SPECIAL CONCRETE

Contents: special concrete such as Roller compacted concrete, Self compacting concrete, fibre
reinforced concrete etc., High strength concrete, High performance concrete, silica fume
concrete, high volume fly ash concrete, polymer concrete, cement based composites, and
reactive powder concrete.
1.0

INTRODUCTION

High strength concretes are not the strongest materials that can be made with Portland cement.
For many years, efforts have been devoted to pushing cement-based materials to their ultimate
strength limit. The scientific literature regularly reported the fruits of such efforts. Very high
compressive strength cement matrices were already obtained over seventy years ago. In 1930 in
USA under direction of D.A. Abrams, the compressive strength of 276 MPa was achieved after
28 days for a cement paste that was developed with a w/c ratio as low as 0.08. This record
achieved in laboratory had no particular influence on contemporary practice and up to the 1970
the strength of concrete rarely exceeded 30 or 40 MPa [1]. The concept of high strength and high
performance concrete varied over time. The compressive strength of ordinary concrete is
increased from about 15 MPa in 1910 to 60 MPa in 1991 in the relevant recommendations of
advanced countries. At present high strength concretes (HSC) is defined as the one having a 28day compressive strength f28 60 MPa and very high strength concretes (VHSC) as the one
having a 28-day compressive strength f28 120 MPa [2]. In the mean time, a significant change
had taken also place in the perception of durability requirements of concrete. With exposure of
concrete construction extending to marine and other aggressive environments, much better
durability performance is now demanded from concrete structures since 1970. Further, as
technique of placement of concrete, namely, pumping became popular and with the advent of
advancement in construction chemicals, concrete is expected to exhibit a much superior
performance in fresh state than ever before. This led to the definition of High Performance
Concrete (HPC) that applied earlier mostly to materials such as carbon fiber-reinforced plastic
and metal matrix composites. The HPC is designed to fulfill specific requirements either in fresh
state or in terms of its strength after a specified period or in terms of its durability requirements
or some or all of these simultaneously. For example, a self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a
material with high performance in its fresh state. According the above definition HSC is also
HPC, however the converse is not true. In India Kaige atomic power plant is first project where
HSC was used in 1997 [3].
D.A. Abrams was the first concrete technologist to recognize that lower w/c enhances the
strength; later on, through their microstructure models T.C. Power and others recognized that
lower w/c ratio results in lower porosity. The result of careful thinking to exploit these
technological breakthroughs and some fundamental knowledge about low porosity materials has
lead to the development of materials like DSP (Densified with small particles), MDF (Macro

defect free cement) and RPC (Reactive powder concrete) [1]. In such materials coarse aggregates
used in concrete are absent. These materials together with HPC can be termed as high
performance cement based matrices A significant attention has been given to the use of the
Pozollanic silica fume as a concrete property enhancing material, used as a mineral admixture, in
development of these materials. The initial interest in the use of silica fume was mainly caused
by the strict enforcement of air pollution control measures in various countries to stop release of
the material into the atmosphere. Later, the availability of high range water reducing admixture
had opened up the possibilities for the use of silica fume as a part of the cementing material in
concrete to produce very high strengths or very high levels of durability or both.
Concrete prepared with hydraulic cement binder can be regarded as a chemically bonded
ceramic. The hydration reaction of cement results in a product consisting of solid and a pore
system [4]. Pores are thus inherent to concrete. Pores in concrete can also result from inadequate
compaction. The most valued properties of structural concrete are its strength and durability and
are governed by the pore system mentioned above. [5,6,7,8,9]. This fact is also true for all other
cement-based materials those are chemically combined ceramics. In this paper first role pores
system characteristics governing the strength and durability of normal strength concrete is
presented in order to elaborate the mechanism failure of cement based materials and moisture
ingress that dictates the durability performance. Following the above discussions the mechanism
of performance evaluation is presented. Lastly the role of mineral admixtures and high range
water reducing agent in obtaining the high performance cement-based material is presented.
2.0 High Strength Cement Based Matrices:

Silica fume the common pozzolanic filler

Silica fume is a bye-product resulting from the reduction of high purity quartz, with coal or coke
and wood chips in an electric arc furnace during the production of silicon metal or ferrosilicon
alloys. The silica fume, which condenses from the gases escaping from the furnaces, has a very
high content of amorphous silicon dioxide and consists of very fine spherical particles. The SiO 2
content of the silica fume is roughly related to the manufacture process of silicon alloys [3].
Alloy type

SiO2 Content of Silica fume

50 percent Ferrosilicon
75 percent Ferrosilicon
silicon metal (98 percent)

60 to 84 percent
84 to 91 percent
87 to 98 percent.

Ferrosilicon alloys are produced with nominal silicon contents of 61 to 98 percent. When silicon
content reaches 98 percent the product is called silicon metal rather than ferrosilicon. The
majority of published data and field use of silica fume have been from production of alloys of
75% ferrosilicon or higher. The utilization of condensed silica fume in cement paste, mortar and
concrete has made it possible to achieve strengths far in excess of those attainable previously
using normal methods of production. Addition of silica fume affects the cement paste in various
aspects such as hydration, development of strength, microstructure and durability performances

and the effect will vary depending upon replacement level of silica fume and water cementetious
ratio.
Silica fume affects the strength of cement paste or concrete in two ways. First due to its high
pozzolanicity it contributes to the following hydration reaction between cement and water
by reacting with the calcium hydroxide to produce additional gel i.e. (CSH).
C3S + H CSH + CH
S + CH +H CSH

Due to Pozollanic reaction calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) increases therefore strength of silica
fume paste will increase. As more CH [Ca(OH)2] is converted to CSH with time, the
strength of paste will continue to increase. Second reason is that, because of its small
particle size silica fume can act as filler for the spaces between cement grains. This
results in a reduction in the size of the individual pores and voids in the paste. Since
pores are discontinuities in the cement paste matrix, reduced pore sizes require a
higher stress to initiate a crack, thus the strength is increased.

High Strength Concrete

The principles of HSC are improvement of the following thee phases of the usual concrete.[3],
namely 1) The hydrated cement paste, 2) The aggregate, 3) Transition zone between aggregate &
hydrated cements paste. The strength of hydrated cement paste can be improved by reducing a
large numbers of big pores or voids (diameter > 50 nm) as are detrimental to strength. In general,
the strength of crystalline phase increases when grain size is decreased. Further, with multiphase
materials, micro-structural in-homogeneities is generally a source of strength loss [12]. Thus to
improve the strength of hydrated cement paste it is necessary to work on the microstructure of
the hydrated paste at these three levels. The early hydration products are formed when there is
plenty of water and empty space and the cement-binder system consists of flocks of large
crystals. The process generates a considerable volume of voids since the early hydration products
crystallize out in the water filled space surrounding the cement particles and are referred to as
outer products. On the other hand the hydration products from solid-state reactions formed
within the original boundaries of hydrating cement particles are called inner products and are
more compact and poorly crystalline. As the strength of hydrated paste system is derived mainly
from Vander Walls forces of attraction, it follows that the more compact (free from large pores)
and poorly crystalline the hydration products, the higher is the strength. This explains why in
hydrated cement paste the path of fracture is through the outer products rather than the inner
products. From the stand point of the strength of hydrated cement paste, it is highly desirable to
obtain a microstructure resembling the inner products by somehow eliminating the formation of
outer products.[12,13] The concept of outer and inner type products in cement hydration is useful
in appreciating the role of low w/(c+sf) ratio, high range water reducing admixture and
supplementary cementetious materials for making high strength concrete. When the w/c of the
hydrated cement paste is reduced the cement particles come closer together in the freshly mixed
cement paste. As a result, there is less capillary porosity and less free space for the outer products

to develop. Moreover as there is less water available, water becomes more rapidly saturated with
the ions responsible for the development of the outer hydration products. As the cement particles
are now closer to each other, the outer product has less of a gap to bridge in order to develop
early bonding between cement particles. This explains why low w/c ratio cement pastes develop
strength more rapidly. Finally, as the cement particles are close to each other and rapidly bonded,
moisture movement becomes sluggish, favoring the formation of inner products during
hydration. In many published compositions of VHSC w/c ratios range between 0.25 to 0.30 and
between 0.30 and 0.35 for HSC. Decreasing the w/(c+sf) ratio favor the formation of inner
products characterized by a fine texture. The C-S-H (calcium silicate hydrate) of such inner
product looks like a highly compact glassy phase when observed under scanning electron
microscope. At very low w/(c+sf) ratios, hydrated cement paste does not contain any large stacks
of hexagonal platelets of lime, long needles of ettringite or long hairy filaments of C-S-H that are
characteristic of high water/binder ratio pastes.
Entrapped air bubbles can be considered as micro-structural in-homogeneities that should be
minimized in high strength concrete when high strength is the final objective. This can be
achieved through proper consolidation. The natural tendency of cement particles to flocculate in
a loose form should also be eliminated. In that respect the high range water reducing agent
necessary to lower the w/(c+sf) ratio play a key role in improving the dispersion of cement
particles in freshly mixed paste. The containment of a small quantity of air (2 to 3%) is very
helpful in the placing and finishing of high strength concrete.
The properties of aggregate are important and for HSC they should satisfy several different
requirements. First of all good workability must be ensured and for that reason continuous sieve
distributions are preferred [14]. Maximum grain diameter should be limited in order to improve
workability and to reduce discontinuities and stress concentrations. Conventional concrete
aggregates form a set of rigid inclusions on application of a compression force shear and tensile
stresses appearing at the paste/aggregate interface generate cracks in the paste. The size of these
cracks is related to the extent of the zone under tensile or shear stress that appears at the paste
aggregate interface, generate cracks in the paste. In case of spherical inclusion, the size of the
equatorial crack is directly proportional, to the diameter of the inclusion. For RPC, with a
reduction in the size of the coarsest aggregate by a factor of about 50 (ex, 400m instead of 20
mm) a major reduction is obtained in the size of micro-cracks originating from external loads,
shrinkage, thermal loads etc. [15].
During consolidation or compaction, coarse aggregate particles depending on their size, shape
and surface texture prevent a homogeneous distribution of water in fresh concrete. Because of
this localized wall effect some bleed water tends to accumulate at the surface of coarse aggregate
particles. As a result, the local w/(c+sf) ratio in the cement paste next to coarse aggregate i.e.
ITZ, becomes substantially higher than the w/(c+sf) ratio in the cement paste some distance
away compared with the bulk cement paste, the microstructure of the transition zone is
characterized by the presence of large pores and large crystalline hydration products. Microstructural difference between the hydrated cement pastes in the ITZ and the bulk cement paste
play an important role in determining the strength characteristics of concrete. In the usual
concrete, the transition zone is typically 0.05 to 0.1mm wide and contains relatively large pores
and large crystals of hydration products. Therefore when the concrete is subjected to a given

stress, the cracks first begin to develop in the transition zone with the usual concrete (0.50 to
0.70 w/(c+sf) ratio), tensile stresses induced by drying shrinkage or thermal shrinkage strains are
large enough to cause micro-cracking in the transition zone even before subjecting the concrete
to any service loads. The fracture strength of the element under load is thus controlled by the
propagation and joining together of a part of the micro-crack system in the hydrated cement
paste. In the 0.50 to 0.70 w/(c+sf) ratio range, it can be said that the inherently weak
microstructure of the transition zone prevents concrete from behaving like a true composite
material. As long as large pores and micro-cracks continue to be present in the transition zone,
the strength of the aggregate particles play no part in determining the strength of the composite
material as there is little or no effective stress transfer between the bulk cement paste and the
aggregate. Situation would change when the weakest link in usual concrete, namely the ITZ,
were some how strengthened so that under increasing stress it would not be the first component
to fail under these conditions, the strength and elastic properties of aggregate become important
in determining the behavior of concrete when subjected to increasing levels of stress [14]. Thus
size, strength and modulus of elasticity play important roles in case of HSC.
In 1950's, concrete of strength of about 30 MPa were considered as high strength concretes. In
the 60s, 50 MPa concretes were high strength concretes. In the70s these had strength of about
60 MPa and, in the late 80s we have been encountering concretes of 100-110 MPa strength.
Such a development has become possible due to a number of factors, namely,
a) Availability of better cements,
b) Use of water- reducing admixtures for ensuring low water cement ratio.
c) Better compacting techniques, and
g) Use of micro-fillers, which are also pozzolanic in character.
The development and large scale use of high strength concrete has made it a very competitive
material of construction and high strength concrete has proved to be more economical compared
to high strength structural steel for many applications such as very tall buildings and long span
bridges. For example, in the tallest building of the world, Water Tower place in Chicago, high
strength concrete bas been used for the columns of the building.
In tall buildings and long span bridges, considerable economy results because the self-weight of
the structure is reduced when high strength concrete is used. The floor area released by the
reduction in the size of columns is' significant in tall buildings.
For these reasons, high strength concrete, with compressive strength in the range of 80 to 110
MPa, has become a material, which requires special attention.

