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ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
METALS
PLASTICS
CERAMICS
COMPOSITES
METALS
A metal is a material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and
has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable that is, they can be
hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking as well as fusible
(able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire). About 91 of the
118 elements in the periodic table are metals (some elements appear in both metallic and nonmetallic forms).
ALLOYS
An alloy is as a material that's made up of at least two different chemical elements, one of which
is a metal. The most important metallic component of an alloy (often representing 90 percent or
more of the material) is called the main metal, the parent metal, or the base metal. The other
components of an alloy (which are called alloying agents) can be either metals or nonmetals and
they're present in much smaller quantities (sometimes less than 1 percent of the total).
Most engineering metallic materials are alloys. Metals are alloyed to enhance their properties,
such as strength, hardness or corrosion resistance, and to create new properties, such as shape
memory effect.
METALS
FERROUS
METALS
AMORPHOUS
METALS
NON FERROUS
METALS
FERROUS
METAL
CAST
IRON
STEEL
CAST IRON
WHITE
CAST IRON
GREY CAST
IRON
MALLEABLE
CAST IRON
NODULAR
CAST IRON
STEEL
MILD STEEEL OR
LOW CARBON
STEEL
MEDIUM
CARBON STEEL
HIGH CARBON
STEEL
HIGH SPEED
STEEL
STAINLESS
STEEL
FERROUS MATERIAL
MATERIAL
Cast iron
A strong metal when it is in
compression. It is very
brittle material. It is 93%
iron and 1.75% to 4.3%
carbon with other elements.
APPLICATION
Car brake discs, car cylinder, metal work vices, machinery bases,
manhole covers.
Medium-carbon steel
Axle shafts, crank shafts, and gearing plates, railway wheels, rails,
structural beams.
The ductility of the steel allows it to be formed into thin shafts or
toothed plates without losing any of its tensile strength.
Drill bits, lathe cutting tools. It is used where high speed and high
temperature is used.
Stainless steel
NON-FERROUS METALS
Non-ferrous metals are the opposite of ferrous they do not contain any iron. They will not have
a magnetic quality and typically resist corrosion much better than ferrous metals. The category of
non-ferrous metals also includes raw materials pure metals. Aluminum, copper, aluminum
alloys, lead, tin are all considered non-ferrous metals.
MATERIAL
APPLICATION
Aluminium- It can be polished to a mirror like Saucepan, cooking foil, window frames,
appearance. It is light in weight.
Copper A ductile and malleable metal. It is Plumbing, electric components, cookware and
red/brown colour. It is a good conductor of roof coverings.
heat and electricity.
Zinc Very resistant to corrosion from Used as a coating on screws, steel buckets. It is
moisture. Mainly used for coating steel.
Tin Very ductile and malleable metal. Coating on beer cans, food cans, tin foil,
Resistant to corrosion from moisture. It is whistles and soldering.
bright silver in appearance. Tinplates are steel
with a tin coating.
Lead soft malleable metal. It is counted as Roof flashing, used for batteries, for protection
one of the heavy metals. Lead has a bluish of X ray protection.
white colour after being cut fresh, but it soon
tarnishes to a dull grayish colour when exposed
to air.
Bronze copper and 12% tin alloy. Hard and Ship propellers, under water fittings, statues
brittle material. Very high resistance to and medals.
corrosion.
Gunmetal 88% Copper, 10% zinc and 2% Automobile body parts, gun barrels, pi[pe
tin. Hard al loy with high wear resistance.
fittings.
Solder Tin and lead alloy. It is fusible metal Electronis, plumbing, jewelry and repair
alloy used to join meal work pieces.
process where metal parts cannot be effectively
welded.
AMORPHOUS METALS
Metallic Glasses or Amorphous Metals are inorganic mixtures fused at high temperatures
which solidify on cooling, but do not crystallize. These materials consist of very rapidly cooled
molten alloys which are not given time to crystallize before solidification. The alloys vary
slightly in composition but most contain about 92% iron, 3% boron and 5% silicon by weight.
