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ENGINEERING MATERIALS

ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

METALS

PLASTICS

CERAMICS

COMPOSITES

METALS
A metal is a material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and
has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable that is, they can be
hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking as well as fusible
(able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire). About 91 of the
118 elements in the periodic table are metals (some elements appear in both metallic and nonmetallic forms).
ALLOYS
An alloy is as a material that's made up of at least two different chemical elements, one of which
is a metal. The most important metallic component of an alloy (often representing 90 percent or
more of the material) is called the main metal, the parent metal, or the base metal. The other
components of an alloy (which are called alloying agents) can be either metals or nonmetals and
they're present in much smaller quantities (sometimes less than 1 percent of the total).
Most engineering metallic materials are alloys. Metals are alloyed to enhance their properties,
such as strength, hardness or corrosion resistance, and to create new properties, such as shape
memory effect.
METALS

FERROUS
METALS

AMORPHOUS
METALS

NON FERROUS
METALS

FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS


Ferrous metals are those which contain iron. They can be a mixture of other metals or elements,
but all ferrous materials contain some form of iron which give them a magnetic quality and
makes them prone to corrosion. Ferrous metals include caste iron and steel.

FERROUS
METAL

CAST
IRON

STEEL

CAST IRON

WHITE
CAST IRON

GREY CAST
IRON

MALLEABLE
CAST IRON

NODULAR
CAST IRON

STEEL

MILD STEEEL OR
LOW CARBON
STEEL

MEDIUM
CARBON STEEL

HIGH CARBON
STEEL

HIGH SPEED
STEEL

STAINLESS
STEEL

FERROUS MATERIAL
MATERIAL
Cast iron
A strong metal when it is in
compression. It is very
brittle material. It is 93%
iron and 1.75% to 4.3%
carbon with other elements.

APPLICATION
Car brake discs, car cylinder, metal work vices, machinery bases,
manhole covers.

Mild steel or low carbon


steel
0.15% to 0.45% carbon. A
ductile and malleable metal.
Mild steel will rust quickly
if tit is in frequent contact
with water.

Nuts and bolts, car body, building girders, gates etc.

Medium-carbon steel

Axle shafts, crank shafts, and gearing plates, railway wheels, rails,
structural beams.
The ductility of the steel allows it to be formed into thin shafts or
toothed plates without losing any of its tensile strength.

0.45% to 0.8% carbon.


High tensile strength and
ductility, despite its
brittleness when compared
to other forms of steel.

High carbon steel

Hand tools as screw drivers, hammer, chisels , saws, springs and


garden tools.

Contains carbon 0.8% to


1.5%. Very hard and strong
steel that has a high
resistance to abrasion.

High speed steel

Drill bits, lathe cutting tools. It is used where high speed and high
temperature is used.

HSS is a steel containing


high content of tungsten,
vanadium and chromium.
Highly brittle. High
resistance to wear.

Stainless steel

Kitchen sinks, teapots, cookwares and surgical instruments.

It is an alloy of iron with a


typical 18% chromium, 8%
nickel and 8% magnesium.
It is very resistant to wear,
corrosion and rust.

NON-FERROUS METALS
Non-ferrous metals are the opposite of ferrous they do not contain any iron. They will not have
a magnetic quality and typically resist corrosion much better than ferrous metals. The category of
non-ferrous metals also includes raw materials pure metals. Aluminum, copper, aluminum
alloys, lead, tin are all considered non-ferrous metals.
MATERIAL

APPLICATION

Aluminium- It can be polished to a mirror like Saucepan, cooking foil, window frames,
appearance. It is light in weight.

ladders, expensive bicycles.

Copper A ductile and malleable metal. It is Plumbing, electric components, cookware and
red/brown colour. It is a good conductor of roof coverings.
heat and electricity.

Zinc Very resistant to corrosion from Used as a coating on screws, steel buckets. It is
moisture. Mainly used for coating steel.

used to galvanize steel.

Tin Very ductile and malleable metal. Coating on beer cans, food cans, tin foil,
Resistant to corrosion from moisture. It is whistles and soldering.
bright silver in appearance. Tinplates are steel
with a tin coating.

Lead soft malleable metal. It is counted as Roof flashing, used for batteries, for protection
one of the heavy metals. Lead has a bluish of X ray protection.
white colour after being cut fresh, but it soon
tarnishes to a dull grayish colour when exposed
to air.