4.1

Materials and there special features

4.1.1

Cement

Ordinary Portland cement Rapid Hardening Portland cement, conforming to ASTM types I or III
can be used for making high strength concrete. The fineness of' the cement should not be less
than 35OO sq. cm/gm (Blaines). The C3A content of the cement should be low, say below 6%,
so as to keep the heat of hydration of the cement low as well as to keep the gypsum added at the
manufacturing stage, at a low level.
The C3S content of the cement is expected not to be very low. The cement should be fresh,
preferably from a freshly charged silo. It is also necessary to ensure that uniformity is maintained
by the manufacturer.
13.2.2

Coarse aggregate

Best results seem to have been obtained when the maximum size of the aggregate is restricted to
12 or 15mm. Even 10mm MSA has been used. Use of 20mm MSA has also been reported.
Coarse aggregate should belong to a good quality rock group of high compressive strength. A
reason offered for the better performance of smaller MSA is that strength increases due to a
reduction in the average bond stress between the aggregate surface and hydrated cement paste
due to the increased surface area of the individual aggregates. Another explanation is that use of
smaller size aggregates results in less severe concentrations of stress around the particles which
are caused by the differences in the elastic modulus of the aggregate and the hydrated cement
paste.
Crushed stone seems to produce higher strength than rounded gravel, again due to the better
mechanical bond between the aggregate and the hydrated cement paste.
13.2.3

Fine aggregate

Since high strength concrete contains high amount of fine cementitious materials, the grading of
the aggregate used is relatively unimportant. More important is the effect of grading of fine
aggregate on the water requirement of the mix. Use of sand with fineness modulus less than 2.5
may result in a sticky consistency making it difficult to compact. Sand, with F.M. of about 3.00,
will be more suitable. The amounts of materials passing 150 and 75micron should be low. Clay
and silt should be totally avoided, so also mica and other contaminants. Generally, fine aggregate
content is kept low, particularly when mineral admixtures are used.
13.2.4

Chemical admixtures

The chemical admixtures that are widely used in the manufacture of high strength concrete are:
i)

Air entraining admixtures (conforming to ASTM 260) for enhancing the durability of the
concrete under conditions of freeze-thaw. However, the entrained air percentages can be
lower than those for normal concretes since W/C ratio of high strength concrete will be
low. If freeze-thaw conditions are not encountered, these admixtures are not necessary as
entrained air has the effect of reducing strength.

ii)

Retarders (conforming to ASTM C 494, types B and D) are used to control hidden
hydration since high strength concrete uses high cement contents; retarders are
particularly useful when ambient temperatures are high. As temperature increases retarder
doses will have to be increased.

iii)

Water-reducers and/or high range water reducers are used to reduce water cement ratio to
a very low value. Typical values of water cement ratio will be in the range of 0.28 to
0.35. It is important to ensure the compatibility of the high range water reducer (super
plasticizer) with the cement by sufficient trials.

Thorough mixing of admixtures is necessary to ensure their uniform incorporation in the

concrete. Water reduction of the order of 20% is expected with the use of such admixtures.
13.2.5

Finely divided mineral admixtures

These have been widely used in high strength concrete. Principal admixtures are fly ash and
silica fume. Pulverized slag has also been incorporated. These materials are cementitious and add
to the strength of concrete on that account. They also act as micro fillers in the hydrated cement
paste system. It is important that these mineral admixtures are tested for their uniformity and are
also investigated for strength producing properties and for compatibility with the other materials
used in high strength concrete. High fineness and high pozzolanic activity are properties of
importance.
When fly ash is added it is about 20% by weight of cement while slag can be added up to 30%
by weight of cement.
Silica-fume (also called silica dust), which is a particulate material, obtained as a bye-product
from ferrosilicon alloy industries, is used in high strength concrete to the extent of 8 percent by
mass of cement. It is very fine with silica content of the order of 80-90 percent. Particle size is
about 0.l micron as compared to 10 microns in case of cement or somewhat less with fly ash.
Silica fume is not used in conjunction with other finely divided materials such as fly ash.
13.3

Proportioning

High strength concrete mix proportioning is a more critical process than the design of normal
strength concrete mixes. Many trial mixes are required in order to arrive at suitable, final
proportions. Dosages of admixtures, both chemical and mineral, will have to be varied to arrive
at optimum results.
Generally, it is necessary to achieve workable mixes at low water-cement ratios.

13.4

Strength Development

High strength concrete develops very early high strengths that are useful in many situations. It
also gains considerable strength at later stages, which may be recognized in the designs.
However, high strength concrete suffers relatively, greater loss of strength if curing is
discontinued at early ages. Continuous curing upto the periods required will have to be ensured.
13.5

Water Demand of Mix

For a given set a materials in a concrete mix, there may be cement content the produces
maximum concrete strength. The strength may not always be increased by adding cement beyond
this optimum cement content. Large additions of cement results in increasing the water demand
of the mixes, thus affecting the water cementations ratio adversely.
On the other hand, use of fly ash has often caused a slight reduction in the water demand of a
mix while silica fume dramatically increases the water demand of the mix. These factors
influence the achievable water cementitious ratio.
It has been noted that high-range water reducers have performed better in high strength concrete
when used in combination with conventional water reducers or retarders. This is because of the
reduced rate of slump loss experienced.
13.6

Batching, mixing, transporting, placing and curing

Maintaining the unit water content of a concrete mix as low as possible is important for all
concrete but it is critical for high strength concrete.
A combination of warm weather and high cement content often requires the cooling of mixing
water. It may be noted the average ambient temperatures in India is about 35 deg Celsius
compared with 23 deg Celsius in U.S.A. at the times when concrete is placed.
Tests in Canada have shown that high range water reducing admixtures are most effective and
produce the most consistent results when added at the end of the mixing cycle after all other
ingredients have been introduced and thoroughly mixed.
For mixing high strength concrete, it may prove beneficial to reduce batch size below the noted
capacity to insure most efficient mixing. This is so because the relatively low water content and
high cement content and the usual absence of large coarse aggregate, the efficient mixing of high
strength concrete becomes more difficult than conventional concrete. Mixer performance and
efficiency have to be checked prior to production mixing. Prolonged mixing, on the other hand
may cause moisture loss and result in lower workability.
High strength concrete is very suitable for placement by pumping because of its high cement and
void free grading.
Since in high strength concrete workability time is reduced, preparation must be made to
transport, place and compact the concrete at the fastest possible rate.

There should be ample vibration equipment and manpower to consolidate the concrete quickly
after placement in difficult locations. There should be more than sufficient stand-by equipment.
Proper internal vibration is the most effective method of compacting high strength concrete.
High strength concrete can be very sticky material and care is to taken from the type of choosing
materials like selecting coarse sand.
While curing is essential in the production of quality, normal, concrete, it is critical to the
production of high strength concrete. High strength concrete should be water cured at an early
age since partial hydration may make the capillaries discontinuous. At water cement ratios below
0.40, the ultimate degree of hydration is significantly reduced if free water is not provided
through curing. Use of saturated aggregates has resulted in higher strengths than that of dry
aggregates.
Where curing by ponding or immersion is not possible, fog spraying or sprinkling with nozzles
provide satisfactory curing. Lawn sprinklers are quite effective. Intermittent sprinkling is not
desirable since the concrete surfaces may dry up.
13.7

Stress-Strain behavior under uniaxial compression:

Axial stress strain cures for concrete in compression show the following important differences
with respect to normal concrete.
a)

The stress strain curve of high strength concrete is fairly linear in the ascending part
while that of ordinary concrete is more parabolic.
This is considered as due to absence of microcracking, particularly bond cracks between
aggregate surfaces and hydrated cement paste in high strength concrete.

b)

The strain corresponding to peak stress is somewhat higher for high strength concrete
compared to normal concrete. Values observed were in the region of 0.3 percent
compared to 0.2 percent exhibited by normal concrete.

c)

The descending part of the stress-strain curve of high strength concrete shows a sudden,
almost vertical drop of stress, unlike the relatively gradual stress softening of normal
concrete. This has implications in the compressive stress block adopted for design in
flexure or under combined bending and axial stress.

13.8

Modulus of elasticity

While the modulus of elasticity of high strength concrete increases with compressive strength, as
for normal concrete, the increase is somewhat less and empirical equations, currently used for
estimating static modulus of elasticity, may require suitable modifications.
13.9

Poissons ratio and lateral strain

Since high strength concrete exhibits less internal micro cracking than normal, lower strength,
concrete for a given imposed axial strain, the relative increase in lateral strain is less for high
strength concrete.
The lower relative lateral expansion during the inelastic range may mean that the effects of
triaxial stresses will be proportionately different for high strength concrete.
The Poissons ratio of high strength concrete in the elastic range seems to be comparable to the
expected range of values obtained for lower strength concretes.
13.10

Other properties

Many other properties of high strength concrete such as modulus of rupture, split tensile strength,
fatigue strength, thermal properties, creep etc., are considered to be similar to those of normal
concrete.
However, some differences are noted. The 7 day to 28-day compressive strength ratio is rather
high for high strength concrete, being in the range of 0.75 to 0.90.
A relatively high early shrinkage seems likely though the shrinkage after six months or later is
similar to that of lower strength concrete.
Specific creep of high strength concrete is less than that of normal concrete, and it may be only
about 20 percent that of normal concrete.
This may have implications on the creep shortening of columns made of different grades of
concrete.
High strength concrete has very low permeability to water and as such, exhibits excellent
resistance to seawater attack.
Macro Detect Free (MDF) Cement
MDF are composites of a water-soluble polymer and cement characterized by its extremely low
porosity and unusual mechanical properties and flexural strength is at one order magnitude
higher than that of plain concrete. A typical MDF preparation was developed by Birchall [16].
The polymer (polyvinyl alcohol) in powder form was mixed with the high alumina cement in
orbital blender before adding mixing water and dispersion of the various ingredients. The
material was then fed into a twin-roll-mixer to obtain plastic dough. After calendaring the
material to a thickness of 3 mm, it was cut to obtain specimens of the desired dimensions. The
cement was pressed (at a pressure of 5 MPa at 80C for 10 min) and warm treated in a forced-air
oven (80C for 24 h) to achieve of hardening of the mix. The MDF pastes are also filled with
metallic powders, silicon carbide, fine sand, and other kinds of hard materials to obtain particular
properties, ex: improved abrasion rsistance. The compressive strength may reach 400MPa and
the modulus of rupture up to 200MPa. Also youngs modulus of 40-50 GPa is considerably
increased when compared with Ordinary Portland cement concretes. At present the main problem
limiting the use of MDF composites is that they degrade on immersion in water. First water is