In an amorphous material, similar to glass, the atoms are not arranged in any ordered structure.
Rather, they have a tightly-packed, yet random arrangement.
Because there are no structured planes of atoms in an amorphous material, the atoms are
gridlocked into the glassy structure, making the movement of groups of atoms very difficult. One
consequence of this atomic gridlock is that some amorphous metals are very hard and have very
high stiffness and a very high elastic modulus. The combination of hardness and elasticity of
amorphous material is an important factor in its many applications.
Application
Using soft magnetic cores made from amorphous metal alloys reduces energy loss in electrical
transformers by up to 85 percent.
tennis racket, razor blades that last much longer, coatings in refineries and oil pipes, armor,
phone casings, anti-theft devices, and fine jewelry, such as watches and rings.
BEHAVIOUR
AND
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
STRUCTURE OF
MATERIALS
ATOMIC BONDS
CRYSTALLINE
AMORPHOUS
PARTLY CRYSTALLINE
POLYMER CHAINS
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
PHYSICAL AND
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTY
MODIFICATION
STRENGTH
HEAT TREATMENT
STIFFNESS
DENSITY
ALLOYING
MELTING POINT
COMPOSITES
DUCTILITY
SPECIFIC HEAT
REINFORCEMENT
BRITTLENESS
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
LAMINATES
MALLEABILTY
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
FILLERS
ELASTICITY
PLASTICITY
TOUGHNESS
RESILENCE
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
CREEP
THERMAL EXPANSION
FATIGUE
CORROSSION
HARDNESS
I. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation n the
external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins,
and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application i\e
force. The ductile materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
duct1ility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking
of a material with little permanent distortion. Cast iron is a brittle material.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered
into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.
Malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
malleability) lead. soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of a material decreases when it is heated. This property is
desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.
9. Resilience. It is property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It
is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit. This property
is essential for spring materials.
10. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered
in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
II. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure is caused b) means of
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a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and microscopic size. This property
considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears etc.
12. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and
machine ability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
PLASTICS
Plastics are materials containing synthetic or semi synthetic organics. They can be molded to
diverse shape when heated and then hardened. They are synthetic and mostly derived from
petrochemicals, but many are partially natural. The first fully synthetic plastic is Bakelite.
PLASTICS
THERMOSETTING
OR
THERMOSETS
THERMOSOFETENING
OR
THERMOPLASTICS
ELASTOMERS
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ELASTOMERS
Rubbery material composed of polymers that are capable of recovering their original shape after
being stretched.
Poly isoprene (Natural rubber) gaskets, shoe heels
Poly eurethene
Poly butadiene
Neoprene
CERAMICS
Nonmetallic substances made by inorganic compounds like oxides, carbides and nitrides. It has;
high refractoriness, poor load carrying capacity, high brittleness and poor machinabilty.
Application Pottery, tiles, refractory materials, glass.
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
These are materials produced by combining two or more materials together having superior
properties.
Wood is a natural composite where as concrete and plywood are artificial composites.
Application fiber glass door, automobile parts, semiconductors, electrical and electronic
components.
For BMW M3 model the Al bumper is replaced by a glass/polymide material. A weight
reduction from 7 kg to 3.1 kg is realized. The crash performance increased 3 to 4 times than a
metal beam.
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Materials are converted into finished products though different manufacturing processes.
Manufacturing processes are classified into shaping [casting], forming, joining, and coating,
dividing, machining and modifying material property.
METHODS OF MANUFACTURING
CASTING:
In casting process the components are manufactured by pouring molten metal such as cast iron,
aluminium, brass etc. into moulds prepared in molding boxes by wooden or metal patterns.
A mould is formed into the geometrical shape of a desired part. Molten metal is poured into the
mold; the mold holds the material in shape it solidifies. A metal casting is created. The mold
contains a delivery system for the molten material to reach the mold cavity.