NON FERROUS ALLOYS


Brass copper and 4 to 45% zinc alloy. Water fittings, screws, radiators, musical
Colour of brass varies from dark reddish brown instruments, catridge for firearms.
to light silvery yellow. It is stronger and harder
than copper but not as strong as steel. Easy to
form into shapes, a good conductor of heat and
generally resistant to corrosion from salt water.

Bronze copper and 12% tin alloy. Hard and Ship propellers, under water fittings, statues
brittle material. Very high resistance to and medals.
corrosion.

Gunmetal 88% Copper, 10% zinc and 2% Automobile body parts, gun barrels, pi[pe
tin. Hard al loy with high wear resistance.
fittings.

Solder Tin and lead alloy. It is fusible metal Electronis, plumbing, jewelry and repair
alloy used to join meal work pieces.
process where metal parts cannot be effectively
welded.

Duralumin- Aluminium, 4% copper, 0.5% Construction & Equipment, Containers


magnesium, 0.5% manganese and 0.5 silicon. & Packaging, Automotives, Aerospace
It is a light weight material and corrosion
resistant.

AMORPHOUS METALS
Metallic Glasses or Amorphous Metals are inorganic mixtures fused at high temperatures
which solidify on cooling, but do not crystallize. These materials consist of very rapidly cooled
molten alloys which are not given time to crystallize before solidification. The alloys vary
slightly in composition but most contain about 92% iron, 3% boron and 5% silicon by weight.
In an amorphous material, similar to glass, the atoms are not arranged in any ordered structure.
Rather, they have a tightly-packed, yet random arrangement.

Because there are no structured planes of atoms in an amorphous material, the atoms are
gridlocked into the glassy structure, making the movement of groups of atoms very difficult. One
consequence of this atomic gridlock is that some amorphous metals are very hard and have very
high stiffness and a very high elastic modulus. The combination of hardness and elasticity of
amorphous material is an important factor in its many applications.

Application
Using soft magnetic cores made from amorphous metal alloys reduces energy loss in electrical
transformers by up to 85 percent.
tennis racket, razor blades that last much longer, coatings in refineries and oil pipes, armor,
phone casings, anti-theft devices, and fine jewelry, such as watches and rings.

BEHAVIOUR
AND
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

STRUCTURE OF
MATERIALS

ATOMIC BONDS
CRYSTALLINE
AMORPHOUS
PARTLY CRYSTALLINE
POLYMER CHAINS

MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL AND
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

PROPERTY
MODIFICATION

STRENGTH
HEAT TREATMENT

STIFFNESS
DENSITY

ALLOYING

MELTING POINT

COMPOSITES

DUCTILITY

SPECIFIC HEAT

REINFORCEMENT

BRITTLENESS

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

LAMINATES

MALLEABILTY

ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY

FILLERS

ELASTICITY
PLASTICITY

TOUGHNESS
RESILENCE

THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY

CREEP

THERMAL EXPANSION

FATIGUE

CORROSSION

HARDNESS

THE IMPORTANT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

I. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation n the
external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins,
and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application i\e
force. The ductile materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
duct1ility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking
of a material with little permanent distortion. Cast iron is a brittle material.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered
into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.
Malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
malleability) lead. soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of a material decreases when it is heated. This property is
desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.
9. Resilience. It is property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It
is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit. This property
is essential for spring materials.
10. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered
in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
II. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure is caused b) means of

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a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and microscopic size. This property
considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears etc.
12. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and
machine ability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.

PLASTICS
Plastics are materials containing synthetic or semi synthetic organics. They can be molded to
diverse shape when heated and then hardened. They are synthetic and mostly derived from
petrochemicals, but many are partially natural. The first fully synthetic plastic is Bakelite.

PLASTICS

THERMOSETTING
OR
THERMOSETS

THERMOSOFETENING
OR
THERMOPLASTICS

ELASTOMERS

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS OR THERMOSETS


Plastics which cures irreversibly, That sis they hardened permanently when cooled. They cannot
be reheated and melted to another shape. That is they can be shaped only once.
Epoxy resin, Polyester resin, Phenolic resin.
Application Adhesives, electrical insulation, handles, control knobs, bonding materials.

THERMOSOFTENING PLASTICS AND THERMOPLASTICS


These are plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their chemical composition when
heated. They are molded above a specific temperature and solidifies on cooling. They can be
molded again and again.

