e r a t u r e on p l a n t and a

gp'
model a i r t e m p e r a t u r e of 15C g i v e s :
23L.
2
P g p = PgmZE
288
**
...
(7)
CHAMBER SUCTION
Assume uniform velocity head at the entry port, no gas mixing and let the area
of the entry port occupied by the infiltration air be A .
h
ep
' 5 p gp ^2
T
from (8)
(9)
^gp
ap
from
fA
m
' o
... (8)
= 5 e a m I S H
T
o A xm
<9>
xp'
xp
l
ft
' em
xm'
am
- A l
* ep
fl
gm
A
m
?S
em ~ Axm>
(A
ap
gp
< ep xp'
em = 5 p gm ^ 2 "
T
o
.5 p a p â â_
?2P
A
xm
from equation (3)

A
fl
xp
<Aep A xp> 2
A 2
_xm_2
A xp
A 2
xm
<Aem " A xm ) 2
fl
m ^
(10)
and geometrie similarity is retained at the entry port.
h
Q 2
_iU2 = _*E , ap_

_ap
am
ham vQam2
Tam
_
40
(11)
but , the pressure drop for the slice air, is relative to an ambient pressure
of zero and is therefore equivalent to the chamber suction level, S.
Since T__
ap = am :Q
K = S m -S... (12)
m
2
v
am
The similarity theory and equations derived in this Appendix use the following
assumptions:1.
Elbow gas density is similar to that of air.
2.
Ambient air temperature is 15C.
3.
Volumetric change (stp) due to loss of oxygen during combustion is

insignificant,
hence Q g + Qfl = Q e and Q e + Q c Qfc.
4.
The only source of air ingress into the chamber is the entry port and
forced air ports where relevant.
5.
Furnace pressure at roof level is zero.
6.
Compared with elbow pressure drop, buoyancy due to elbow height is

negligible.
41
APPENDIX 4
A4.1
PERFORMANCE OF THE EXTRACTION SYSTEM WITH ENLARGED ELBOW
ADVANTAGES OF IMPROVED FURNACE EXTRACTION
The original operation of the electric arc furnace extraction system under
trial with its smaller 1.0 m offtake elbow used a series of selected extraction
rates chosen by the furnace operative for any given stage of the cast. These
pre-set extraction rates have been chosen as a result of considerable
experience of the process and the existing limitations of the extraction
system, and are the optimum settings under these circumstances. It must be
remembered, however, that the arc furnace process is extremely variable and
generates gases and fume at widely different rates. Any attempt to guarantee
the capture of all this fume and gases at a particular stage in the cast, using
preset extraction rates, will tend to lead to over-extraction at periods of low
emission. Consequently, larger quantities of sensible heat are removed from
the furnace than is absolutely necessary.
During the oxygen lancing period, large quantities of carbon monoxide are
removed from the furnace and burnt in the combustion chamber. It has been
shown that if greater extraction rates could be achieved through the elbow
during the lancing period, air indrawn into the furnace at the greater rates
would burn the combustibles more completely thus reducing heat flow in the
waste gases. Previous work demonstrated that as elbow flows are increased the
temperature and consequently heat flow of the waste gases leaving the furnace
are reduced, Fig. A4.1. This graph is a family of curves relating the rate of
waste gas flow through the extraction elbow to heat content for a series of
rates of carbon removal from the bath.
It can be seen that the heat flux passes through a minimum value as the elbow
flow increases. This condition occurs when the combustion in the furnace is at
its most efficient. By enlarging the offtake elbow several benefits are
gained. These include better control of the extraction system to ensure total
fume capture and improved furnace efficiency by allowing greater volumes of
oxygen to be indrawn. This allows the release of more potential heat into the
furnace charge by burning the carbon monoxide and other combustibles present.
The resultant waste gas condition profiles should be more suitable for waste
heat recovery in that temperatures in the non-lancing periods are higher than
before as the ratio of elbow gas to slice air is higher. During the lancing
periods better extraction allows the temperature of the gases to be more
constant without the large peaks generated previously by burning high
concentrations of carbon monoxide in the combustion chamber.
It should be possible to optimise the extraction rates by monitoring the
effectiveness of fume capture and waste gas composition, particularly at the
elbow. The extraction rates would be reduced in non-lancing periods to just
contain fume escape. This measure improves elbow gas to slice air ratio even
further and thus elevates temperature levels at the entry to a heat recovery
system. In the lancing periods the concentrations of carbon monoxide and
oxygen levels in the elbow gases can indicate whether the extraction rate is
adequate. When a large sustained concentration of carbon monoxide accompanied
by zero oxygen concentration is present in the elbow gas, the extraction flow
should be increased in an attempt to reduce the carbon monoxide level to zero.
These measures were tried successfully within the limitations of the extraction
system.
A4.2
PLANT TRIAL RESULTS
Plant trials were carried out with the new larger offtake elbow fitted to a
180 t electric arc furnace in order to determine whether the benefits described
in Section 4.1 could be achieved in practice. Waste gas measurements were made
using the techniques described in Appendix 1 with the exception that methane,
hydrogen and water concentrations were not measured in this case. Measurements
were made over casts during which attempts were made to adjust the extraction
rates based on observations of the effectiveness of fume capture and the
composition of the waste gas.
The modified system with larger offtake has indeed produced a greater range of
42
elbow gas flow rates and the elbow flows have increased in line with the
flows predicted by the model tests. A comparison of the elbow flow rates of
the original and new offtake systems are shown in Figs. A4.2 and A4.3.
The increased range of flow rates through the elbow has resulted in more
complete fume capture and consequent capture of waste heat which previously
escaped and a general increase in waste gas temperature levels as predicted.
A direct comparison between old and new system heat flows in the early part of
the cast was not possible as changes in the steelmaking practice implemented
since the original trials have limited the oxygen infiltrated to the furnace.
Lancing is now carried out mainly at high levels and for much shorter periods
than previously. Hence, any comparison must be made in periods when the
current practice is similar to previous furnace operation. It is still
possible however, to conclude that the new offtake has produced a more
acceptable heat flow pattern in this period of the cast.
The levels of heat flow and temperature have been reduced in the lancing period
and more efficient furnace operation has resulted. The heat flow and
temperatures produced are now much smoother than previously as is indicated by
close inspection of Figs. 1 and 5.
The attempts to balance the extraction rate to contain fume capture whilst
burning combustibles as fully as possible during the lancing period were
inconclusive because the periods of carbon monoxide emission were brief and the
relatively small changes in temperature and heat flow are masked by the overall
variation. It was, however, noticed that whenever the extraction flow was
increased during periods of high carbon monoxide levels, a reduction in
concentration occurred indicating that the changes were affecting the
combustion of carbon monoxide in the furnace.
From the results it is possible to speculate that more precise control of the
furnace extraction system could be achieved by using certain of the parameters
for control. By monitoring carbon flow and fume escape via a technique such as
an obscuration meter, automatic control of the extraction system to give the
benefits discussed could be attempted.
The advantages to the waste heat boiler are apparent as maximised temperatures
and smoother heat flows are produced, in addition to which furnace operation is
more efficient. It is possible also that overall extraction rates may be
lowered thus providing a saving in electrical costs in running the fans.
43
Heat flow, MW
32
28 -
24
20
16
.8 kg/s)
(0.7 kg/s)
12
(Carbon flow 0.6 kg/s)