10

absorbed by PVA from which it diffuses to the cement grain where further hydration occurs.
Strength drops rapidly as the polymer swells and softens and later inter-phase region is gradually
replaced by a conventional hydrated phase. Research is presently in progress to solve this
drawback. These materials are used as electronic substrate, armor and ceramic and in substitution
of fiber reinforced plastics.
Densified With Small Particles (DSP)
The densified system of homogeneously compacted ultra-fine particles, as is well known, was
developed in the seventies in Denmark for dense and strong binders consisting of 70-80%
cement 20-30%, ultra-fine materials and effective particle dispersants over the years silica fume
has turned out to be the widely used ultra-fine material in this formulation [17] as DSP cement
matrix can be combined with aggregates to form mortars and concrete. Smaller the size of coarse
aggregate the stronger the DSP. Fibers could also be used for reinforcement a variety of
composites can be prepared from DSP cement. The processing involves air removal through
vacuum treatment and rigorous vibration as well as high-temperature curing. The general criteria
that may be used to distinguish these products from conventional concrete are w/(c+sf) ratio (<
0.30) and compressive strength (>150 MPa).
Influence of maximum size and type of aggregate on the compressive strength of DSP is as given
in the following table:
Size mm
16
16
10
4

Type of aggregate
Granite
Diabase
Calcined Bauxite
Calcined Bauxite

fc (MPa)
125
168
218
268

Dynamic elastic modulus (GPa)

68
65
109
108

Many of the DSP composites find application in flooring, safes and storage nuclear entrapment,
high impact resistant panels, tooling and moulding etc. An important emerging application of this
class of composites is an overlay or coating to existing concrete or a thin long span pre-cast
element.
Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC)
RPC can be prepared with the application of following basic principles [13], namely, 1)
Enhancement of homogeneity by elimination of coarse aggregates. 2) Enhancement of
compacted density by optimization of granular mixture and application of pressure before and
during setting. 3) Enhancement of microstructure by post-set heat-treating. 4) Enhancement of
ductility by incorporating small-sized steel fibers. 5) Maintaining mixing and casting procedures
as close as possible to existing practice. Application of the first three principles produces a
matrix with very high compressive strength, but with ductility no better than that of conventional
mortar. The inclusion of fibers improves tensile strength and also makes it possible to obtain the
required level of ductility. Measures relating to composition (homogeneity and granular
compacted density) are the basis of the RPC concept and are applied in all cases. Measures

11

relating to production (application of pressure and heat curing) are optional measures designed to
enhance performance. The advisability of applying these measures must be assessed for each
RPC application according to the technological difficulties involved, (application of pressure)
and their cost (heat treatment). Heterogeneity-related problems are substantially reduced with
RPC for the reasons, 1) Elimination of coarse aggregate, replaced by fine sand.(0.6mm) 2)
Improved mechanical properties of the paste 3) Reduction in the aggregate / matrix ratio.
For RPC with a reduction in the size of the coarsest aggregate by a factor of about 50 (or 400 m
instead of 20 MM), a major reduction is obtained in the size of micro-cracks due to,1)
Mechanical (external loads) 2) Chemical (autogenous-shrinkage) 3) Thermo-mechanical
(differential expansion between paste and aggregate under the effects of heat treatment) affects.
The increase in the youngs modulus for the RPC paste, by comparison with that of conventional
cementetious pastes, tends to attenuate the effects associated with disturbance of the mechanical
stress field. In case of RPC, the volume of the paste is at least 20% greater than the voids index
of non-compacted sand. Thus aggregate used in RPC do not form a rigid skeleton, but a set of
inclusions trapped in a continuous matrix. Paste shrinkage is blocked locally round each
aggregate particle (with diminished consequences as a result of the size limitation effect).
Optimization of granular mixture can be achieved by the use of packing models. For mix-design
of RPC an experimental method has been preferred based on the principles that, 1) A mixture
comprising a number of granular classes is obtained with a tight granular range inside each class.
2) Cement/super-plasticiser compatibility is studied and optimum ratios are determined by
rheological analysis. 3) Only the least agglomerated fine powders are selected. The main
parameter for assessing the quality of the granular mixture is its water demand, i.e. the minimum
quantity of water that must be added to the powders to obtain fluidification. The minimum w/
(c+sf) ratio obtained for densest mixtures is 0.08. In reality, the voids index of the granular
mixture corresponds to the sum of water demand and entrapped air. After selecting a granular
mixture according to minimum water demand, optimum water content is analyzed using a more
global parameter. This parameter is relative density d0/ds, where d0 designated the density of the
concrete at demoulding and ds designates the assumed solid density of the granular mixture when
fully compacted (no water or air).
The variation in relative density with water content,
expressed as the water-to-binder ratio. Therefore there is a maximum relative density level
corresponding to theoretical optimum water content. Fine quartz sand aggregates are used and
sand selection parameters are: 1) Mineral composition 2) Mean particle size 3) Granular range
(200 m 600 m) 4) Particle shape (Angular or spherical) 5) Mixture ratio by weight. Insofar
as mineral composition is concerned, quartz has the advantages that, it provides for excellent
paste/aggregate interfaces and is readily available at low cost. Important parameter to be
considered in cement selection is: 1) Low C3A content, 2) High Blaine fineness is not
satisfactory, due to their high water demand. 3) High silica modulus cement is best in terms of
rheological characteristics and mechanical performance 4) Conventional quick setting high
performance cement offers similar results. For the low w/c that is used for RPC concretes, the
optimum super-plasticiser ratio is high (solid content of approximately 1.6% of cement content).
Following parameters are used for silica fume characterization 1) Degree of particle aggregation
2) Nature and quantity of impurities i.e. carbon and alkali 3) Basic particle size ratio silica-fume
to cement is 0.25. Crushed crystalline quartz is an essential ingredient for heat treated RPC
concretes. Maximum reactivity during heat treatment is obtained for mean particle size of
between 5 and 25 m. Mean size used is 10 m. The ratio by mass adopted corresponds to the

12

stoichiometric optimum for conversion of amorphous hydrates into tobermorite characterized by

C/Si molar ratio of 5/6 = 0.83. An effective way of increasing density is to apply a confining
pressure force to the fresh concrete. This application of pressure has three favorable effects
depending on the method and length of application. 1) Application of pressure reduces air
bubbles in a few seconds. 2) Application of a pressure of 50 MPa to a test piece with diameter of
4 cm for 30 minutes can eliminate between 20 and 25% of the water initially introduced during
mixing. This corresponds to an increase of more than 2% in relative compacted density. 3) If the
applied pressure is maintained through out the setting phase for the concrete between 6 and 12
hours after mixing, part of the porosity appearing in the sample due to chemical shrinkage can be
eliminated. The pressure applied during setting induces micro cracking in the sample. This
cracking is due to the fracture of rigid bridges created during setting and expansion of the
aggregate. When the pressure is released micro-cracks subsequently heal as the test piece
hardens. The enhancement of microstructure is achieved by heat curing and ductility can be
improved by incorporating fibers in the matrix. Heat treatment is performed after the concrete
has set, by simply heating at ambient pressure. Heat treatment at 90C substantially accelerates
the Pozollanic reaction, while modifying the microstructure of the hydrates those have formed.
However these hydrates remain amorphous. High temperature heat-treating between 250 and
400C is only applicable to fibered RPC and leads to the formation of crystalline hydrates. Fibers
must be added to enhance ductility. The straight steel fibers used are 13mm long, with a diameter
of 0.15 mm. The fibers are introduced into the mix at a ratio between 1.5% and 3% by volume.
The optimum corresponds to a ratio of 2% or about 155 kg/m 3. RPC concrete constituted a new
family of materials, for which the respective application fields depend on performance, cost and
ease of mixing and placement. This family includes two types of RPC, designated as RPC 200
and RPC 800 as illustrated in the following table.
RPC Designation
Pre-setting pressurization
Heat treating

RPC 200
None
20 to 90C

Compressive strength

170 to 230 MPa

Flexural Strength

30 to 60 MPa

Fracture energy
Ultimate elongation
Youngs modulus

20,000 to 40,000 J.m-2

(5.00-7.00) x 10-6/mm
50 to 60 GPa

RPC 800
50 MPa
250 to 400C
490 to 680 MPa (Quartz)
650 to 810 MPa (Steel ball)
30 to 60 MPa(Quartz), 45 to
141 MPa (Steel ball)
1,200 to 20,000 JM-2
65 to 75 GPa

Apart from their exceptional mechanical properties, RPC concretes have an ultra-dense
microstructure, giving advantageous waterproofing and durability characteristics. These
materials can therefore be used for industrial and nuclear wastage storage facilities.
Summary
Normal strength concrete continues and will continue to be popular cement based material for
common use and shall be properly engineered if better life cycle performance is desired. The
high strength and high performance cement based composites needs special care and are likely to
be used for specific purposes.

13

3.0

FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

In this section, the behavior and properties of fibre concrete, theory of fibre reinforcement in
reinforced concrete members are briefly reviewed.
3.1

FIBRE CONCRETE

Fibre concrete is a concrete reinforced with short discrete fibres. The fibres are uniformly
dispersed in concrete during mixing, and are randomly oriented. The main objectives of fibre
reinforcement are as follows.
(a)
(b)
(c)

To control cracking,
To achieve fracture toughness and ductility,
To improve the tensile or flexural strength.

The fibre diameters are less than 1 mm, and are one or two orders of magnitude smaller than
diameters of reinforcing bars used in the R.C work. As such, fibres need much shorter
development length, and result in closely spaced cracks if the fibre content is sufficient to
maintain the load at cracking of the composite.
The fibres absorb a large amount of energy during fracture, as they stretch across the cracks in
concrete matrix before breaking or pulling out. During this process, the composite undergoes a
large deformation, even though the load may be gradually decreasing. Hence, the toughness and
ductility of concrete are increased considerably with the addition of fibres.
There is a critical fibre content which can maintain the load at cracking of the composite. When
fibre content is more than this critical value, an increase in tensile or flexural strength is achieved
along with extensive multiple cracking and ductility. The load at first visible crack is also
increased.
Randomly oriented fibres of limited length are obviously much less efficient in resisting tensile
stresses, as compared to reinforcing bars placed in the direction of stress. Hence, increases in
tensile or flexural strength can be achieved much more economically with conventional steel
reinforcement. The use of fibre reinforcement to improve tensile or flexural strength is,
generally, warranted only in thin sections, where it is difficult to provide conventional
reinforcement, or in pavements, where cracking must be effectively controlled under impact
loads.
The merit of fibre reinforcement, therefore, lies mainly in improving toughness and ductility of
the composite, and in the control of cracking.