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Polyethylene, Propelyne, Poly vinychloride (PVC), Polystyrene


Application Wash basins, chairs, toys, bottles, medical equipments, kitchen equipments.

ELASTOMERS
Rubbery material composed of polymers that are capable of recovering their original shape after
being stretched.
Poly isoprene (Natural rubber) gaskets, shoe heels
Poly eurethene

- in textile industry for elastic clothing, foams

Poly butadiene

- tyres for vehicles because of extraordinary wear resistance.

Neoprene

- wet suits, industrial belts

CERAMICS
Nonmetallic substances made by inorganic compounds like oxides, carbides and nitrides. It has;
high refractoriness, poor load carrying capacity, high brittleness and poor machinabilty.
Application Pottery, tiles, refractory materials, glass.

COMPOSITE MATERIAL
These are materials produced by combining two or more materials together having superior
properties.
Wood is a natural composite where as concrete and plywood are artificial composites.
Application fiber glass door, automobile parts, semiconductors, electrical and electronic
components.
For BMW M3 model the Al bumper is replaced by a glass/polymide material. A weight
reduction from 7 kg to 3.1 kg is realized. The crash performance increased 3 to 4 times than a
metal beam.

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Materials are converted into finished products though different manufacturing processes.
Manufacturing processes are classified into shaping [casting], forming, joining, and coating,
dividing, machining and modifying material property.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURING
CASTING:
In casting process the components are manufactured by pouring molten metal such as cast iron,
aluminium, brass etc. into moulds prepared in molding boxes by wooden or metal patterns.
A mould is formed into the geometrical shape of a desired part. Molten metal is poured into the
mold; the mold holds the material in shape it solidifies. A metal casting is created. The mold
contains a delivery system for the molten material to reach the mold cavity.
MOULD:
A mould is defined as the negative print of the part to be cast and is obtained by the pattern in
moulding boxes into which molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify.
TYPES OF MOULDS
1. Temporary moulds
These moulds are destroyed at the removing of casting from them e.g, green sand moulds.
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2. Permanent moulds
These moulds are used in die casting. These moulds are used for long time. E.g, metallic moulds.
PATTERN
Patterns are objects by which the interior cavities of the mold where the molten metal solidifies
are formed by impression. It is a geometrical replica of the metal casting to be produced. Patterns
are formed by wood or metals like aluminium, steel or cast iron.

GATING SYSTEM

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Main parts of Gating System


Pouring basin: It is also known as pouring cup. Molten metal is poured through the
pouring basin.
Sprue: The sprue takes molten metal from the pouring basin to the runner.
Runner: The runner carries molten metal to the gate.
Gate: The molten metal entries the mould through the gate.
Riser: Riser is a passage. After the mould is filled up with molten metal rises into the
riser and comes to the top.

TYPES OF SAND MOULDING


GREEN SAND MOULDING
Green sand is by far the most diversified molding method used in current metal casting
operations. The green sand process utilizes a mold made of compressed or compacted moist sand
packed around a wood or metal pattern. The term "green" denotes the presence of moisture in the
molding sand, and indicates that the mold is not baked or dried.

STEPS IN GREEN SAND MOLDING


For green sand molding a two piece pattern is used.
One half of the pattern is placed on a molding board.
The drag box is placed around the pattern 20mm layer of facing sand is first
placed around the pattern.
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Then the drag box is filled up with green sand.


Ramming is done by hammer.
After completing the ramming process the excess sand is removed by strike off
bar.
Vent holes are made.
Then the drag box is tilted upside down.
Parting sand is applied on the upper side to prevent two pieces of pattern from
sticking to each other.
Cope box is placed correctly in position on the drag box.
Sprue pin and riser pin are placed in position.
Then the cope box is filled up with molding sand and ramming is done.
Vent holes are made; sprue pin and riser pin are removed.
Cope box and drag box are separated.
The pattern pieces are removed slowly and gate is cut to mould.
Repair works are done in mould if necessary.
Surfaces of the mould are coated with graphite to give smooth surface to the
casting. The two moulds are assembled in correct position.
A pouring weight is placed. Now the mould is ready for pouring.
Advantages

Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can be used.


Low Pattern & Material costs.
Almost no limit on size, shape or weight of part.
Adaptable to large or small quantities
Used best for light, bench molding for medium-sized castings or for use with production
molding machines.

