Transients Period is the period required for the

currents and voltages to adjust themselves to their steadystate modes of variation.

Time Constant
- the time when the exponent of e is unity, or the
reciprocal of the numerical coefficient of e.
- is the time required for the response to decay by a
factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value.

Types of Response
1. Natural Response (Transient Response)
- is the circuits temporary response that will die
out with time.
- it refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and
currents) of the circuit itself, with no external
sources of excitation.
2. Forced Response (Steady-State Response)
- is the behavior of the circuits a long time after an
external excitation is applied.

The voltages and currents in electric circuits are

described by three classes of time functions:
1. Periodic functions
2. Nonperiodic functions
3. Random functions

Periodic Functions
A signal v(t)is periodic with period T if
v(t) = v(t + T)
for all t
Four types of periodic functions which are specified
for one period T and corresponding graphs are as follows:
1. Sine Wave:
V1(t) = VO sin 2t/T

2. Periodic Pulse:
V
for 0 < t < T1
v2 (t ) V1
for T1 < t < T
2

3. Periodic Tone Burst:

V sin 2 t/
for 0 < t < T1
v(t ) 0 0
for T1 < t < T
where T = k and k is an integer

4. Repetition of a recording every T seconds:

v4(t)

Nonperiodic Functions
A

nonperiodic function cannot be specified for all

times by simply knowing a finite segment. Examples of
nonperiodic functions are:
1. The UNIT STEP Function
The dimensionless unit step function, is defined by
for t < 0
u (t ) 0
1
for t > 0

The function is graphed in the figure below. Note that the

function is undefined at t=0.

2. The UNIT IMPULSE Function

Consider the function sT(t) of the figure 1-a
below, which is zero for t<0 and increases uniformly from 0
to 1 in T seconds. Its derivative dT(t) is a pulse of
duration T and height 1/T, as seen on figure 1-b.

for t < 0
dT (t ) 0
1/T
for 0 < t < T
0
for t > T

Figure 1

3. The EXPONENTIAL Function

The function f(t) = eat with (a) a complex constant
called exponential. It decays with time if the real part
(a) is negative and grows if the real part of (a)
positive.
The inverse of the constant (a) has the dimension
time and is called the time constant = 1/a.

is
of
is
of

v(t) = e-t/ for t>0

4. The DAMPED SINUSOIDS
A damped sinusoid,
exponentially has the form

with

its

amplitude

v(t) = Ae-at cos(t + )

decaying

RANDOM SIGNALS
A class of signals which can be specified only partly
through their time averages, such as their mean, rms value,
and frequency range. These are called random signals. It can
carry information and should not be mistaken with noise,
which normally corrupts the information contents of the
signal. Through harmonic analysis we can find the average
effect of signals in electric circuits.
TYPES OF TRANSIENTS
There are single-energy transients and double-energy
transients. Single-energy transients are those in which only
one for of energy, either electromagnetic or electrostatic
is involved as in R-L and R-C circuits.
However, double-energy transients are those in which
either electromagnetic or electrostatic is involved as in RL-C circuits. Transients disturbances may be further
classified as follows:
(a) Initiation Transients these are produced when a
circuit, which is originally dead, is energized.
(b)

Subsidence Transients these are produced when an

energized circuit is rapidly de-energized and
reaches an eventual steady-stage of zero current or
voltage, as in the case of short-circuiting an R-L
or R-C circuit suddenly.

(c)

Transition Transients these are due to sudden but

energetic changes from one steady-state to another.

(d)

Complex Transients these are produced in a circuit

which is simultaneously subjected to two transients
due to two independent disturbances or when the
disturbing force producing the transients is itself
variable.

(e)

Relaxation Transients in these transients, the

transition occurs cyclically towards states, which
when reached, become unstable themselves.

A distinction may also be made between free and forced

transients which are produced due to the applied voltage
being itself transient.

RL Series Circuits
1. Source Free RL Circuits
A source free circuit occurs when its dc source
is suddenly disconnected and the energy is already
stored on the passive elements.