3.2 CONCRETE MIX

14

Experience has shown that to incorporate a reasonable quantity of fibres, and to have a cohesive
mix of the volume fraction of mortar in concrete should be high, intact as much to 70% or more.
The maximum size of aggregate is usually about 10mm, and the sand content is 50% or more by
weight of the aggregate. Approximately about 5% more sand compared to ordinary concrete
would be needed for about 0.5% steel fibres by volume of concrete and proportionately more.
Fibre concrete mixes are generally rich in cement. The cement content is 350 to 700 kg/m3, and
water cement ratio ranges from 0.4 to 0.6. Cement content can be reduced by replacing 25-30%
cement with P.F.A. (Pulverized Fuel Ash). Water content can be reduced by using air entraining
and water reducing admixtures, or super plasticizers. It has been possible to produce high
workability fibre concrete mixes with the use of these admixtures.
The physical properties of cement based matrices are given in table 12.1. The tensile strain at
failure is quite small and the matrices have a brittle failure.
3.3 FIBRES
Table 12.2 gives the physical properties of some of the fibres used to reinforce cement based
matrices. Cotton, rayon, acrylic and polyester fibres are subject to alkali attack and are therefore
not suitable for use in Portland cement products.
Asbestos glass and cellulose fibres are mostly used to produce thin sheets. Nylon was one of the
polymer fibres to be included in cement and concrete but because of its relatively high cost
compared to that of polypropylene, its commercial use has been limited. Steel and polypropylene
fibres have been generally used to reinforce concrete and mortar.
The fibres can be divided into two main groups. Fibres with elastic moduli greater than that of
cement matrix are known as high moduli fibres, and with those having elastic moduli smaller
than that of cement matrix are known as low modulus fibres. The high modulus fibres are
asbestos, steel and glass, whereas low modulus fibres are the organic fibres. See tables 12.1 and
12.2.
Most high modulus fibres develop good bond with cement matrix. Alkali resistant glass has been
developed to maintain its strength for longer periods in ordinary Portland cement. However the
strength ductility and toughness of glass fibre composites have been found to decrease
continuously over a period of five years under natural weathering conditions. The use of glass
fibres is, therefore, likely to be limited to non structural or semi structural situations. Hence
among the high modulus fibres, steel fibres have been mostly favoured for structural use.
Most of the low modulus organic fibres develop poor bond with cement matrix, and also exhibit
relatively high creep. This means that if such fibres are used to support permanent high stresses
in a cracked composite, considerable elongations or deflections may occur over a period of time.
The organic fibres are therefore more likely to be used in situations where transitory overloads
such as those due to handling, impact or wind, are significant.
In the following sections steel, polypropylene and vegetable fibres are discussed in detail.

15

3.3.1

Steel fibres

The steel fibres can be divided in two groups, plain or deformed.

Plain fibres are straight smooth fibres with a uniform cross-section. Fibres produced by cutting
drawn wires have a round section, whereas those produced by shearing sheets have a rectangular
section. Rectangular fibres may be produced cheaply from scrap metal sheets.
Deformed fibres are produced from steel wire. These fibres may be indented or crimped
throughout the length, may be crimped or hooked only at the ends, or may be provided with
enlarged ends. A technique to produce cheaply fibres of ragged shape is the melt extract
process, in which fibres are produced directly from molten steel. These fibres have an irregular
surface and a crescent shaped cross-section.
As compared to plain fibres, deformed bars develop substantially higher bond strength, as
measured by a pull out test on a single fibre. However, the properties of the composite are not
found to improve with deformed fibres in the same proportion. It has been found that the bond
associated with a group of randomly oriented fibres decrease drastically when the number of
fibres pulling simultaneously from the same area increases. However, there is no substantial
decrease in bond strength when fibres are parallel and aligned in direction of stress. This shows
that multi fibre pull at random angles causes matrix breakdown at low fibre stress. In such a
condition, the increase in bond strength with deformed bars is small, as compared to that in
single fibre pull-out condition.
Recently collated fibres have been produced to facilitate handling. The fibres are glued together
in bundles of 10 to 30, like staples. The glue is dissolved by water in the mix in about 11/2 min.,
and the fibres get uniformly dispersed in concrete. Collated fibres can be simply charged into the
mixer lake other ingredients, and need not be blended with aggregate on a conveyor belt or
sieved into the mixer. The performance of these fibres has been found to be satisfactory.
3.3.2

Polypropylene fibres

Polypropylene fibres are available in two forms, monofilament or fibrillated film. The mono
filament fibres develop poor bond with cement matrix. Polypropylene films are fabricated, i.e.
split by pin rolling to create a regular mesh structure. The cement matrix can, therefore, penetrate
in the mesh structure between the fibrils, and a mechanical bond is created between the fibre and
matrix. The pull out strength of fibrillated polypropylene fibres is high, and in specimens of age
one year or more, fibre breakage instead of fibre pull out, is common.
Instead of fibre diameter, the fibrillated film fibres are characterized by the length in m/kg. The
fibres are supplied in spool form and are cut to desired length at site. Twines of 700-1400 m/kg
are generally used.
The modulus of elasticity of these fibres ranges from 1 to 8kN/mm2, depending upon the rate of
strain applied during the test.
3.3.3 Vegetable fibres

16

Vegetable fibres, or natural organic fibres, exist in reasonably large quantities in many parts of
the world, and are much cheaper than the man made fibres. There is a growing interest to use
these fibres in cement products.
The fibres which have been tried are Coir, Sisal, Akwara, Jute and Bamboo, Water Reed,
Elephant Grass, Plaintain and Musamba, Lechuguilla and Maguey. Among these fibres Coir,
Akwara, Elephant Grass, Sisal, Lechuguilla and Maguey have been found to be durable in a
cement matrix. The limited tests on cement composites reinforced with vegetable fibres indicate
that these composites can achieve good resistance to normal environmental exposures.
Vegetable fibres generally swell on wetting. However Akwara fibres are stated to be
dimensionally stable in water. The water absorption ranges from 50 to 110% by weight of dry
fibres. There is naturally a large variation in diameter of fibres of a given type.
The tensile strength and the elastic modulus of vegetable fibres are found to increase with
decreasing fibre diameter. The fibres, being organic, have a low elastic modulus, i.e. less than
10kN/mm2.
Vegetable fibres, like most organic fibres, develop a poor bond with cement matrix. This is
indicated by the fact that there is, usually no improvement in tensile or flexural strength of a
composite upto a fibre volume of 5%.
3.4 Workability and fibre content
The term workability includes all the essential properties of concrete in its plastic condition, e.g.
compactibility, mobility, stability and finishibility. Workability is best judged by carrying out a
trial of the plant to be used on a job. For assessing workability of fibre concrete mixes, the V B
test is considered most appropriate out of the commonly used workability tests, namely slump,
compacting factor and V-B test. Recently a field test for assessing workability of fibre concrete
mixes ahs been developed. This test is called the inverted slump cone test.
Workability of a fibre concrete mix decreases with increase in fibre content. When fibre content
is excessive, the fibres tend to ball and segregate from the mix. For a given fibre content,
workability is found to decrease with increase in aspect ratio of fibre, decrease in mortar content
of mix, and increase in maximum size of aggregate.
Hughes and Fattuhi have found that the plots of vf versus log t and vf. (l/d) 2 versus log t, are
linear, where vf is fibre content by volume, l/d is aspect ratio of fibre, and t is V-B time in sec.
Edginton et. al. have found that from a plot of V-B time versus fibre content, a critical fibre
content can be identified, above which the response to vibration decreases rapidly. Based on this
data, Hannat has given the following equation, which enables an approximate estimate to be
made of the maximum quantity of steel fibre which can be included in a mix, whilst maintaining
adequate workability for sight compaction.
Wfm = 600(1-Ag)/l/d

17

Where Wfm = percentage by weight of steel fibre which can be included in a concrete matrix, so
that the fibre concrete mix can be easily compacted at site.
Equation 12.1 does not take into account the degree of workability of the concrete matrix, which
can alter considerably the value of Wfm.
3.5 Behaviour of fibre concrete in tension, flexure and compression
it has been recognized that the incorporation of fibres in concrete substantially improves the
post-peak behaviour of the composite. It is therefore important to obtain complete load
deformation curves including the descending portion, so that toughness and ductility of the
composite can be determined accurately.
Complete load deformation curve for fibre concrete have been obtained by only a few authors, in
uniaxial tension flexure, and uniaxial compression. The following observations can be made
from these:
1. the fibres have little influence on the initial ascending part of the curve, so that modulus
of elasticity of steel fibre concrete is practically the same as that of plain concrete.
2. there is a considerable improvement in the post peak resistance of the composite, even
though the increase in peak stress is small.
3. the toughness and ductility of composite are considerably increased, the increase being
much greater in tension or flexure than in compression.
The area under these curves is a measure of the toughness or energy absorption capacity of the
material. The load deflection curve, obtained in a modulus of rupture test, is generally used to
determine toughness.
3.6 Strength of fibre concrete
An important factor influencing strength of fibre concrete is the fibre orientation relative to the
direction of applied stress. The fibres generally have a 3D random orientation if the dimensions
of a member are more than twice the fibre length. If the cross-sectional dimensions are small, the
fibres tend to align during casting. For example in thin sheets where thickness is less than fibre
lengths the fibres have a 2D random orientation; whereas in a thin prismatic member, having
sectional dimensions less than the fibre length, the fibres would be generally aligned along the
length of member. Vibration also tends to align the fibres in a horizontal plane, though internal
vibration causes a smaller amount of fibre alignment than table vibration.
Hannat and spring have shown experimentally that the flexural strength is increased by 100%,
when fibre orientation is 1-D aligned instead of 3D random. This shows that the size of specimen
and compaction procedure may exert a much greater influence on strength of fibre concrete.
3.6.1

Tensile strength

18

The splitting test is not considered suitable to determine tensile strength of fibre concrete, since
after the first crack the stress distributions are totally unknown 30% with 2.5% by volume of
steel fibres of aspect ratio 100. Polypropylene fibres contribute little to the tensile strength, when
fibres have a 3D random orientation.
Flexural strength (or modulus of rupture) is often used to assess the efficiency of fibre
reinforcement, because fibres contribute more to the increase in flexural strength than to tensile
or compressive strength.
The increase in flexural strength is accompanied by a significant deviation of a load deflection
curve from the initial straight line. The initial deviation from the linearity of the load deflection
curve has generally been accepted as the first crack strength, though there is no visible cracking
at this stage. The deflection corresponding to the maximum load can vary widely for different
fibre concretes. Hence flexural strengths of different fibre concretes may represent quite different
degrees of serviceability, in terms of deflection and cracking.
For the volume fraction normally used, the influence of fibres on first crack strength is not very
significant. In contrast, flexural strength is more than doubled. The increase in flexural strength
is about 100% with 2% by volume of steel fibres of aspect ratio 100(30). With polypropylene
fibres, a 100% increase in flexural strength is achieved at 6% fibre volume in thin sections,
where fibre orientation is 2-dimensional.
3.6.2

Compressive strength

Compressive strength of fibre concrete has been measured by several authors. The increase in
compressive strength with 2% by volume of steel fibres of aspect ratio 100 is reported to be 0 to
20%. With polypropylene fibres, the compressive strength has been found to decrease.
SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE (SCC)
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has generated tremendous interest since its initial
development in Japan by Okamura in the late 1980. Self- compacting concrete is a new category
of high-performance concrete characterized by its ability to spread readily into place and self
consolidate with out exhibiting any significant separation of constituents. The combination of
high fluidity and segregation resistance results in consolidation due to entirely to the concrete
self weight. Such concrete can be used to improve the construction productivity and adequate
filling of restricted areas. This project work deals with the various aspects of concrete
workability.
1.2

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

For several years in the sixties the problem of durability was one of the most popular
topics in Japan; in order to have lasting structures, the labor force had to guarantee sufficient
vibration time during the castings. The gradual reduction in the number of specialized workers in

19

the Japanese building industry, however, also led to a gradual reduction in the quality of the work
and therefore of the construction.
The prototype of self-compacting concrete was realized for the first time in 1988 using materials
available on the market. The prototype performed satisfactorily with regard to drying and
hardening shrinkage, heat of hydration, density after hardening, and other properties.
This concrete was named high performance concrete, and was defined as follows at the three
stages of the concrete:
1. Fresh stage: self compaction
2. Setting stage: lacking in typical initial defects
3. Hardened state: protected against external agents and therefore durable.

