Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Edited by
Cynthia Onyefulu, PhD
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Contents
Preface
The Editor
The Contributors
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PREFACE
This book came about at the request of Abulude Olawale, President of the Science
and Education Development Institute (SEDInst) in Nigeria in 2013. He was interested in
an edited collection that captured issues in education in Jamaica and Nigeria. My
motivation to participate in its evolution was the knowledge of the wide audience it
would enjoy and the similarities that might arise in comparing two distant cultures
Nigeria the place of my birth and Jamaica the place now call home. I, therefore, say
thanks to Abulude for his vision and for giving me the opportunity to edit this book.
The book discusses topical issues in education and society in both countries. A
variety of topics were covered under four main themes, namely, teacher education,
counseling and students attitude, womens issues, and school environment and facilities.
In Part One, Shermaine Barrett uses the qualitative approach in describing the
experiences of adult learners enrolled in part-time graduate studies in a university in
Jamaica under the title Voices from within: Experiences of part-time adult graduate students in
an emerging university. This is followed by the paper by Debbie Devonish, under the title
Games in Science Teaching: The Trainee Teacher and Perceptions of their Classroom Experience.
Devonish describes the use of the KETACT approach in assessing games to be used in
science lessons by trainee teachers in Jamaica. She also explores the perceptions of the
trainee teachers on the use of games as a pedagogical tool. Sustainable Education Reforms
beyond the 21st Century: A Perspective from Corruption, Curriculum, Teacher and Teacher
Education is the third paper, by Aina, Jacob Kola, and Shola, Sunday, Olanipekun in
Nigeria. In this paper, the authors highlighted some of the problems in education reform
in teacher education in Nigeria. Andrea Pusey-Murray's paper is titled Attendance and
Performance of Undergraduate Students in two Nursing Courses in a University in Jamaica. She
examines the relationship between class attendance and students academic performance
in two nursing courses. She also examines the impact of time management, study skills,
and financial constraints on students class attendance and academic performance in the
nursing programme.
Part Two of the book contains four papers. A. A. Agbaje wrote the first paper titled
Basic Psychological Skills as Correlates of Guidance and Counselling Services in Nursery and
Primary Schools in Uyo Metropolis. The author examines the need for the utilization of
basic psychological skills in Guidance and Counselling Services in Uyo Metropolis
Nurseries and Primary Schools. The second paper by Anino Anigala, describes substance
abuse, its causes and effects, and the counselling strategies used to minimize the problem.
The third paper by Abulude Olawale, examines teachers and students attitude towards
Chemistry in selected secondary schools in Akure in Nigeria. The results showed a
negative attitude towards the subject. The author identified some factors that may have
contributed to this attitude,
In Part Three, matters related to womens issues are discussed. The first paper
titled Need for Improvement in the Attitude towards the Acceptance of Adoption amongst
Nigerians, was by Konwea and Osakinle. These authors describe factors that lead to
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adoption and attitude towards it, and the need to educate the wider society about
adoption in Nigeria. This is followed by the paper titled A Theological Appraisal of 1
Corinthians 14:34-35 and Its Implications on Women Development, by Isiorhovoja, U. Osbert,
and Evan Osbert. These authors examine the biblical position in 1 Corinthians 14:33-36
on the silence of women and exclusion from public participation in both religious and
secular for activities. The authors conclude that since women played dominant roles in
the early church and Paul personally commended their services, they should serve as role
models for women. The paper titled An Insight in Low Contraceptive Prevalence and Its
Probable Consequences among Youths in Ekiti State, Nigeria, by Osakinlee, reports on poor
urban youths in some cities in Nigeria. He looks at the individual-level factors that may
influence contraceptive use and pregnancy among young females, and the need for
education and information programmes on contraceptive use and pregnancy.
In Part Four, issues of school environment and facilities are described. It started
with the paper by Okposio O. Collins titled Physical School Environment as a Predictor of
Motivation to Learning in Selected Public Secondary Schools in Delta State. Collins uses a
descriptive research design in examining physical school environmental factors as
predictors of motivation to learning in selected public secondary schools in Delta State.
The author confirms that some physical school environmental factors such as school
location and essential amenities have contributed significantly to the motivation to learn.
Veronica Beetseh and Kwaghga Beetsehs paper titled The Role of School Facilities in
Enhancing Performance in Nigeria, examine the impact of school facilities on students
academic performance and teacher effectiveness. The findings showed that class size
reduction leads to higher student achievement. In the last paper titled, Assessing the
Effectiveness of a Facilities Management Department in One Tertiary Institution in Kingston,
Jamaica, Marva West-Williams employs the Context, Input, Process and Product (CIPP)
model developed by Stufflebeam to assess a facility management department an
institution in Kingston. The author identifies strengths and weaknesses of the facilities
management department, and ways of addressing the weaknesses.