Figure RL-1
Assuming that the inductor has an initial current of I O
at t = 0, or
i(0) = IO
And with the corresponding energy is stored in the
inductor as
1
WL(0)= LIO 2
2
Applying KVL around the loop in the given in figure RL1
VR + VL = 0
But VL = L

di
dt

and VR = iR . Thus,
L

di
dt

+ Ri = 0

or
di
dt

R
L

i = 0

Rearranging terms and integrating gives

i(t)

IO

ln i Ii(t) = O

or

di
i

= -0

R
L

dt

Rt

L 0

ln i(t) - ln IO = -

Rt
+0
L

ln

i(t)
IO

= -

Rt
L

Taking the powers of e, we have

i(t) = IO e-Rt/L, Amperes

eq.(1)

This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit

is an exponential decay of the initial current. The
current response is shown in the figure RL-2.

Figure RL-2
It is evident from equation (1) that the time constant
() for the RL circuit is
=

L
,seconds
R

Thus, Eq. (1) may be written as

i(t) = IO e-t/, Amperes

eq. (2)

To find the voltage across the resistor, we have

v R(t) = iR = IO e-Rt/L R, Volts

eq. (3)

And the voltage across the inductor is

v L(t) = L

d(IO e-Rt/L )
di
= L
= - RIO e-Rt/L, Volts
dt
dt

eq. (4)

Wherein, the negative sign indicates that the voltage

across the inductor is decaying as a function of time.

For the power dissipated in the resistor, we have

p = v R i = IO 2Re-2Rt/L, watts

eq. (5)

While the energy absorbed by the resistor is

WR(t) =
WR(t) =

pdt =

IO 2 Re-2Rt/L dt = -

1
2

LI02e-2Rt/L

1
LI 2(1 - e-2Rt/L ), joules
2 0

eq. (6)

Note that as t , WR() 1/2 LIO2,which is the same

as WL(0), which simply means that the energy initially
stored in the inductor is being dissipated in the
resistor.

Problem:
A 100-mH inductor connected in series with a 10
ohm were connected across a 12 Volts DC source. The
source was suddenly removed from the circuit through a
short-circuiting switch. Determine: (a) the equation of
the current; (b) the equation of the voltage across the
resistor and inductor; (c) the power and energy
dissipated by the resistor; (d) the current, v R and vL,
the power and energy dissipated by the resistor at time
t = 10msec.

Solution:

Initially, the circuit is at steady-state condition.

Wherein the current in the circuit is IO = VDC/R, thus
IO =

12 Volts
10 ohms

= 1.2 Amps

Since the inductor is at short-circuit state during the

initial state.
When the source is short-circuited, we have now a
source free RL circuit. From the figure below, we have

i(0) = IO, and the direction of current changes due to

the fact that the inductor is starting to discharge the
energy it initially stored to the resistor. Thus by KVL
we have,
VR + VL = 0
And since VL = L

di
dt

and VR = iR . Thus,
di
+ 10i = 0
dt
di
0.1
= -10i
dt
di
10
= i
dt
0.1

0.1

Having a first-order differential equation of variable

separable type, then

i(t)

IO

Integrating
with
variables, we have

di
i

= -0 100dt

respect

to

their

ln i(t) - ln IO = -100t + 0
But since IO = 1.2 Amps, then
ln

i(t)
1.2

= -100t

independent

Taking the e of both sides, we have

ln i(t)=-100t
1.2

i(t)
1.2

(a)

= e-100t

Then the current equation will be

i(t) = 1.2e-100t Amperes

(b)

For the voltage across the resistor we have,

v R(t) = 10i = 10(1.2e-100t )
v R(t) = 12e-100t volts

And for the voltage across the inductor, we have

v L(t) = 0.1

di
d(1.2e-100t )
= 0.1
dt
dt

v L(t) = - 12e-100t Volts

(c)The power dissipated by the resistor will be,

p = v R i = (12e-100t )(1.2e-100t )
p = 14.4e-200t watts

The energy absorbed by the resistor is

t

WR(t) =

WR(t) =

14.4
-200

pdt =

2
-200t dt =
(1.2)(10)e

e-200t

t
0

14.4e-200t dt

= - 0.072(e-200t - e0)