1.3

OVERVIEW OF SCC

Self-Compacting Concrete is a particular type of concrete, which is able to compact by

itself thanks solely to the forces of gravity and therefore needs no further operations such as
vibration for its compaction apart from the actual casting of the concrete. It has various
interesting features such as high flow ability but at the same time a high resistance to segregation
and a high workability.
These qualities are particularly appreciated as well as indispensable today and the durability of
concrete works can therefore be practically guaranteed almost at the same time the name high
performance concrete was given by aitein et al. to another type of concrete with high durability
due to a lower water cement ratio. The name of this concrete was then changed to selfcompacting high concrete and subsequently to self compacting concrete. Performance
without depending any longer solely on the skill and care of the labour.
In addition, the use of self-compacting concrete reduces building costs, minimizes operations
which are normally carried out on site by greatly reducing construction times and improves the
working environment and physical conditions of the workers.
This new technology creates the conditions whereby not only the most densely reinforced
structures may be made, but the architect becomes free to express himself and aims to realize
structural forms which only a few years ago seemed unreachable. Self-compacting concrete is of
great help especially where there are casting difficulties or where the use of vibrators is difficult
due to the lack of space, as in the case of complex formwork or where the layer of concrete is
particularly thick.
Self-compacting concrete increases the cohesivity, thereby making settlement less probable as
well as preventing the loss of grout from the formwork joints. All this makes the mix denser,
while the surface of the finished work, once the forms have been removed, is homogeneous with
very few air voids and of uniform colour.
The most important properties of self-compacting concrete are: high flow ability, high resistance
20

to segregation and the capacity to pass between the reinforcement even if they are particularly
close each other. An adequate balance between flow ability and resistance to segregation is
essential in the concrete mix.
The flow ability of the mix is ensured when there is low friction between the internal particles
and therefore the concrete can flow easily. Segregation occurs when the components of the
concrete separate into mortar and coarse aggregates. The properties of flow ability and resistance
to segregation depend on the type of aggregates used and the mix proportions.
High flow ability is obtained by the addition of superplasticisers, but the quantity must be
appropriate because excessive flow ability can cause segregation. This segregation may be
controlled by using certain agents, which control the viscosity, or by using a greater volume of
fines. In this case, the addition of cement can create problems due to the increase in heat of
hydration and materials such as silica fume; fly ash, limestone and slag are therefore preferred.
The properties of the fines in the mortar are very important because they prevent segregation of
the aggregates and are the key to guaranteeing a good self-compacting concrete. Deformability is
strictly related to the properties of the cement paste and may be increased by using
superplasticisers, since the use in this case of extra water would not only increase the water
cement ratio but could cause segregation of the aggregates and the onset of bleeding.
2.1

GENERAL

When developing a concrete mixture, the main considerations are: (1) to reach specified
strength (ii) to obtain the sufficient workabity and (iii) durability, basically these requirements
are in contradiction, because increasing the strength of the concrete asks for decrease of the
water-powder ratio, where as improvement of the workability asks for an increase of this ratio.
With regard to last requirement there is an upper limit, beyond which segregation occurs. In
general the durability is directly related to degree of compaction but obtaining full compaction is
questionable under this conditions. This problem can be addressed by the use self-compacting
concrete, but producing SCC is not a simple task it requires cutting edge between the segregation
resistance and deformability, in order to carryout the work, the knowledge on the factors, which
are influencing the self-compactabity, and the understanding of different aspects of SCC, such as
factors affecting self-compact ability, constituent materials for SCC, Mix Design methodology of
SCC, Rheology of SCC, and Mechanism of SCC are presented in this chapter in s systematic
manner.
2.2

CONSTITUENT MATERIALS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The constituent materials and their properties play a dominant role on the workability and
strength properties of self-compacting concrete.
2.2.1

The Powders

21

The powders are all the fine materials with a size of less than 0.1 mm. the powders are
essential in self-compacting concrete as mentioned earlier, if this concrete should not segregate,
it must have a mortar rich in fines and is able to transport the coarse aggregates and keep them in
suspension. The cement, however, cannot be the only fine in the self-compacting concrete,
because this type of concrete would require a high quantity of cement for the mortar to
accomplish its task. At the same time using only cement, heat of hydration, drying shrinkage and
creep will be increased. That is why it is necessary to find alternative materials, which not only
perform the function of improving the grading of the mix, but also enhance or improve other
properties. The standard defines additions as finely divided inorganic materials that may be
added to the concrete to modify its characteristics or to obtain special ones. There are two types
of additions, inert fillers and the pozzolonic materials, i.e. those that have latent hydraulic
properties. Fillers are materials which have at least 90% passing through a 0.1 mm sieve, for
example, limestone powder, which is obtained by crushing limestone. The additions of the
second type may consist of any material with pozzolanic activity and those most commonly used
in Italy are fly ash and silica fume.
Cement
All types of cement complying with standards are suitable for making self-compacting concrete.
The choice of the type of cement and content depends on the strength requirements, the exposure
class for durability and the minimum amount of fines required for the mix.
Fly ash
Fly ash is a fine powder, produced as a by-product of the combustion of coal in thermoelectric
power plants. With the high temperature reached in combustion (1500 DC). The mineral
impurities which accompany coal melt and are carried by the fumes or smoke in the form of
liquid drops. During fast cooling to 200C these drops, upon leaving the combustion area,
solidify in the form of round particles and are partly agglomerated.
On average 15% ash is obtained from the combustion of coal consist of large granules which
precipitate on the bottom of the combustion chamber and the other part (80-85% of the total) is
carried away by the flue gases, from which it is separated in the filter, and this is the part that
makes up the fly ash.
The first attempts at using fly ash (which is a pozzolan) to produce concrete date back to the 30s.
The first large-scale applications started in the USA in the 50s and in the 70s. With the energy
crisis and the increasing use of coal, the production and use of fly ash in concrete has increased.
In Italy, a great producer of pozzolanic cement based on natural pozzolana, the use of flash has
been slow to catch on. Today, however, it has become a widely used material both in producing
pozzolanic cement and as a material for making concrete. In self-compacting concrete the fly ash
is an excellent addition, since it combines technological and economic benefits at an accessible
market price.
It contributes to the formation of an excellent mortar which maintains the coarse aggregates in

22

suspension, during and after transportation. Fly ash produces concretes with a characteristic dark
gray colour. However if ligi7cer shades are required, as in the case of recast concrete elements,
limestone fillers must be used.
Silica fume
Silica fume is the by-product from the reduction process of very pure quartz into mineral silicon
in arc furnaces for the production of silicon or ferrosilicon. Silica fumes are mainly produced in
northern countries, especially in Norway. They have also been produced and used in Italy since
many years. This material is characterized by a very high silica content (normally over 90%),
particles with size varying from 0.5 to 5 m, a very. high specific surface area (up to 25 to 30
m2/g) and a non-crystalline structure; this is why it has a marked pozzolanic activity and may be
used in making pozzolanic cement.
Silica fume is in fact an artificial pozzolana, i.e. a material capable of combining at ambient
temperature with calcium hydroxide to produce water insoluble compounds very similar to those
obtained by the hydration of Portland cement.
The addition of silica fume to concrete combined with the use of superplasticisers, results in two
main effects:
-

The first regards the typical behavior as filler, due to the very small size of the particles,
optimizing the particle size distribution of the fines.
The second is the pozzolanic effect, i.e. the capacity to react with the calcium hydroxide
present in high quantities in Portland cement, producing a calcium hydroxide silicate with
excellent binding characteristics.

The combination of these effects results in the development of very high strength. The
combination of the filler and the pozzolanic effects also ensures that the porosity is not only
reduced in volume but also in size, thereby making the cement paste less permeable and
therefore assuring greater durability.
Limestone filler
Limestone powder mostly consists of calcite (CaCO 3) and is used when strengths needs to be
maintained without decreasing the quantity of powders. For the purposes of making selfcompacting concrete, limestone is easily available and is of constant quality.
The economic aspect should be assessed, since the limestone that could currently be used in selfcompacting concrete is also used by the pharmaceutical industry and therefore has a high degree
of purity. Should it become a filler for self-compacting concrete and therefore be used on a large
scale, a limestone with a lower degree of purity will probably be requested, with relative cost
reduction. At present limestone fillers are not particularly expensive and that makes them
suitable for our purpose.
It addresses the needs of precast industry, since it is a white powder that produces concrete

23

elements which have an attractive light surface appearance.

2.2.2

Superplasticisers

Superplasticisers are essential for production of self-compacting concrete.

Superplasticisers based on polycarboxylic ether have shown a much greater efficacy than other
types of superplasticisers, thanks to their strong capacity to reduce the water content.
2.2.3

Viscosity-Modifying Admixtures

Viscosity modifying admixtures are essential for making self-compacting concrete

because they give the correct rheological profile to the concrete. The viscosity modifiers increase
the viscosity of the water in the concrete, thereby making the cement paste viscous and
improving the segregation resistance of the concrete.
2.2.4

Fine Aggregates

Material with at least 95% passing through the 4 mm sieve is called "fine aggregate" or
sand. Sand plays a very important role in self-compacting concrete. Thanks to its particle-size
distribution, it manages to fill the voids between the powders and the coarse aggregates. That is
why the sands must be well graded from a particle size point of view, in order to guarantee the
filling between the various aggregates as much as possible.
2.2.5

Coarse Aggregates

Material of which at least 95% is retained on the 4 mm sieve is called "coarse aggregate".
As has been said earlier, the coarse aggregates differ in nature and shape depending on their
extraction and production. From our experimental work it has been noted that it is possible to
produce self-compacting concrete with natural and crushed aggregates. Natural aggregates
require less water than crushed aggregates in self-compacting concrete. However, elongated
aggregates are not suitable.
2.3

FACTORS AFFECTING THE FLOW PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The principal factors that influence the workability and other flow parameters are the
composition of the concrete, including the chemical and mineral admixture dosage and type; the
gradation, shape, and type of the aggregates; the water content; and the cement characteristics.
The same mixture design can result in different flow properties if secondary factors are not taken
into account. These are:

Mixer type: pan, truck, and so on. These may induce various levels of deflocculation and
air entrainment.
Mixing sequence, that is, the sequence of introduction of the materials into the mixer.
Mixing duration. and
Temperature.

24

2.3.1 Factors Related to the Composition of Concrete

Actually the composition of concrete consists of powder material, water, fine, coarse
aggregate and chemical admixture. The basic idea in normal concrete is that the voids in the pack
of fine and coarse aggregate if filled by the paste here paste content is nearly equal to the voids
volume in the system, but in self-compacting concrete the paste content is predominantly high
and the aggregate is inclusion in the paste, so while flowing the paste along with the paste the
aggregate will flow because of suitable rheology of concrete. So the paste is the most governing
factor in SCC. Many authors suggested that the paste should be 40 %( Okamura, 2002). But the
problem with high paste volume is the cost and also the stability. Basically the SCC application
is for densely reinforced structures. So passingabity, fiilingability is important under
consideration, but these factors governed by the aggregate content and grading type etc. the
segregation problem is mainly depends on the water-to powder ratio.
2.3.2 Effect of Paste
Many authors reported that the flow properties of SCC, such as flowability, passing
ability and stability are directly related to paste content. The effect is reported in mostly linear
fashion as per Gettu and Okamura. As per Gomes and Gettu, the concrete with a paste content of
38% can be considered as the optimum mix since it satisfied all the requisites of SCC. The
mixes with other paste contents in range in the range of 35-42% could be easily modified to
satisfy the performance requirements. The paste volume should be the minimum needed to
provide cohesion and fluidity, without sacrificing the strength, durability or resistance to
shrinkage. The same amount of paste will not give the same properties because of the paste
composition difference. Paste with different water-powder ratio will behave differently. In
general powder consists of cement, fly ash, silica fume or any other filler material. In general the
addition of the silica fume and filler increases the flow time, implying a decrease in the fluidity.
Olafur study showed that the different types of filler materials that had approximately the same
particle-size distribution and consisted mainly of quartz, potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar,
and ground limestone, respectively, did not affect the rheological properties of fresh concrete
very much. However a partial replacement of the filler with biotite, muscovite and chlorite,
distinctly increased the yield stress, but did not change the plastic viscosity.