Disadvantages
Low design complexity.
Lower dimensional accuracy.

DRY SAND MOLDING


The step by step procedure of making dry sand mould is the same as that of green sand molding.
The only difference is that after making the mould it is heated. The heating is done by oxyacetylene flame for large moulds. Small moulds are heated in ovens.
Application:

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Dry sand moulds are used for large castings such as engine cylinders, engine blocks.
Advantages:
Dry sand mould is stronger than green sand mould.
Dimensional accuracy of dry sand mould is high as compared with green sand mould.
Dry sand moulds are coated with wax therefore surface finish is more.

Disadvantages

This type of molding is much more expensive than green sand molding and is not a highproduction process. Correct baking (drying) times are essential.

SHEET METAL OPERATIONS


Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms used
in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless everyday
objects are constructed of the material. Sheet metal processes can be broken down into two major
classifications and one minor classification
Shearing processes -- processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture, or separate
the material.
Forming processes -- processes which cause the metal to undergo desired shape changes
without failure, excessive thinning, or cracking. This includes bending and stretching.

SHEET METAL CUTTING OR SHEARING OPERATION


The cutting or shearing operations are conducted to convert the shape of the sheet to that of the
pattern. The different types of shearing operations are
1. Cutting off: It is the process of cutting a piece from a sheet metal .The cut is made along
a straight line for removing a piece. With each cut a new part is produced.

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2. Parting: Separating a part from the remaining sheet, by punching away the material
between parts. Parting is less efficient than cut as it results in wastage of materials.

3. Blanking: It is the process of cutting out a metal strip of required shape from a work
usually called blank. The metal blanked out through the die is the required product. The
sheet metal left on the die is the scrap. The cut out shape is called blank. Punches are
used for this purpose.

4. Punching: It is a piercing operation. This is the operation of making circular holes on the
sheet. Punches are used for this purpose.

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5. Notching: This is the process of removing metal to the desired shape from the edge of
the sheet. Notching die and punch is used for this purpose.

6. Slitting: This is a process of cutting along a number of parallel lines to form the sheet by
using snips. Slitting is a type of metal cutting process where large rolls, or coils, of sheet
metal stock are cut using extremely sharp rotary blades. In metal slitting, straight lines are
cut lengthwise into the large coil to create strips of metal that are narrower in width.

7. Trimming: This is the operation of cutting away the excess metal from a formed part to
establish shape by snips or chisel.

8. Lancing: Lancing is the operation of cutting an interior section of the sheet metal without
removing the section then bending the cut portion. Lancing leaves an opened metal tab.

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METAL FORMING PROCESSES


Bending
Bending is a non-cutting operation. This operation is carried out in a press. It is a process of
plastically deforming the metal sheet along a line.
Bending should be done perpendicular to the direction of the grains. If bending is done parallel
to the grains, cracks will develop. Bending operation can be performed only in ductile materials.

Air bending is the most common type of 3 types of bending used in sheet metal shops today. In
this process the work piece comes in contact with the outside edges of the die, as well as the
punch tip. The punch is then forced past the top of the die into the v-opening without coming
into contact with the bottom of the v. Because the punch tip does not need to be forced past the
surface of the metal much less tonnage is required to bend.

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Seaming involves bending the edges of two parts over on each other. As the bends are locked
together each bend helps resists the deformation of the other bend, providing a well joint
structure.

Stretching
Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet metal is stretched and bent
simultaneously over a die in order to form large contoured parts. Ductile materials are preferable,
the most commonly used being aluminum, steel, and titanium.
Stretch forming is performed on a stretch press, in which a piece of sheet metal is securely
gripped along its edges by gripping jaws. Stretch formed parts are typically large and possess
large radius bends. The shapes that can be produced vary from a simple curved surface to
complex non-uniform cross sections.
Stretch forming is capable of shaping parts with very high accuracy and smooth surfaces.
Typical stretch formed parts are - large curved panels such as door panels in cars or wing panels
on aircraft, window frames and enclosures.

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Deep drawing
Deep drawing is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is stretched into the desired part
shape. A tool pushes downward on the sheet metal, forcing it into a die cavity in the shape of the
desired part. The tensile forces applied to the sheet cause it to plastically deform into a cupshaped part. Deep drawn parts are characterized by a depth equal to more than half of the
diameter of the part.
These parts can have a variety of cross sections with straight, tapered, or even curved walls, but
cylindrical or rectangular parts are most common. Deep drawing is most effective with ductile
metals, such as aluminum, brass, copper, and mild steel.