MOULD:
A mould is defined as the negative print of the part to be cast and is obtained by the pattern in
moulding boxes into which molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify.
TYPES OF MOULDS
1. Temporary moulds
These moulds are destroyed at the removing of casting from them e.g, green sand moulds.
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2. Permanent moulds
These moulds are used in die casting. These moulds are used for long time. E.g, metallic moulds.
PATTERN
Patterns are objects by which the interior cavities of the mold where the molten metal solidifies
are formed by impression. It is a geometrical replica of the metal casting to be produced. Patterns
are formed by wood or metals like aluminium, steel or cast iron.
GATING SYSTEM
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Disadvantages
Low design complexity.
Lower dimensional accuracy.
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Dry sand moulds are used for large castings such as engine cylinders, engine blocks.
Advantages:
Dry sand mould is stronger than green sand mould.
Dimensional accuracy of dry sand mould is high as compared with green sand mould.
Dry sand moulds are coated with wax therefore surface finish is more.
Disadvantages
This type of molding is much more expensive than green sand molding and is not a highproduction process. Correct baking (drying) times are essential.
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2. Parting: Separating a part from the remaining sheet, by punching away the material
between parts. Parting is less efficient than cut as it results in wastage of materials.
3. Blanking: It is the process of cutting out a metal strip of required shape from a work
usually called blank. The metal blanked out through the die is the required product. The
sheet metal left on the die is the scrap. The cut out shape is called blank. Punches are
used for this purpose.
4. Punching: It is a piercing operation. This is the operation of making circular holes on the
sheet. Punches are used for this purpose.
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5. Notching: This is the process of removing metal to the desired shape from the edge of
the sheet. Notching die and punch is used for this purpose.
6. Slitting: This is a process of cutting along a number of parallel lines to form the sheet by
using snips. Slitting is a type of metal cutting process where large rolls, or coils, of sheet
metal stock are cut using extremely sharp rotary blades. In metal slitting, straight lines are
cut lengthwise into the large coil to create strips of metal that are narrower in width.
7. Trimming: This is the operation of cutting away the excess metal from a formed part to
establish shape by snips or chisel.
8. Lancing: Lancing is the operation of cutting an interior section of the sheet metal without
removing the section then bending the cut portion. Lancing leaves an opened metal tab.
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Air bending is the most common type of 3 types of bending used in sheet metal shops today. In
this process the work piece comes in contact with the outside edges of the die, as well as the
punch tip. The punch is then forced past the top of the die into the v-opening without coming
into contact with the bottom of the v. Because the punch tip does not need to be forced past the
surface of the metal much less tonnage is required to bend.
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Seaming involves bending the edges of two parts over on each other. As the bends are locked
together each bend helps resists the deformation of the other bend, providing a well joint
structure.
Stretching
Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet metal is stretched and bent
simultaneously over a die in order to form large contoured parts. Ductile materials are preferable,
the most commonly used being aluminum, steel, and titanium.
Stretch forming is performed on a stretch press, in which a piece of sheet metal is securely
gripped along its edges by gripping jaws. Stretch formed parts are typically large and possess
large radius bends. The shapes that can be produced vary from a simple curved surface to
complex non-uniform cross sections.
Stretch forming is capable of shaping parts with very high accuracy and smooth surfaces.
Typical stretch formed parts are - large curved panels such as door panels in cars or wing panels
on aircraft, window frames and enclosures.
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Deep drawing
Deep drawing is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is stretched into the desired part
shape. A tool pushes downward on the sheet metal, forcing it into a die cavity in the shape of the
desired part. The tensile forces applied to the sheet cause it to plastically deform into a cupshaped part. Deep drawn parts are characterized by a depth equal to more than half of the
diameter of the part.
These parts can have a variety of cross sections with straight, tapered, or even curved walls, but
cylindrical or rectangular parts are most common. Deep drawing is most effective with ductile
metals, such as aluminum, brass, copper, and mild steel.