2.3.3 Effect of Super Plasticizers

Super plasticizers are usually surfactants and resins that are added to reduce the surface
tension of water. The addition of Superplasticizers to cement paste and concrete mixtures has two
consequences: a significant reduction in the yield stress, and a marginal decrease in plastic
viscosity finally results in improving the flow properties but if we increase further and further it
results segregation. These decreases may be attributed to the deflocculation of cement particles
caused by the superplasticizers. Since the super plasticizers is expected to reduce the yield stress,
aggregated is expected to settle faster under vibration in concrete mixtures containing
superplasticizers than in those without [Michael, Baolin, 1998].

25

2.3.4 Effect of Water- Cement Ratio

Generally the water-cement ratio increases the workability that is well known fact, but
increasing the water cement ratio beyond certain limit will lead to segregation. In general watercement ratio is governed by the required compressive strength. As per Noboru Sakata, the
increase in 7 liters of water content will result the increase in 150 mm slump-flow in case of no
addition of viscosity agent, 85 mm in the case of ion-increasing viscosity chemical admixture
added superplasticizer, 20mm in the case of liquefied welan gum in superplasticizer, 27 mm in
the case of separate addition of welan gum and superplasticizer.
From V-funnel test data [Noboru Sakata, 2003]; there was tendency for flow time to be reduced
in accordance with the increase in the amount of water. But the decreasing trend will be more at
initial then beyond certain point the V-funnel time will increase because of segregation. The
increase in water-powder ratio results in increasing filling height up to certain value beyond that
it will show the decrease in fill height. Generally this value depends on the type and dosage of SP
and V.M.A and other mix proportions. For a mix without SP this value has reported around 0.55.
2.3.5

Effect of Aggregates

It is not always possible to predict the degree of compaction into a structure by using the
test result on the degree of compaction of the concrete into another structure, since the maximum
size of coarse aggregate is close to the minimum spacing between the reinforcing bars of the
structure [Okamura, 2003]. The increase in coarse aggregate content will reduce the selfcompactabity, reported from U-tube test but in addition to amount, this largely depend on the
spacing of reinforcement bars, aggregate size, shape and grading. The relationship between
coarse aggregate content in concrete and the filling height of the Box-type test, which the
standard index for self-compactability of fresh concrete, is shown that filling height through
different obstacle varied depending on the coarse aggregate content [Okamura, 2003]. The test
results from Okamura shows that the influence of coarse aggregate on the flow ability of fresh
concrete largely depends on the size of the spacing of the obstacle. The increase in coarse
aggregate content up to 300 liter per cum will not result the decrease in fill height. Beyond this
value significant decrease in fill height has been reported, but the trend is almost linear trend also
varying with spacing between obstacles. So the amount, type, size, shape of aggregate is mostly
concerned with passing ability and filling ability. The effect of aggregate packing density on
workability from Khayat reported that the use of coarse aggregate with a near-optimum packing
density (NOPD) reduces the HRWR demand compared to slightly lower packing density (SLPD)
aggregates, i.e. higher the packing density better the workability. The decrease in viscosity has
been reported with increasing packing density [Khayat]. The use of NOPD aggregate increased
the filling capacity by 5 to 15% compared to the SLPD aggregates. SLPD aggregate reported
lower settlement than the NOPD aggregates. The better resistance to settlement is obtained by
using higher content of fines ( 80 m) and lower coarse aggregate volume of mixtures made
with the SLPD aggregate. The increase in fine aggregate content resulted the decrease in
workability and a slight decrease in filling height. This effect has been studied under the pressure
transferability of mortar. The increase in fine aggregate content results in increase of viscosity of
mortar. The role of fine aggregate content on the segregation resistance, as per S.P.Shah that the
fine aggregates place an additional upward force on the coarse aggregates, hindering segregation.
2.3.6

Summary
26

From the above findings, it can be summarized that the flow properties such as flow
ability, segregation resistance, filling ability, passing ability are mainly governed by the paste
content, water- powder ratio and fine to coarse aggregate proportions. There are no findings on
the effect of interaction of individual factors and the simultaneous effect on other flow properties
with the change in one flow property. So there is need to develop empirical models by
considering simultaneous effects of various governing factors, it helps in determining the recipe
for the required application.
2.4

METHODS FOR ACHIEVING SELF-COMPACTABILITY

The method for achieving self compactability involves not only high deformability of
paste or mortar, but also resistance to segregation between coarse aggregate and mortar when the
concrete flows through the confined zone of reinforcing bars. As per Okamura and Ozawa the
following are the methods to achieve Self- compactability
(1) limited aggregate content
(2) low water powder ratio
(3) use of super plasticizer and viscosity modifying agents
The frequency of collision and contact between aggregate particles can increase as the relative
distance between the particle decreases and then internal stress can increase when concrete is
deformed, particularly near obstacles. It has been revealed that the energy required for flowing is
consumed by the increased internal stress, resulting in blockage of aggregate particles. Limiting
the coarse aggregate content, whose energy consumption is particularly intense, to a level lower
than normal proportions is effective in avoiding this kind of blockage.
Highly viscous paste is also required to avoid the blockage of coarse aggregate when concrete
flows through obstacles. When concrete is deformed, paste with high viscosity also prevents
localized increases in the internal stress due to approach coarse aggregate particles. High
deformability can be achieved only by the employment of a super plasticizer, keeping the waterpowder ratio to be very low value.

27

Fig. 2.4.1 shows the basic principles for the production of SCC.

Finally, a concrete mix having excellent deformability, adequate fluidity, High resistance to
segregation and excellent stability can be achieved.

28

Excellent
deformability

Increase in the
deformability of the
paste:
Use of water reducing
admixtures
Balanced water powder
ratio
Reduction in internal
friction:
Reduced maximum size
of the aggregates and
low volume of coarse
aggregates
Use of continuous
grading

Good stability

Reduction in
segregation
Limitation of the coarse
aggregates
Reduction in the
maximum size of the
aggregates
Increase in cohesion and
viscosity through a low
water powder ratio and
the use of viscosity
modifying agents
Reduction in bleeding
Low water content
Low water powder ratio
Use of powders with a
high surface area
Increase content of
viscosity modifying
admixture

Self compacting concrete

Fig 2.4.2 principles

29of achieving SCC

Low risk of
blockage

Increase in the
cohesiveness to
reduce segregation
of the aggregates
during casting:
Low water powder
ration
Use of viscosity
modifying
admixtures.
Compatible
distance between
reinforcement bars
and volume of the
aggregates
low volume of
coarse aggregate
limited maximum
size of aggregates

Paste, mortor
(liquid phase)

Concrete

Concrete during
casting

Flow ability

Flow ability

flow ability

Bond

Bond

Passing ability

AGGREGATES
(solid phase)
density
dimension
shape
volume

Resistance to
segregation
STRUCTURAL
DETAILS
Reinforcement bars
Architectural shape

CONSTRUCTION
Pumping speed
Casting speed

FILLING ABILITY

Fig2.4.3 relations between the different properties of SCC

30

Resistance to
flow

Fig

CEMENT ADDED
Mineral additions
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Dry mixing for 5 seconds
WATER ADDED
Mixing for 2 minutes followed by a
pause of 1 minute for false set
SUPERPLASTICISER
ADDED

Mixing for 2 minutes

MEASURE OF SLUMPFLOW
Remixing
ADDITION OF VMA
Remixing
TESTS
Slump-flow
V-funnel
U-tube
L-box
Fill Box test

SELF - COMPACTING

YES

NO

ADJUSTMENTS

2.4.4 Summary of the laboratory procedure used for the experiment

31

2.5

SEGREGATION CONTROL THEORY

The most common way to produce workable concrete is by simply adding a high dosage
of high-range water-reducing admixture during mixing. As the dosage of high-range waterreducing admixture increases, however, the aggregates begin to segregate during hauling and
placement. Although the rheology of the cement paste has been altered to become more fluid,
segregation of the aggregates results in an unacceptable construction material. The rheology of
the more complex composite material (paste + aggregates) dictates the self-flowing capability of
concrete. Thus, avoiding Segregation of the aggregates is then a critical design parameter. One of
the most important requirements for any self-flowing material is that the particles remain
suspended while the material is at rest; with only minimum segregation occurring due to creep. It
is equally important that the particles move with the matrix as a cohesive fluid during flow.
Consequently, segregation of the aggregates in concrete must be avoided under both static (at
rest) and dynamic (flowing) conditions.
2.5.1

Static Segregation Control

The balance between the buoyant and gravitational forces acting on an aggregate and the
restoring force due to the yield stress of the cement paste matrix provides an estimate of the size
(and density) of a particle that will remain motionless under static conditions (Fig. 2.5.1)

Gravitation
al force

Buoyant
force

Cement paste
matrix

Restoring
force

Fig.2.5.1 Representation of aggregate suspended

In cement paste, Restoring force must be at least equal to gravitational and buoyant forces to
avoid particle segregation.
The total downward force acting on an aggregate is the difference between the gravitational and
buoyant forces
Fdown = Fgrav - Fbuoy

(1)

32

The gravitational force Fgrav is given as

Fgrav = g p Vp

(2)

Where g is the gravitational constant, p is the density of the aggregate, and Vp is the particle
volume. The buoyant force Fbuoy is expressed as
Fbuoy = g m Vp

(3)

Where m is the density of the matrix. Combining Eq, (2) and (3), the total downward force
acting on an aggregate is
Fdown = g (p - m )Vp

(4)

Under static conditions, the restoring, or drag, force exerted by the cement paste matrix is
proportional to the yield stress. This can be expressed as
Fres = y AP

(5)

Where y is the yield stress of the paste, and AP is the cross-sectional area of the particle
submerged in the cement paste matrix. The yield stress is often defined as the stress required to
initiate macroscopic flow [Saak, 1998].
For a particle to remain stationary, the restoring force must be at least equal to the total
downward force. Setting Eq. (4) equal to Eq. (5), the minimum yield stress of the cement paste
matrix, assuming spherical particles, is given as
y 4g r/3

(6)

Where r is the particle radius. It is important to note that the difference in density between the
aggregate and the cement paste is also an important factor determining segregation resistance
under static conditions. Rearranging Eq, (6) to move the cement paste-controllable terms on the
left gives
y / 4gr/3

(7)

Thus, for a given aggregate, both the yield stress and density of the matrix are important in
designing for segregation Resistance. For maximum segregation resistance, the yield stress of
the paste would be high, and the difference in Density between the aggregate and the paste
would be low.
2.5.2 Dynamic Segregation Control
During placement, the yield stress of cement paste is exceeded and the Concrete begins to

33

flow at a low shear rate. The ratio between the stress required for the material to flow at a
given shear rate and the shear rate itself is called - apparent viscosity, or simply viscosity
=/
(8)
Qualitatively viscosity is a measure of a materials resistance to flow.
If the density of the particle is greater than the density of the matrix, segregation will occur to
some extent. If the viscosity of the matrix is high enough, however, the velocity of the falling
particle will be so slow that segregation, for all practical purposes, is avoided. In this dynamic
case, the restoring force in Fig 2.5.1 is replaced by a drag force given by
Fdrag = CD m V2 AP / 2

(9)

Where CD is the drag coefficient and V is the constant terminal falling velocity of the particle
(that is, the particle is not accelerating). By combining Eq. (4) and (9), the terminal velocity
can be expressed as
V = 8 g rp / 3 CD m

(10)

To avoid segregation, the terminal velocity of the falling particle should be minimized.
The drag coefficient is related to the particle Reynolds number Re at a specific terminal
velocity. The Reynolds number is a measure of the energy dissipated by viscous effects.
Classically, it is defined as the ratio of inertia to viscous forces. The Reynolds number of a
sphere is defined as
Re = 2rpm v /

(11)

Where is the viscosity of the matrix. At high CD, the terminal velocity of a falling sphere is
low (that is, segregation is avoided). This condition results in a low Reynolds number, or
equivalently, a high paste viscosity. Once again, it should be noted that the terminal velocity is
also a function of the density difference between the cement paste matrix and aggregate. Thus,
both the viscosity and density of the cement paste matrix control aggregate segregation during
dynamic flow conditions.
Cement paste is shear thinning and viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate.
Consequently, it is important to consider what shear rate range the material encounters in the
field when designing foe segregation resistance. The common concrete processing procedures
of hauling, placing, and casting are low shear rate operations. Using the table given by Reed
[20].