Examples of parts formed with deep drawing include automotive bodies and fuel tanks, cans,
cups, kitchen sinks, and pots and pans.
Spinning or Spin forming
Spinning, sometimes called spin forming, is a metal forming process used to form cylindrical
parts by rotating a piece of sheet metal while forces are applied to one side. A sheet metal disc is
rotated at high speeds while rollers press the sheet against a tool, called a mandrel, to form the
shape of the desired part. Spun metal parts have a rotationally symmetric, hollow shape, such as
a cylinder, cone, or hemisphere.
Examples include cookware, hubcaps, satellite dishes, rocket nose cones, and musical
instruments.

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Spinning is typically performed on a manual or CNC lathe and requires a blank, mandrel, and
roller tool. The blank is the disc-shaped piece of sheet metal that is pre-cut from sheet stock and
will be formed into the part.

Roll forming
Roll forming, sometimes spelled roll forming, is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is
progressively shaped through a series of bending operations. The process is performed on a roll
forming line in which the sheet metal stock is fed through a series of roll stations.
Each station has a roller, referred to as a roller die, positioned on both sides of the sheet. The
shape and size of the roller die may be unique to that station, or several identical roller dies may
be used in different positions. The roller dies may be above and below the sheet, along the sides,
at an angle, etc.
As the sheet is forced through the roller dies in each roll station, it plastically deforms and bends.
Each roll station performs one stage in the complete bending of the sheet to form the desired
part.

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Typical roll formed parts include panels, tracks, shelving, etc. These parts are commonly used in
industrial and commercial buildings for roofing, lighting, storage units, and HVAC applications.

FORGING
Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably
applying compressive force. Usually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using
a power hammer or a press.
Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper
design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual
use. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation.
Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than
in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.
The forging process is very important in industrial metal manufacture, particularly in extensive
iron and steel industry.

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FORGING OPERATIONS:
1: Drawing:
This is the operation in which metal gets elongated with a reduction in the cross section area. For
this, a force is to be applied in a direction perpendicular to the length axis.

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2: Up setting:
This is applied to increase the cross sectional area of the stock at the expense of the length. To
achieve the length of upsetting force is applied in a direction parallel to the length axis, For
example forming of a bolt head.

3: Bending:
Bending is very common forging operation. It is an operation to give a turn to metal rod or plate.
This is required for those which have bends shapes.

4: Punching:
It is a process of producing holes. The molten plate is placed over the hollow cylindrical die by
pressing the punch over the plate, the hole is made.

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5: Forged welding:
Forge welding is a solid-state welding process that produces a weld by heating the work pieces to
welding temperature and applying blows sufficient to cause permanent deformation at the faying
surface. It is a solid state process whereby the melting temperature is not reached.
Mighty hammer blows cause permanent deformation and assure metallurgical contact between
two elements to be welded together.

6: Cutting:
It is a process in which a metal rod or plate cut out into two pieces, with the help of chisel and
hammer, when the metal is in red hot condition.
7: Swaging:
Swaging is a process that is used to reduce or increase the diameter of tubes and/or rods.
This is done by placing the tube or rod inside a die that applies compressive force by hammering
radially. This can be further expanded by placing a mandrel inside the tube and applying radial
compressive forces on the outer diameter. Thus, the inner diameter can be a different shape, for
example a hexagon, and the outer is still circular.

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Blanking
Blanking is a metal fabricating process, during which a metal work piece is removed from the
primary metal strip or sheet when it is punched. The material that is removed is the new metal
work piece or blank.

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ROLLING PROCESS
In rolling operation the work piece material is deformed plastically by compressive forces
between two constantly spinning rolls. These forces act to reduce the thickness of the metal and
affect its grain structure. In addition to reducing the thickness of the work, the rolls also act to
feed the material as they rolls in opposite directions to each other. Friction is therefore an
important part of the rolling operation.