Examples of parts formed with deep drawing include automotive bodies and fuel tanks, cans,
cups, kitchen sinks, and pots and pans.
Spinning or Spin forming
Spinning, sometimes called spin forming, is a metal forming process used to form cylindrical
parts by rotating a piece of sheet metal while forces are applied to one side. A sheet metal disc is
rotated at high speeds while rollers press the sheet against a tool, called a mandrel, to form the
shape of the desired part. Spun metal parts have a rotationally symmetric, hollow shape, such as
a cylinder, cone, or hemisphere.
Examples include cookware, hubcaps, satellite dishes, rocket nose cones, and musical
instruments.
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Spinning is typically performed on a manual or CNC lathe and requires a blank, mandrel, and
roller tool. The blank is the disc-shaped piece of sheet metal that is pre-cut from sheet stock and
will be formed into the part.
Roll forming
Roll forming, sometimes spelled roll forming, is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is
progressively shaped through a series of bending operations. The process is performed on a roll
forming line in which the sheet metal stock is fed through a series of roll stations.
Each station has a roller, referred to as a roller die, positioned on both sides of the sheet. The
shape and size of the roller die may be unique to that station, or several identical roller dies may
be used in different positions. The roller dies may be above and below the sheet, along the sides,
at an angle, etc.
As the sheet is forced through the roller dies in each roll station, it plastically deforms and bends.
Each roll station performs one stage in the complete bending of the sheet to form the desired
part.
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Typical roll formed parts include panels, tracks, shelving, etc. These parts are commonly used in
industrial and commercial buildings for roofing, lighting, storage units, and HVAC applications.
FORGING
Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably
applying compressive force. Usually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using
a power hammer or a press.
Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper
design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual
use. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation.
Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than
in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.
The forging process is very important in industrial metal manufacture, particularly in extensive
iron and steel industry.
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FORGING OPERATIONS:
1: Drawing:
This is the operation in which metal gets elongated with a reduction in the cross section area. For
this, a force is to be applied in a direction perpendicular to the length axis.
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2: Up setting:
This is applied to increase the cross sectional area of the stock at the expense of the length. To
achieve the length of upsetting force is applied in a direction parallel to the length axis, For
example forming of a bolt head.
3: Bending:
Bending is very common forging operation. It is an operation to give a turn to metal rod or plate.
This is required for those which have bends shapes.
4: Punching:
It is a process of producing holes. The molten plate is placed over the hollow cylindrical die by
pressing the punch over the plate, the hole is made.
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5: Forged welding:
Forge welding is a solid-state welding process that produces a weld by heating the work pieces to
welding temperature and applying blows sufficient to cause permanent deformation at the faying
surface. It is a solid state process whereby the melting temperature is not reached.
Mighty hammer blows cause permanent deformation and assure metallurgical contact between
two elements to be welded together.
6: Cutting:
It is a process in which a metal rod or plate cut out into two pieces, with the help of chisel and
hammer, when the metal is in red hot condition.
7: Swaging:
Swaging is a process that is used to reduce or increase the diameter of tubes and/or rods.
This is done by placing the tube or rod inside a die that applies compressive force by hammering
radially. This can be further expanded by placing a mandrel inside the tube and applying radial
compressive forces on the outer diameter. Thus, the inner diameter can be a different shape, for
example a hexagon, and the outer is still circular.
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Blanking
Blanking is a metal fabricating process, during which a metal work piece is removed from the
primary metal strip or sheet when it is punched. The material that is removed is the new metal
work piece or blank.
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ROLLING PROCESS
In rolling operation the work piece material is deformed plastically by compressive forces
between two constantly spinning rolls. These forces act to reduce the thickness of the metal and
affect its grain structure. In addition to reducing the thickness of the work, the rolls also act to
feed the material as they rolls in opposite directions to each other. Friction is therefore an
important part of the rolling operation.