34

Gravity

pouring

mixing

rolling
Spraying

leveling

0.1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

Shear Rate (S-1)

Fig 2.5.2 Shear rate range for different processing procedures.
The maximum shear rates experienced by typical concrete are most likely between l and 100 S 1
(Fig.2.5.2). The theory introduced previously for a single particle in an infinite matrix is
obviously not an accurate picture of real concrete. The fine and coarse aggregates in concrete
produce a continuous particle size distribution ranging from less than 100 to over 10,000 m
(0.1 to over 10 mm). The fine aggregate particles will segregate at a lower paste yield stress
and viscosity than the largest coarse aggregates. Thus, the fine aggregates place an additional
upward force on the coarse aggregates, hindering segregation. Assuming the aggregates are
packed to maximum density, the geometry of the system will also restrain the coarse
aggregates from segregating. Finally, the aggregate particles are not spherical, leading to an
even more complicated system to model from a fluid mechanics viewpoint.
Unfortunately, there are no fundamentally sound theoretical models for determining the
segregation of particles in highly concentrated suspensions like concrete. The influence of
hydrodynamic interactions as well as particle size distribution and morphology are among the
effects that lead to modeling difficulties. The best way to determine the segregation resistance of
such materials is by experiment. Nonetheless, the simple approach presented in this section
explains, to some extent, the principles governing the segregation of aggregates in concrete.
Based on these concepts, it should be possible to engineer the rheology of the cement paste
matrix to produce self-flowing concrete.
2.5.3 Self-Flow Zone (S F Z)
The theory introduced in the section entitled "Segregation control theory" suggests that
the density, yield stress, and viscosity of the cement paste matrix controls segregation resistance for a given aggregate distribution in concrete. Based on Eq. (7), (10), and (11), a
minimum paste yield stress and viscosity is necessary to avoid segregation under static and
dynamic conditions, respectively. The exact values for the minimum yield stress and viscosity,
however, are dependent on the density difference between the paste and aggregates.

35

Poor workability
Segregation

Self-flow zone
/

Optimum rheology for self-flow

Fig2.5.3 Yield stress versus viscosity diagram.
If the yield stress or viscosity is high enough, the particles will never segregate; however, the
material will also have poor workability. Thus, there is a critical range of yield stress and
viscosity where segregation is minimized; however, the concrete possesses the desired
workability for SCC applications. These ideas are illustrated in Fig. 2.5.3.The high workability
region in Fig. 4 is designated the self-flow zone (SFZ). The rheology of concrete is optimized at
a cement paste yield stress and, viscosity just high enough to avoid segregation. Segregation
resistance, however, is optimized for SCC at the highest yield stress and viscosity within the
SFZ.
2.6

MIX DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The present procedure for the production of self-compacting concrete is predominantly

empirical. The mix design is based on experience from Japan, the Netherlands, France and
Sweden. For the production of SCC, the mix design should be performed so, that the predefined
properties of the fresh and hardened concrete are reached for sure. The components shall be
coordinated one by one so that segregation, bleeding and sedimentation is prevented.

36

Fig 2.6.1 Determination of mix components for SCC (15)

This report presents a mix design method from a view point of high durability, economic
efficiency and application for different materials for SCC. Here concrete is considered a two
phase material, namely solid and liquid phases. Based on proposed criteria for solid and liquid
phases minimum paste volume can be estimated. The experimental results show that the method
can be useful for mix design of SCC, resulting in less superplasticizer dosage, less paste volume
and low drying shrinkage. Also the method can be applicable for different material.
SCC is a relatively new type of concrete that has been developed in recent years. The main
properties of interest in its fresh state are deformability, segregation resistance and blocking
property when the concrete flows through clear spacing between the reinforcement bars. Good
deformability or flow ability is necessary to ensure adequate flow under self-weight of SCC.
Adequate segregation resistance is required to ensure that components, especially coarse
aggregate, are uniformly distributed in SCC when it is in a static or flowing condition,
particularly through and around reinforcement. In addition, SCC should not block around
reinforcements. It is therefore necessary to apply appropriate mix design procedures for SCC in
order to achieve these properties. A mix design method for self-compacting concrete has been
presented, which is aimed at producing high durability and economic efficiency, while being
applicable for different materials. This describes the proposed criteria for the paste phase of the
concrete. Using procedures relevant to the criteria of aggregate and paste phase, minimum
required paste volume and optimum coarse to total aggregate ratio are determined.
2.6.1

Background for Proportioning

In optimum proportioning of the aggregate phase for SCC is considered as a two phase
material solid and liquid phases. The solid phase consists of fine and coarse aggregate the liquid
phase consists of powder water, admixtures and air. The paste fills the voids in the aggregate

37

matrix and provides a lubricating layer around each aggregate particle. Here the solid phase and
blocking criteria for the aggregate phasing SCC was developed based on the condition that the
concrete does not segregate and has sufficient deformability. From blocking criteria, a minimum
paste volume can be calculated in order to obtain Self-compaction of concrete without causing
blocking around the reinforcement.
For a given coarse to total aggregate ratio (Nga) by mass.
The maximum aggregate volume can be computed as follows:
Vab max

g ( s g ) * Nga
Pvgm * Nga * s
Pvsn * (1 Nga ) * g

Vabm
Vabn

Where
Vabmax is the maximum allowable aggregate volume in SCC.
g and s are specific gravities of coarse and fine aggregates, respectively.
Pvgm is volume ratio of coarse aggregate group m to total coarse aggregate, and
Pvsn is volume ratio of fine aggregate group n to total aggregate.
Vabm and Vabn are the blocking volumes of group m and n in coarse and fine aggregates,
respectively.
Vbam and Vabn can be calculated as follows:
Vbam = Nabm*Vt
Vabn = Nabn*Vt
Where Vt is total concrete volume, and from the results, for crushed coarse aggregate, the values
of Nabm and Nabn can be calculated as follows;
a) For 1
Dca 2.6

Nabm Nabn

Ck
Ck
Dca
1.6
1.6

b) For 2.6 Dca 15

Nabm Nabn

0.84 Ck
Dca 1.2097Ck 0.1761
1.24

c) For Dca > 15

38

Nabm Nabn = 0.84

Where Dca is the ratio between reinforcement clear spacing and the three-quarter
dimension of each aggregate fraction (Daf)
Daf = Mi-1+3/4(Mi Mi-1)
Mi and Mi-1 are upper and lower sieve dimensions of aggregate group I, respectively.
Ck is a coefficient dependent on ratio (K) between reinforcement diameter and maximum
aggregate size:
Ck= -0.0875 K + 0.55
K is ratio between reinforcement diameter () and maximum size of aggregate (Dmax)
Blocking criteria is useful in predicting minimum paste volume (Vpwmin) required for SCC
when it flows through clear spacing between reinforcement bars without blocking. Therefore, the
blocking criteria (solid-phase criteria) together with the liquid-phase criteria, which is described
in the following sections, are used to design mix proportions for self-compacting concrete.
2.6.2

Liquid-Phase Criteria

A formula to calculate the average spacing (Dss) between particle surfaces in concrete as
follows:

Dss Dav

Vpw Void
1
Vt Vpw

Where Dss is average spacing between particle surfaces (particles are assumed to be spherical);
Vpw is paste volume; Void is volume of voids in the densely compacted aggregate; Vt is total
concrete volume; and Dav is the average particle diameter, which is given by:
Dav

Di * Mi
Mi

Where Di: Average size of aggregate fraction I

Mi: Percentage of aggregate mass retained between upper and lower sieve sizes (obtained from
sieve analysis) in fraction i
A comprehensive mix proportioning method has been developed. The method is based on the
concept of:
High durability (control of strength and drying shrinkage),
39

 Economic efficiency (as low a paste volume and superplasticizer dosage as possible),
Capacity to be applied for many types of materials,
Enhancing quality control (as little sensitivity as possible to quality control), and
reducing necessity for extensive laboratory testing (less trial mixes, use of computer
program and rapid tests for deformability, blocking behavior and segregation
resistance of self-compacting concrete).
In order to produce SC-HPC conforming to the above requirements, the concrete should have the
following characteristics:
Slump flow diameter (Fd) should be larger than 650 mm in order to have good flow or
deformability, good surface appearance and the Penetration depth (Pd) should not be larger than
8 mm in order to ensure that concrete has satisfactory segregation resistance
The flow time T50 should not be greater than 12 seconds (T50 is the time for concrete to flow to
a diameter of 50 cm, when it is tested for slump flow) because flow time relates to speed of
construction;
Superplasticizer dosage should be less than 15 kg per m3 in dry form to reduce the cost of
concrete, and also to limit any undesirable effects due to concrete containing excessive amounts
of certain types of superplasticizer
As low a paste volume as possible in order to control drying shrinkage (as low paste volume
usually leads to lower drying shrinkage), and lower the cost of SCC.
2.6.3

Mixture Proportion Steps

The steps in the mix design procedure are as follows:

Construction criteria such as clear spacing between reinforcement bars, diameter of

reinforcement bars and requirement of compressive strength are specified.
Determine material characteristics for mineral admixtures, cement and aggregates,(such
as specific gravity, particle distribution, maximum size, average
Diameter (Dav) of different coarse to total aggregate ratio(Nga) (values of Nga
between 0.4 and 0.6 are recommended), void contents to corresponding to different Nga
that have Dav<6.5mm
Calculate maximum allowable aggregate volume (Vabmax)(or minimum paste volume
(Vpwmin)) with respective Nga, according to the blocking criteria.
Determine to the water to binder ratio and mineral admixture to total binder ratio in
considering the required compressive strength;
Calculate minimum required values of Dssmin for different Dav(with respective value of
Nga) and minimum required paste volumes (Vpdmin), according to the liquid phase
criteria;

40

2.6.4

Select the optimum Nga that requires the lowest paste volume according to the liquidphase criteria, provided that its respective Dav is not larger than 6.5mm;otherwisse,
choose the Nga which has Dav of 6.5mm .the paste volume (Vopt)at optimum coarse to
total aggregate ratio(Nopt),which satisfies both blocking criteria(solid phase) and liquid
phase criteria, is selected as follows:
f1) Vopt > V pdmin, if V pdmin > Vpwmin; or
f2) Vopt. > Vpwmin, if Vpwmin<Vpwmin, and Vpwmin is not too high from the view
point of economic efficiency (Vopt< 420kg/m3 is recommended);
In the case of very narrow clear spacing between reinforcement bars and Vpwmin is too
high (Vpwmin>420kg/m3), the use of coarse aggregate with smaller maximum size
should be considered;
Estimate superplasticiser dosage, and carryout trail mixing and testing;
If the required superplastcciser dosage is very high (SP> 15kg per m3 concrete) or if the
mix is unsatisfactory, it is necessary to increase paste volume (Vpw)or adjust water to
binder ratio and admixture, accordingly.
Some Guideline as Per Okamura

Self-Compactability can be largely affected by the characteristics of materials and the

mix proportion. A rational mix design method for self-compacting concrete using a variety of
materials is necessary. Okamura and Ozawa have proposed a simple mix proportioning system
assuming general supply from ready-mixed concrete plants. The coarse and fine aggregate
contents are fixed as explained above (minimum voids criteria) so that the self compactability
can be achieved easily by adjusting water powder ratio and super plasticizer dosage only.

The coarse aggregate content in concrete is fixed at 50% of the solid volume.
The fine aggregate content is fixed at 40% of the mortar volume
The water-powder ratio in volume is assumed as 0.9 to 1.0 depending on the properties of
powder.
The super plasicizer dosage and the final water-powder ratio are determined so as to
ensure self compactability.