TYPES OF ROLLING
Hot rolling:
Hot rolling is the process of rolling a metal above its recrystallization temperature. The rolling
mills are driven by an electric motor of up to 20 MW capacities.
Cold rolling
Cold rolling is a process of rolling metals and alloys below their recrystallization temperature.
Generally they are worked at room temperatures. Cold rolling does not reduce the thickness of a
work piece as much as hot rolling.
Comparison between cold and hot rolling
Sl. No
1
2
3
4

Hot rolling
Metal
is
heated
above the
recrystallization temperature.
Higher coefficient of friction between
the rollers and work.
Heavy reduction in area can be
obtained.
Mechanical properties are improved.

Cold rolling
Metal is heated below the recrystallization
temperature.
Less coefficient of friction between the
rollers and work piece.
Heavy reduction in area cannot be obtained.
Hardness increases, brittleness increases,
ductility decreases.

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5
6
7

Roller radius is larger.


Surface finish is not good.
Higher machines are used.

Smaller rollers are used.


Good surface finish and dimensional
tolerance.
Heavy machines are used.

TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS


1. Two high roll mill:
In two high rolling mills two equal sized rollers are used. These two rollers rotate in opposite
direction. The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper roll. A
series of reduction can be made by the same set of rolls, by passing the work back and forth.

2. Three high roll mill


This type of rolling mill consists of three equal sized rollers. The upper and lower rollers are
driven by electric motor and the middle roller rotates by friction. The direction of rotation of
upper and lower rollers is the same.

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3. Four high roll mill


The four high rolling mill consists of two working rollers and two backing rollers. The function
of the working rollers is to apply pressure on the work piece. The backup rollers are used to
prevent the deflection of the small rollers. This extremely rigid set up is usually used for cold
rolling high strength material to very thin width.

4. Cluster roll mill


The working rollers are driven by electric power. The backup rollers support the work piece. It is
a special type of four high rolling mill in which each of the two working rolls is backup by two
or more of the larger backup rolls for rolling hard in materials. It may be necessary to employ
work rolls of a very small diameter but of considerable length. In such cases adequate of the
working rolls can be obtained by using a cluster mill.

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POWDER METALLURGY

1. Powder production
a. Atomising Process

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In this process the molten metal is forced through an orifice into a stream of high velocity air,
steam or inert gas. This causes rapid cooling and disintegration into very fine powder particles
and the use of this process is limited to metals with relatively low melting point.

b. Gaseous Reduction
This process consists of grinding the metallic oxides to a fine state and subsequently, reducing it
by hydrogen or carbon monoxide. This method is employed for metals such as iron, tungsten,
copper, etc.
c. Electrolysis Process
In this process the conditions of electrode position are controlled in such a way that a soft spongy
deposit is formed, which is subsequently pulverized to form the metallic powder. The particle
size can be varied over a wide range by varying the electrolyte compositions and the electrical
parameters. .

For example, for the production of copper powder, copper sulphate solution is the electrolyte.
Copper plate forms the anode and aluminum plate is used as cathode. When current is passed
copper deposited on the aluminum cathode plate. After a definite time the cathode plate is
scraped.
d. Mechanical Alloying
In this method, powders of two or more pure metals are mixed in a ball mill. Under the impact of
the hard balls, the powders are repeatedly fractured and welded together by forming alloy under
diffusion.

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2. Mixing of powders (Blending)

This can often involve the introduction of alloying additions in elemental powder form or the
incorporation of a pressing lubricant.
a. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles,
b. Blending facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide ranging physical and
mechanical properties,
c. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow characteristics of the
powder particles reducing friction between particles and dies.
d. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the green strength
during the powder compaction process.
3. Forming of the mixed powder into a compact
Compaction is carried out by pouring a measured amount of metallic powder into the die cavity
and applying pressure by means of one or more plungers. To improve uniformity of pressure and
reduce porosity in the compacted part, compressive forces from both the top and the bottom sides
are necessary.
The compaction exercise imparts the following effects.
a. Reduces voids between the power particles and enhance the density of the consolidated
powder,
b. Produces adhesion and bonding of the powder particles to improve green strength in the
consolidated powder particles,
c. Facilitates plastic deformation of the powder particles to conform to the final desired shape of
the part,
4. Sintering of the compact to enhance integrity and strength

This process step involves heating of the material, usually in a protective atmosphere, to a
temperature that is below the melting point of the major constituent. Sintering facilitates the
bonding action between the individual powder particles and increase in the strength of the final
part.

34

5. Secondary operations

The application of finishing processes to the sintered part. In the Powder Metallurgy industry,
such processes are often referred to as secondary operations.