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Elbow flow, m 3 /s stp
7.0
GRAPH SHOWING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

'ELBOW FLOW AND HEAT FLOW FOR A
SERIES OF CARBON REMOVAL RATES
44
8.0
FIG. A4.1
(R2/873C)
Elbow flow
m3/s stp
1086"
4-
^rl
-/ v-^
2i
lo"
Time, min
80
Too"
GRAPH OF ELBOW FLOW FOR ORIGINAL EXTRACTION SYSTEM
Elbow flow
m3/s stp
10
8-
120
FIG. A4.2
642"
20
r80
1
T
TT
100
60
Time, min
GRAPH OF ELBOW FLOW FOR MODIFIED EXTRACTION SYSTEM
40
To
FIG. A4.3
(R2/873D)
CDNA09850ENC

Design of Waste Heat Boiler

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Design of Waste Heat Boiler

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Commission of the European Communities

DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT BOILERS

Blow-up from microfiche original

Commission of the European Communities

DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT BOILERS

Contract No. EE-B-2-160-UK(N)

Research financed by the Commission of the European Communities

Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development

ECSCEEG EAEC Brussels - Luxembourg, 1985

British Steel Corporation

THE WASTE GASES OF THE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

WASTE HEAT UTILISATION

PRACTICAL ASPECTS INVOLVED IN THE USE OF A

Control of Inlet Gas Temperature

Increased Steam Usage

Approximate Concentrations of the Main Constituents of

Steam Demand for Electric Arc Works

Waste Gas Temperature and Flow for a Typical Cast

Performance of Boiler - Base Load Case

Cost Balance - Base Load

Performance of Boiler - Intermediate Case

Cost Balance - Intermediate Case

Performance of Boiler - Maximum Demand

Cost Balance - Maximum Demand Satisfied

Steam Turbine Performance - Large Boiler Satisfying

Steam Turbine Performance - Small Boiler Producing for

Steam Turbine Performance - Small Boiler Satisfying

Cost Balance - Large Boiler Producing for

Cost Balance - Large Boiler Satisfying Base Load,

Cost Balance - Small Boiler Producing for Electrical

Cost Balance - Small Boiler Satifying Base Load,

Waste Gas Measurements

New Offtake Elbow

Model Similarity Theory

Performance of the Extraction System with Enlarged Elbow

LIST OF APPENDICES TABLES

Relationships Between Elbow Gas Flow (Q ) , Slice Air Flow (Q ) ,

Predicted Elbow Gas Flows (Q ) and Chamber Suction Levels (S)

Waste gas conditions - 180 t furnace

Typical waste heat rejection cycle - 180 t furnace

Typical waste heat rejection cycle - 180 t furnace

Section through the probe

Deposit on test probe

Heat transfer coefficients

Effect of water vapour on precipitator efficiency

Diagram showing the monthly variation in steam demand for Works A

General arrangement of boiler

LIST OF APPENDICES FIGURES

Entry port and elbow diameter combinations

General view of the model

Graph of relationship between Q:Qe and elbow gas temperature, T

Graph showing relationship between chamber suction level, S

Graph of elbow flow for modified extraction system

LES EFFLUENTS GAZEUX DU FOUR A ARC ELECTRIQUE

UTILISATION DE LA CHALEUR PERDUE

LES ASPECTS PRATIQUES DE L'UTILISATION D'UNE

Considrations d'ordre gnral

5.1 Demande en vapeur

5.4 Gnration d'lectricit

LISTE DES TABLEAUX

Concentration approximative des principaux constituants des fumes de

Demande de vapeur des installations arc lectriques

Temprature et dbit des effluents gazeux pour une coule typique

Performance de la chaudire - Charge de base