The mortar or paste in SCC requires high viscosity as well as high deformability. This can be
achieved by the employment of a superplastcizer, which results in low water-powder ratio for
high deformability.
2.7

CONCRETE RHEOLOGY

Undoubtedly, flow of fresh concrete is in the domain of fluid dynamics that deals with mass in
motion, namely a time dependent parameter. Using static measurements to predict dynamic
behavior of fresh concrete is quite disputed. For this reason, the Bingham model was used to
characterize the flow behavior of fresh concrete by measuring the rheological data such as yield
stress and plastic viscosity [C.W.Tang].

41

2.7.1

Concrete Flow Using Rheological Parameters

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) can produce much higher fluidity with no occurrence of
segregation, thanks to its lower yield value and higher viscosity than conventional concrete.
However, the fresh property of SCC cannot be evaluated by conventional consistency test such
as slump test. It must be evaluated from the rheological point of view, of which SCC is
considered as a Bingham plastic fluid with two parameters, the yield value and plastic viscosity.
The ease of placement of concrete is usually referred to as workability. This word is ill defined
by hiding the two characteristics the yield stress and plastic viscosity. Many of the researchers
explained the fresh concrete as Bingham fluid with plastic viscosity and yield stress.
The equation as follows
0

Where
= Shear stressapplied to the fresh concrete in pa
O= yield stress in pa
= Plastic viscosity
= Shear strain rate (also called strain gradient in s-1

S
t
r
e
s
s

Yield stress

S
t
r
e
s
s

Shear strain rate

Plastic
Viscosit
y

Shear strain rate

Identical Yield Stress

but
Different Plastic Viscosity

Identical Plastic Viscosity

but
Different Yield Stress

Fig. 2.7.1- Yield stress and plastic viscosity of fresh concrete

2.7.2

Factors Affecting the Rheology of Concrete

As stated earlier, workability and other flow properties are related to the rheology of
concrete, which requires at least two parameters, such as the Bingham parameters, for adequate
42

description. What are the principal factors that influence the rheological parameters of concrete?
The first factors are the composition of the concrete, including the chemical and mineral
admixture dosage and type; the gradation, shape, and type of the aggregates; the water content;
and the cement characteristics. The same mixture design can result in different flow properties if
secondary factors are not taken into account. These are:

Mixer type: pan, truck, and so on. These may induce various levels of deflocculation and
air entrainment.
Mixing sequence, that is, the sequence of introduction of the materials into the mixer.
Mixing duration.
Temperature.
To determine the rheological characteristics needed for a specific application, the following items
need to be considered:
Method of delivering the concrete to the forms, for example, pumping,
bucket.
Method of consolidation, for example, vibration, tamping, none.
Type of finishing method.
In considering the application, some of these items will be automatically selected. For instance,
if a structure with a very high amount of reinforcement is built, the concrete needs to be selfconsolidating because it will be impossible for a vibrator to reach all the concrete.
Another variable that should be addressed is the time dependence of the rheological parameters.
This phenomenon is often called slump loss or excessive retardation. The placement of the
concrete becomes either difficult (slump loss) or the demoulding is retarded and strength
development is delayed.
In the present study only the effect of fine and coarse aggregates have been studied and an
empirical model also developed for yield stress and plastic viscosity only in terms of fine and
coarse aggregates.
2.7.3

Measurement of Rheological Parameters

Concrete is a complex material and its properties in the fresh state can have a large effect
on hardened properties. Unfortunately, the technology to measure the properties of fresh concrete
has not changed significantly in the last century. The main fresh concrete property, workability, is
still measured using the slump test. In fact, concretes with the same slump may flow differently
and have different workability. The reason two concretes with the same slump behave differently
during placement is that concrete flow cannot be defined by a single parameter. Most researchers
agree that the flow of concrete can be described reasonably well using a Bingham equation. This
equation is a linear function of the shear stress (the concrete response) versus shear rate. Two
parameters provided by the Bingham equation are the yield stress and the plastic viscosity. The
yield stress correlates reasonably well with the slump value, but the plastic viscosity is not
measured at all using the slump test. Plastic viscosity governs concrete flow behavior after flow
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has started, i.e., after the yield stress is overcome. The existence of the plastic viscosity helps
explain why concretes with the same slump may behave differently during placement. It is
critical to completely define concrete flow when special concretes, demanding major control of
workability, such as a self-compacting concrete (SCC) or high performance concrete (HPC), are
used or when concrete is placed in highly-reinforced structures. This is critical because a single
parameter such as the slump does not adequately describe their behavior during placement. More
sophisticated and precise tools are needed to determine the workability or flow properties of such
concretes. Several instruments have been designed to address this problem, some in an empirical
manner, and some attempting to apply absolute physical measurements to concrete rheology, i.e.,
and fluid rheology. The devices attempting to use fluid rheology methods to measure the flow of
concrete, i.e., measuring shear stress at varying shear rates, are called rheometers. They all
measure the resistance to flow of concrete at varying shear rate conditions. rheometer designed
for polymers or neat fluids with no solid particles are not suitable for measuring concrete due to
the presence and size of the solid aggregates. This situation has lead to a wide variety of designs
for concrete rheometers, making it difficult if not impossible to compare the results of the
rheometers on a common basis.
The concrete rheometers that are available today are:

BML (Iceland)
BTRHEOM (France)
CEMAGREF-IMG coaxial rheometer

But in the present study the rheological parameters are measured with a four bladed vane shear
apparatus. its operation is torque based principle. In this test, concrete has been placed in
cylinder with 150mm diameter and 300mm height. the vane dimensions are selected to satisfy
the following criteria/D<3.5, DT/D>2,Z1/D>1,Z2/D>1, The rotating (blade)vanes are 50mm
diameter and 100mm height. The vane is lowered into cylinder which is filled with concrete. As
shown in fig 2.7.2. Then the torque is applied at a particular rpm this means we are inducing
shear rate in the concrete. But concrete will offer resistance against the rotation of the vane, but
at a particular level this concrete fail to offer resistance against the motion, that is the shear stress
at that speed in such a manner shear stress is measured at different rpm and shear stress to strain
rate are plotted that will give the plastic viscosity and yield stress. In the present study stress is
calculated at 12, 24, 48 rpm. The primary concern here is the size of coarse aggregate and gap
between the vane blade and the inner diameter of the cylinder should be at least three times the
largest diameter of the coarse aggregate.

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Level of concrete
Main
(=8mm)shaft

Z1

Z2

DT
Fig.2.7.2 Vane Shear Apparatus for Concrete Rheology
2.7.4

Models to Predict Rheological Properties

For the engineer who needs to design concrete for a specific application or for a specific
placement method, the challenge lies in the prediction of the fresh concrete's properties from its
composition. Generally, there are procedures or codes to estimate the slump values depending on
factors such as wlc ratio and chemical and mineral admixture dosage, but most of the time
several trial batches are needed.
A model that could predict the rheological parameters, yield stress and viscosity, from the
composition or from minimal laboratory tests would be beneficial.
Compressible Packing Model:
LCPC developed this model for predicting concrete properties from its composition. Concrete is
defined as a granular mixture (from cement to the coarse aggregates) in a water suspension. A
concrete with no workability, that is, no flow, is defined as a concrete where the porosity is filled
with water. This statement implies that there is no excess water between the solid components.
Therefore, the yield stress can be correlated with the stress needed to initiate flow by overcoming
the friction forces between the particles. These forces depend on the number and type of contacts
between the particles.

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Each component i of the mixture is defined by its close packing density, *i and the volumetric
fraction of solid material (with respect to a total volume of one), i. A close packing density is
defined as the maximum possible value of i. with all the other j (ji) being constant. Also, the
whole mixture is characterized by a close packing maximum, *, and the volumetric fraction of
the solid materials, i.
The yield stress,0 can then be defined as:

0 = f (1./ *1, 2./ *2, 3./ *3, n./ *n, )

where f is an increasing function because the yield stress will increase with increasing value of
i./ *i
To determine the viscosity dependence on the volumetric concentration, we can assume that
the speed of each particle under shear is the same and equal to the macroscopic speed. Therefore,
it is assumed that the flow of the fluid between the particles is laminar and that the shear
resistance will remain proportional to the overall gradient. Thus, if the Bingham equation is
assumed to be valid, the plastic viscosity can be deduced to be:
= 0 g* i./ *i
where 0 is the plastic viscosity of the suspending fluid and g is an increasing function, because
the viscosity wi\1 increase with increasing concentration of particles.
These equations were tested by comparison with a series of 78 concrete batches in which
rheological parameters were measured using the BTRHEOM. The close packing and the
volumetric fraction of each component were calculated using the CPM.9 The plastic viscosity
was determined by a best-fit equation, given by the equation below
' = exp{ 26.75[(./ *)-0.7448]}
The yield stress can be calculated by a linear combination of all the components' volume
fraction/close-packing ratios. It appears that different coefficients need to be calculated for
concrete with and without high-range water reducing admixtures (HRWRA). The data used were
from the same set as used for the viscosity.
For mixtures without HRWRA the yield stress was:

0 = exp (2.537 + O.540K'g + O.854K's. + J.134K'c)

And, for the mixtures with 1% HRWRA (without silica fume), it was:

0 =exp (2.537 + O.540K'g + O.854K's + O.224K'c)

In these equations, 0 is the yield stress obtained by fitting the rheometer results in accordance
with the Herschel-Bulkley model. The indices g, s, and c relate to gravel, sand, and cement,
respectively. Kr is equal to (1 x./ *x).
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This model is part of a larger set of models that can take into account other properties of
both fresh and hardened concrete. This model links the composition of the concrete with its
performance.
2.8

Advantages of SCC

In identifying market perspective for the use of SCC, it is important to recognize the
potential beneficiaries of this new technology and the driving factors that could lead to its
adoption. Each party involved in the construction process, including material suppliers,
contractors, structural designers, architects, owners and end users might have different sets of
interest among the advantages of SCC that would constitute commercial and technical drivers for
adopting this technology. Cost savings and/or performances enhancement can be the driving
forces behind the realization of the added value of SCC
I.

Economic benefits:
Less intensive construction activities result in labor saving, time saves due to higher rate of
production, possibility of using cast-in-places precast construction for certain applications.

II.

Technological benefits:

Better filling of formwork with difficult access, use of vibration-free silent concrete in
urban areas to reduce noise, avoid vibration in areas sensitive to vibration, etc.
III.

Generic advantages:

The use of SCC can enable the casting of highly flowable concrete that can develop
mechanical properties independently of the know how of the vibrating crew. With the increase
in requirements for productivity and comfort on the job sites as well as the performance of the
hardened concrete, the use of SCC can:

Reduce labor cost.

Accelerate construction (higher rate of casting and no vibration is required and

shorter construction duration)
Facilitate and speed up the filling of highly reinforced sections and complex
formwork while ensuring good construction quality. This can ensure better
productivity and/or reduce labor requirement and cost
Enable more flexibility in spreading casting points during casting. This can reduce
the need for frequent movement of transit trucks and the need to move the pump
lines to cast concrete. This results in greater flexibility in scheduling construction
activities and procuring the resources, resulting in both time and resource savings.
Enable the reduction of noise on the job site.

Permit more flexibility for detailing reinforcing bars: avoid the need to bundle
reinforcement to facilitate placement and consolidation, and can enable in some
cases the use of small and closely spaced rebars to control cracking.
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Smooth surfaces free of honeycombing and signs of bleeding and discoloration can
be obtained when using a well proportioned SCC, high quality formwork and
adequate debonding agent, and sound placement practice (height of free fall, speed
of spread into formwork). Superior surface quality is critical in architectural
concrete, cast-in-place and precast concrete for residential construction (walls).
Eliminate the need for underlayment, whenever allowed by building regulations.

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