WR(t) = 0.072(1 - e-200t ) Joules

(d)at t=10 msec, the current i, vR, vL, P and WR are:

i(0.01) = 1.2e-100(0.01) = 1.2e-100(0.01) = 0.441 Ampere
v R(0.01) = 12e-100(0.01) = 12e-100(0.01) = 4.41 Volts
v L(0.01) = -12e-100(0.01) = -12e-100(0.01) = - 4.41 Volts

p(0.01) = 14.4e-200(0.01) = 1.949 watts

WR(0.01) = 0.072(1 - e-200(0.01)) = 0.0623 Joule
2. Forced Response in RL Circuits
A forced response RL circuit occurs when a dc
source is suddenly applied to a circuit and the energy
is starting to be stored on the passive elements.
In the figure RL-3, a dc source is applied in the
series RL circuits.
t=0

R VR
L V
L

The voltage across each element

applying KVL in the circuits.

can

VR + VL = E
But VL = L

di
dt

and VR = iR . Thus,
L

di
= -Ri + E
dt

Rearranging terms and integrating gives

di
R
E
= - i -
dt
L
R
di
R
= - dt
E
L
iR

E
R
ln i - = - t + C
R
L

- R t+C
E
L
i
=
e

i-

- Rt
E
= e L eC
R

be

determined

by

at time t=0;the current i(0)=0 since initially L is open

E
= A e(0)
R

A =

E
(1)
R

Substituting (1) in the general equation, we have

i-

E
E
= - e-Rt/L
R
R

i =

E E -Rt/L
- e
R R

i =

E
1 - e-Rt/L Amp
R

Voltage drop across the resistor, VR

E

VR = iR = R (1 - e-Rt/L )
Volts
R
VR = E 1 - e-Rt/L Volts

Voltage drop across the inductor, VL

VL = L

di
dt

d (1 - e-Rt/L )

VL = L
dt
VL =

LE d
1 - e-Rt/L
R dt

VL =

LE
R -Rt/L
e
0+

R
L

VL = Ee-Rt/L Volts

The energy dissipated by the resistor, W R at the end of t

seconds.
dWR = Pdt

dWR = VR * i dt
dWR = Ri2dt = R(1 - e-Rt/L )2 dt
t

WR = R i2dt Joules
0

The power dissipated in the resistor

PR = VR * i
E2
(1 - e-Rt/L )2 Watts
R

PR =

* E (1 - e-Rt/L )
PR = E(1 - e-Rt/L )
R

PL =

E2 -Rt/L
(e
- e-2Rt/L ) Watts
R

For the Total Power:

PT = PR + PL = E * i
E

PT = E (1 - e-Rt/L )

R
PT =

E2
1 - e-Rt/L Watts
R

The energy in the inductor is given by, W L at the end of t

seconds.
dWL = Pdt
dW = VL * idt
E
dWL = Ee-Rt/L * (1 - e-Rt/L ) dt
R

WL =
dWL =
Let

u = 1 - e-Rt/L
du =

R -Rt/L
e
dt
L

E2 t
(1 - e-Rt/L )e-Rt/Ldt
R 0

E2 L t
R
* (1 - e-Rt/L ) e-Rt/Ldt
R
R 0
L

then; the energy WL is equal to

WL =

1
2

Li2 Joules

1. Problem:
A series RL circuit is energized by a constant 24 VDC
source applied at t=0. If the resistance and inductance are
respectively 10 ohms and 1 henry, determine
a. the equation of current i
b. the current when t = 0.03 sec
c. the time when i = 1 Ampere
d. rate of change of i when TC = 2
e. the value of VR and VL at t = 0.04 sec
f. t when VR = VL
g. PL & PR when t = 50 msec
h. t when PR = PL
2. Problem:
In the circuit shown the switch is closed on position 1
at t = 0 and then moved to position 2 after 1 msec. Find the
time at which the current is zero and reversing its
direction.

t=0
2

50V

500

50V

0.2H

3. Problem:
A relay coil having a pick-up current of 10 mA is
connected in series with an inductance. The total resistance
is 1000 ohm and the total inductance is 100 mH. If 20 VDC
source is applied at t=0, at what time will the relay pickup?