TYPES OF ROLLING
Hot rolling:
Hot rolling is the process of rolling a metal above its recrystallization temperature. The rolling
mills are driven by an electric motor of up to 20 MW capacities.
Cold rolling
Cold rolling is a process of rolling metals and alloys below their recrystallization temperature.
Generally they are worked at room temperatures. Cold rolling does not reduce the thickness of a
work piece as much as hot rolling.
Comparison between cold and hot rolling
Sl. No
1
2
3
4
Hot rolling
Metal
is
heated
above the
recrystallization temperature.
Higher coefficient of friction between
the rollers and work.
Heavy reduction in area can be
obtained.
Mechanical properties are improved.
Cold rolling
Metal is heated below the recrystallization
temperature.
Less coefficient of friction between the
rollers and work piece.
Heavy reduction in area cannot be obtained.
Hardness increases, brittleness increases,
ductility decreases.
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5
6
7
30
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POWDER METALLURGY
1. Powder production
a. Atomising Process
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In this process the molten metal is forced through an orifice into a stream of high velocity air,
steam or inert gas. This causes rapid cooling and disintegration into very fine powder particles
and the use of this process is limited to metals with relatively low melting point.
b. Gaseous Reduction
This process consists of grinding the metallic oxides to a fine state and subsequently, reducing it
by hydrogen or carbon monoxide. This method is employed for metals such as iron, tungsten,
copper, etc.
c. Electrolysis Process
In this process the conditions of electrode position are controlled in such a way that a soft spongy
deposit is formed, which is subsequently pulverized to form the metallic powder. The particle
size can be varied over a wide range by varying the electrolyte compositions and the electrical
parameters. .
For example, for the production of copper powder, copper sulphate solution is the electrolyte.
Copper plate forms the anode and aluminum plate is used as cathode. When current is passed
copper deposited on the aluminum cathode plate. After a definite time the cathode plate is
scraped.
d. Mechanical Alloying
In this method, powders of two or more pure metals are mixed in a ball mill. Under the impact of
the hard balls, the powders are repeatedly fractured and welded together by forming alloy under
diffusion.
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This can often involve the introduction of alloying additions in elemental powder form or the
incorporation of a pressing lubricant.
a. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles,
b. Blending facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide ranging physical and
mechanical properties,
c. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow characteristics of the
powder particles reducing friction between particles and dies.
d. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the green strength
during the powder compaction process.
3. Forming of the mixed powder into a compact
Compaction is carried out by pouring a measured amount of metallic powder into the die cavity
and applying pressure by means of one or more plungers. To improve uniformity of pressure and
reduce porosity in the compacted part, compressive forces from both the top and the bottom sides
are necessary.
The compaction exercise imparts the following effects.
a. Reduces voids between the power particles and enhance the density of the consolidated
powder,
b. Produces adhesion and bonding of the powder particles to improve green strength in the
consolidated powder particles,
c. Facilitates plastic deformation of the powder particles to conform to the final desired shape of
the part,
4. Sintering of the compact to enhance integrity and strength
This process step involves heating of the material, usually in a protective atmosphere, to a
temperature that is below the melting point of the major constituent. Sintering facilitates the
bonding action between the individual powder particles and increase in the strength of the final
part.
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5. Secondary operations
The application of finishing processes to the sintered part. In the Powder Metallurgy industry,
such processes are often referred to as secondary operations.
Advantages
Application
Parts like self-lubricating bearings, filters, oil pump gears etc.
Brake linings and motor brushes
Nozzles used in rocket and missiles can be produced.
SOLDERING
Soldering is defined as the process of joining two pieces of metals using a filler metal, known as
solder, having a low melting point below the melting point of the work piece.
It is often confused with welding but the difference between them is, in soldering the work piece
is not melted, they are joined using a filler metal, but in welding work piece is joined by
melting. Soldering is accomplished with temperature under 400C
Pre-cleaning: The surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned to allow the solder to wet the base
metal.