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THE EDITOR
Cynthia Onyefulu is an Associate Professor and the Vice-Dean in the Faculty of
Education and Liberal Studies at the University of Technology, Jamaica. She holds a PhD
in Educational Psychology with a focus on Psychometrics from the University of Alberta
in Canada. She is also a visiting Fellow in Educational Development at the Center for
Teaching and Learning in the University of Windsor, Canada. Her research interests
include assessment practices, programme evaluation in the Caribbean, and research
management. She may be contacted at conyefulu@utech.edu.jm.
THE CONTRIBUTORS
Shermaine Barrett is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Technical and Vocational
Education at the University of Technology, Jamaica. She holds a doctorate in Work and
Human Resource Education from the University of Minnesota in the USA and a Master
of Arts in Adult Education, from Mount Saint Vincent University in Canada. Dr. Barrett
has been working in the field of adult education in various capacities for more than 20
years. She is currently the President of the Jamaican Council for Adult Education
(JACAE) in Jamaica. Her research interests include adult teaching and learning, online
teaching and learning, workforce learning, sociological dimensions of education, and
teacher professional development.
Debbie Devonish is a Lecturer at the University of Technology, Jamaica. She holds a
B.Sc. in Zoology and Botany, an M.Phil. in Entomology, and a Postgraduate Diploma in
Education (Science). She is currently a doctoral candidate in Education (Leadership), She
presently lectures in the Faculty of Science & Sport in the School of Natural & Applied
Sciences and is the Head of the Biology Division. She teaches Environmental Studies,
Biology and Science Education modules. Her research interests in education include
professional development for science teachers, cognitive coaching, science practical skills,
and issues in educational leadership.
Aina, Jacob Kola is a Senior Lecturer at Kwara State College of Education Lafiagi,
Nigeria. He holds a Master of Science Education and Bachelor of Science and Education
in Physics from the University of Ilorin. He is currently a doctoral student at the
University of the Western Cape. He has published over 30 articles and research
publications in reputable international journals and chapters in textbooks. He has
equally, presented academic papers at local, national and international conferences. His
research areas are science education, physics education, teaching pedagogy and authentic
learning instruction.
Shola Sunday Olanipekun is a Lecturer at Kwara State College of Education (Tech.),
Lafiagi, Nigeria. He gained a B.A in English with a major in Literature at Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, Nigeria. He is currently a masters student at the Obafemi Awolowo
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Evan Osbert is a Lecturer at the Department of Religious Studies and Philosophy, Delta
State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria.
Okposio O. Collins is a lecturer at the Department of Physical and Health Education,
College of Education, Agbor, Delta State, Nigeria.
Veronica Beetseh is a non-teaching staff at the Federal University of Agriculture,
Makurdi in Nigeria. She is currently pursuing a degree in Educational Administration
and Planning in the same institution. Her research interest is in education and
administration.
Kwaghga Beetseh is a non-teaching staff at the Federal University of Agriculture
Makurdi in Nigeria. He has a Masters degree in Public Administration. He is a part time
lecturer at the College of Advanced and Professional Studies (CAPS) in Makurdi, Nigeria
His research interest is in politics and education.
Marva West-Williams is the Director, Examinations and Material Development at the
National Council on Technical Vocational Education and Training (NCTVET). Mrs WestWilliams is also a certified TVET instructor who holds a Masters degree in Educational
Leadership and Administration and a Bachelor of Education degree in Business Studies
(Honours) from the University of Technology. Other training includes Strategic and
Corporate Planning, ISO 9001:2000 Auditor Training and Project Management.
CHAPTER ONE
VOICES FROM WITHIN: EXPERIENCES OF PART-TIME ADULT
GRADUATE STUDENTS IN AN EMERGING UNIVERSITY
By
Shermaine Barrett
University of Technology, Jamaica
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore and describe the
experiences of adult learners enrolled in part-time graduate studies in an
emerging university. Four questions guided this research: What are the
experiences of the adult learners enrolled in a two-year part-time
Masters programme at University X? What are the challenges faced by
the Masters students? What support systems do these students make use
of as they pursue their course of study? How do these adult learners
interact in the classroom? The findings revealed that the graduate
students experienced several challenges: pressures from work and study;
clash of class schedule and work responsibilities; family responsibilities;
ineffective and inefficient student services; and inadequate financial
resources. However, the students were able to draw on support systems
such as their peers and families to persevere with their studies. The
findings also showed that the students were participative and pulled on
their wealth of experiences as they interacted with each other and with
the new information they encountered in their studies.
INTRODUCTION
As a university lecturer, I have been observing an increase in the ratio of
adult learners to the traditional younger university students. Increasing number
of adults are returning to the classroom either to obtain first-degree qualification
or to engage in graduate studies. Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007)
noted that the nature of society at any particular point in time determines the
relative emphasis placed on adult learning (p. 5). Against that background, they
noted further that the rate of change in pre-industrial societies allowed persons to
learn in childhood all that they needed to know to function as an adult. This is not
the case in contemporary societies that operate in an era of rapid change. Chao,
DeRocco, and Flynn (2007) noted that Todays adults need higher levels of
academic and technical knowledge to remain employable (p. 2). In this context
individuals are forced to engage in new learning right throughout their lives. This
notion of continuous learning throughout ones life is captured in the concept of
2. What support systems do these students make use of as they pursue their
course of study?