Advantages

Efficient material utilization


Enables close dimensional tolerances near net shape possible
Good surface finish
Manufacture of complex shapes possible
Hard materials used to make components that are difficult to machine can be
readily made tungsten wires for incandescent lamps
Parts with controlled porosity can be made
No material is wasted as scrap
Bimetallic products can be produced
Limitations
High cost of powder material & tooling
35

Less strong parts than wrought ones


Less well known process
Powder metallurgy is not economical for small scale production
The density is not uniform throughout the products
The size of the products is limited , large components require heavy press

Application
Parts like self-lubricating bearings, filters, oil pump gears etc.
Brake linings and motor brushes
Nozzles used in rocket and missiles can be produced.

SOLDERING
Soldering is defined as the process of joining two pieces of metals using a filler metal, known as
solder, having a low melting point below the melting point of the work piece.
It is often confused with welding but the difference between them is, in soldering the work piece
is not melted, they are joined using a filler metal, but in welding work piece is joined by
melting. Soldering is accomplished with temperature under 400C

To achieve a sound soldered joint, the following should be considered:

Pre-cleaning: The surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned to allow the solder to wet the base
metal.
Fluxing: A flux must be provided to remove traces of surface film or oxides and to
prevent formation of oxides during the soldering operation.
Proper fixtures or alignment of parts must be maintained to insure a sound soldered joint.
Heating of the base metals should be uniform or even on base metals, to insure good
penetration of the filler alloy into the joint.
36

The filler metal used is known as solder. It is an alloy of Tin and Lead (60% 40%).
The purpose of the flux is to clean the surface. Soldering flux removes the film of oxides from
the metal and makes the solder and metal more able to dissolve in each other.
BRAZING
Brazing is also a metal-joining process. Brazing is when a filler metal or alloy is heated to its
melting temperature above 450C.
It is then distributed in liquid form between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action.
The filler metal is then brought slightly above its melting temperature. It then interacts with a
thin layer of the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled quickly. This forms a sealed
joint.
Brazed joints are generally stronger than the individual filler metals that have been used to make
them.
Basic steps in brazing
1. Ensure fit and clearance
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Clean metal
Flux prior to brazing
Fixturing of parts
Brazing the assembly
Cleaning the new joint

The flux applied is generally borax. The filler metal used is an alloy of cu and zn, known as
speltor.

37

Advantages

It's easy to learn.


You can join virtually any dissimilar metals.
The bond line can be very neat in appearance.
Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty use applications

The essential difference between brazing and soldering is the:


a. Types of filler materials
c. Melting temperature of the filler metals
d. Melting temperature of the fluxes
WELDING
Welding is a process of joining metallic components with or without application of heat, with or
without pressure and with or without filler metal.
Types of welding:
Welding processes can be broadly classified into (i) fusion welding, and (ii) solid state welding
Fusion welding:
In fusion-welding processes, heat is applied to melt the base metals. In many fusion welding
processes, a filler metal is added to the molten pool during welding to facilitate the process and
provide strength to the welded joint.
When no filler metal is used, that fusion welding operation is referred to as autogenous weld.
Types: Arc welding, Resistance welding, Oxyfuel gas welding, electron beam welding, laser
welding.
1. Arc welding:
It is a fusion welding process in which the melting and joining of metals is done by the heat
energy generated by the arc between the work and electrode.
An electric arc is generated when the electrode contacts the work and then quickly separated to
maintain the gap. A temperature of 5500C is generated by this arc.
This temperature is sufficient to melt most of the metals. The molten metal, consisting of base
metal and filler, solidifies in the weld region. In order to have seam weld, the power source
moves along the weld line.

38

Two types of electrodes are used:


Consumable and non-consumable electrodes.
The consumable electrode is consumed by the arc during the welding process and added to the
weld joint as filler metal whereas non consumable electrodes are not consumed during weld.
Filler metal must be supplied by means of a separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.
Arc shielding:
Shielding gas:
This covers the arc, electrode tip and weld pool from external atmosphere. The metals being
joined are chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the atmosphere.
So the shielding is done with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit exposure of the
weld metal to air.
Common shielding gas: Argon, Helium
Flux
is used mainly to protect the weld region from formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts and covers the weld region giving protection and it should be
removed by brushing as it is hardened.
Additional function, other than giving protection: stabilize the arc, and reduce spattering