Fluxing: A flux must be provided to remove traces of surface film or oxides and to
prevent formation of oxides during the soldering operation.
Proper fixtures or alignment of parts must be maintained to insure a sound soldered joint.
Heating of the base metals should be uniform or even on base metals, to insure good
penetration of the filler alloy into the joint.
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The filler metal used is known as solder. It is an alloy of Tin and Lead (60% 40%).
The purpose of the flux is to clean the surface. Soldering flux removes the film of oxides from
the metal and makes the solder and metal more able to dissolve in each other.
BRAZING
Brazing is also a metal-joining process. Brazing is when a filler metal or alloy is heated to its
melting temperature above 450C.
It is then distributed in liquid form between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action.
The filler metal is then brought slightly above its melting temperature. It then interacts with a
thin layer of the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled quickly. This forms a sealed
joint.
Brazed joints are generally stronger than the individual filler metals that have been used to make
them.
Basic steps in brazing
1. Ensure fit and clearance
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Clean metal
Flux prior to brazing
Fixturing of parts
Brazing the assembly
Cleaning the new joint
The flux applied is generally borax. The filler metal used is an alloy of cu and zn, known as
speltor.
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Advantages
38
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2. Resistance welding:
In this operation, electric resistance is generated to the flow of current that generates heat energy
between two contacting surfaces that are held in pressure.
3. Gas welding:
Oxyfuel gas welding is a welding operation in which heat is generated by a hot flame generated
mixture gas of oxygen and acetylene. This heat is used to melt base material and filler material,
if used.
4. Electron beam welding:
In this process, welding is carried out by highly focused, high intensity electron beam
bombarding against the work piece.
Generally carried out in vacuum, otherwise there will be disruption of electron beam by air
molecules.
5. Laser beam welding (LBW)
LBW is a fusion welding process in which joining/coalescence is attained by the heat energy of a
highly concentrated, coherent light beam focused on the joint to be welded. LB welds are of
high quality, deep penetrated.
6. Thermite (thermit):
A mixture of aluminum powder and iron oxide that produces an exothermic reaction when
ignited.
In thermit welding, the heat for coalescence/joining is produced by superheated molten metal
formed from the chemical reaction of thermit.
The following chemical reaction is seen when a thermit mixture is ignited at 1300C. The
temperature of the reaction is 2500C.
8Al + 3Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat
At this temperature, superheated molten iron plus aluminum oxide is made that floats on the top
as a slag and protects the iron from the atmosphere.
Solid State Welding:
In this method, joining is done by coalescence resulting from application of pressure only or a
combination of heat and pressure. In solid state welding, joining of materials are performed with
the help of heat and pressure or pressure alone.
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A metallurgical bond is created with little or no melting of the base metals. To metallurgically
bond two similar or dissimilar metals, the two metals must be brought into intimate contact so
that their atomic forces attract each other.
Even if heat is used, the temperature in the process is less than the melting point of the metals
being welded (unlike in fusion welding). No filler metal is utilized.
The two surfaces must be cleaned and free of oils, dirt, chemical films, gases etc. to permit
atomic bonding.
1. Diffusion welding:
Two part surfaces are held together under pressure at elevated temperature and the parts join by
solid state diffusion.
Advantages of welding
A good weld is as strong as base metal
Disadvantages of welding
Welding gives harmful radiations, fumes
and spatter.
General welding equipment is not costly
Welding results in residual stresses and
distortion of work pieces.
Portable welding equipments are available
Edge preparation of the work pieces is
generally required before welding.
Welding permits considerable freedom in A skilled welder is a must to produce a
design
good welding.
A large number of metals/alloys both similar Welding heat produces metallurgical
and dissimilar can be joined by welding
changes. The structure of the welded
joint is not the same as that of the parent
metal.
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WELDING
SOLDERING
BRAZING
Temperature requirement is up
to 450 degree Centigrade in
Soldering joints.
Heating of the work pieces is
not required
No change in mechanical
properties after joining.
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