39

2. Resistance welding:
In this operation, electric resistance is generated to the flow of current that generates heat energy
between two contacting surfaces that are held in pressure.
3. Gas welding:
Oxyfuel gas welding is a welding operation in which heat is generated by a hot flame generated
mixture gas of oxygen and acetylene. This heat is used to melt base material and filler material,
if used.
4. Electron beam welding:
In this process, welding is carried out by highly focused, high intensity electron beam
bombarding against the work piece.
Generally carried out in vacuum, otherwise there will be disruption of electron beam by air
molecules.
5. Laser beam welding (LBW)
LBW is a fusion welding process in which joining/coalescence is attained by the heat energy of a
highly concentrated, coherent light beam focused on the joint to be welded. LB welds are of
high quality, deep penetrated.
6. Thermite (thermit):
A mixture of aluminum powder and iron oxide that produces an exothermic reaction when
ignited.
In thermit welding, the heat for coalescence/joining is produced by superheated molten metal
formed from the chemical reaction of thermit.
The following chemical reaction is seen when a thermit mixture is ignited at 1300C. The
temperature of the reaction is 2500C.
8Al + 3Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat
At this temperature, superheated molten iron plus aluminum oxide is made that floats on the top
as a slag and protects the iron from the atmosphere.
Solid State Welding:
In this method, joining is done by coalescence resulting from application of pressure only or a
combination of heat and pressure. In solid state welding, joining of materials are performed with
the help of heat and pressure or pressure alone.

40

A metallurgical bond is created with little or no melting of the base metals. To metallurgically
bond two similar or dissimilar metals, the two metals must be brought into intimate contact so
that their atomic forces attract each other.
Even if heat is used, the temperature in the process is less than the melting point of the metals
being welded (unlike in fusion welding). No filler metal is utilized.
The two surfaces must be cleaned and free of oils, dirt, chemical films, gases etc. to permit
atomic bonding.
1. Diffusion welding:
Two part surfaces are held together under pressure at elevated temperature and the parts join by
solid state diffusion.

2. Friction welding/Stir welding:


The heating is accomplished by friction between the tool and the work piece and plastic
deformation of work piece. The localized heating softens the material.
3. Ultrasonic welding:
Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic
frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces.
No
1
2
3
4
5

Advantages of welding
A good weld is as strong as base metal

Disadvantages of welding
Welding gives harmful radiations, fumes
and spatter.
General welding equipment is not costly
Welding results in residual stresses and
distortion of work pieces.
Portable welding equipments are available
Edge preparation of the work pieces is
generally required before welding.
Welding permits considerable freedom in A skilled welder is a must to produce a
design
good welding.
A large number of metals/alloys both similar Welding heat produces metallurgical
and dissimilar can be joined by welding
changes. The structure of the welded
joint is not the same as that of the parent
metal.
41

COMPARISON OF WELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING


Sl
No
1

WELDING

SOLDERING

BRAZING

Welding joints are strongest


joints used to bear the load.
Strength of the welded portion of
joint is usually more than the
strength of base metal

Soldering joints are weakest


joints out of three. Not meant to
bear the load. Use to make
electrical contacts generally.

Temperature required is 3800


degree Centigrade in Welding
joints
Work piece to be joined need to
be heated till their melting point.

Temperature requirement is up
to 450 degree Centigrade in
Soldering joints.
Heating of the work pieces is
not required

Mechanical properties of base


metal may change at the joint
due to heating and cooling. between-welding-soldering-andbrazing
Heat cost is involved and high
skill level is required. -

No change in mechanical
properties after joining.

Brazing joints are weaker


than welding joints but
stronger than soldering
joints. This can be used to
bear the load up to some
extent
Temperature may go to
600 degree Centigrade in
Brazing joints.
Work pieces are heated
but below their melting
point.
May change in mechanical
properties of joint but it is
almost negligible.

Heat treatment is generally


required to eliminate undesirable
effects of welding.
No preheating of work piece is
required before welding as it is
carried out at high temperature.

No heat treatment is required.

Cost involved and skill


requirements are very low.

Preheating of work pieces


before soldering is good for
making good quality joint.

42

Cost involved and sill


required are in between
others two
No heat treatment is
required after brazing.
Preheating is desirable to
make strong joint as
brazing is carried out at
relatively low temperature

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