3. How do these adult learners interact in the classroom?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Adult Learners
Adult students in higher education comprise a sizeable and growing group
of college and university students (Kasworm, 2003; Kerns, 2006). Kasworm noted
that for over 30 years there has been a dramatic increase in adult students both in
absolute numbers and in percentage of student population in relation to younger
students. Despite these observations, there is no consensus on what defines an
adult learner. However, the literature on adult learning does reveal several factors
used in describing the adult learner inclusive of age, developmental stage, social
subset, roles and responsibilities, and experiences (Fairchild, 2003; Jarvis, 2004;
Kerns, 2006; Merriam et al., 2007; Rogers, 1996). In this study adult learners are
defined from a socio-cultural perspective and refer to individuals who are
financially independent of parents, have been gainfully employed, have
dependents other than a spouse, and have other social roles and responsibilities.
Challenges to Adult Learners Participation in Higher Education Courses
As mentioned above adult learners are usually very busy people with
various roles and responsibilities. Kerns (2006) identified a number of features
common to adult students. These include the assumption of adult roles,
relationships and multiple responsibilities, the likelihood of employment, greater
and more diverse experience and less time available for academic work than
traditional higher education students. Johnstone and Rivera (1965 as cited in
Merriam et al., 2007) identified 10 barriers to adult persistent participation in
institutional learning which they grouped into two categories: external or
situational and internal or dispositional. To these two categories, Mercer (1993)
added another, namely, institutional barriers (as cited in Fairchild, 2003).
Situational barriers relate to influences that are external to the individual or at least
beyond the individuals control and reflect the features of the adult student
identified by Kern (2006). These barriers arise from responsibilities within the
family, job and civic commitments. Dispositional barriers are intrapersonal,
reflecting personal attitudes and include dissonance about work demands
(Johnstone & Rivera, 1965 as cited in Merriam et al., 2007; Fairchild 2003).
Institutional barriers refer to systemic barriers arising from institutional practices
and procedures that exclude adults or make it difficult for working adults to
successfully participate in educational activities (Fairchild, 2003). These features
and barriers provide a framework within which to understand the kinds of
challenges experienced by adult learners in higher education.
most of the respondents indicated that their education was self-financed and that
financial resources was among the three strongest contributing factors to their
ability to attend classes. Kasworm (2003) also reported that adult students
identified their financial fragility to support college attendance as their most
important issue and most stressful concern.
In addition to the situational barriers experienced by adult learners are
some dispositional barriers. Fairchild (2003) cited Carney-Crompton and Tan
(2002) in making the point that increases in roles, demands and time conflicts are
associated with high stress, anxiety and depression for adult female students (p.
13). These refer to some of the dispositional factors that can affect student
participation and persistence in higher education. In discussing blocks to learning
in adult education, Rogers (1996) outlined among others, emotional factors such
as negative self-concept which may be either enduring or situational, and anxiety
which may arise from fear of externally imposed requirements or worries about
ones capacity to cope with the studies. Other dispositional barriers identified by
Fairchild include role conflict from simultaneous, incompatible demands; role
overload or insufficient time to meet all the demands and preoccupation with one
role while performing another.
The third category of barriers is the institutional barriers. These barriers
originate within the institutions of learning themselves and include situations in
which the college or university is ill-equipped to deal with adult learners or where
office and class hours do not meet the needs of students who work (Fairchild,
2003). Sissel, Hansman, and Kasworm (2001) passionately addressed issues
related to institutional barriers experienced by adult learners in higher education
arguing that the experiences, learning needs, interests and styles of adult learners
have been largely neglected. They argued further that throughout higher
education adult learners are neglected in terms of public policy, programming and
mission.
Consequently, adult learners are often institutionally invisible,
marginalized and taken for granted or systematically ignored. The adult learners
context of valuing family, work and engagement in the community is not central
to the collegiate relationship of students and of most higher education (p. 25).
Sissel et al. (2001) spoke of the too few resources for adult learners on campuses
and the resulting denial of full access and support. Part-time adult students who
are older, married and working can only access classes in the evenings, on
weekends and via distance; yet institutions of higher learning, Sissel et al. argued
work on the assumption that such students are able to transact business and
engage in key learning experiences during the hours of 8 A.M and 5 P.M. on
weekdays. Another area addressed by Sissel et.al. is the condescending manner
in which adult students are often treated. Their adult lifestyle and adult life
complexities are often denied by these institutions.
will overcome barriers and will seek guidance from higher education institutions
to ensure their success.
Adult Learners as Students in the Classroom
Another area of interest when discussing adults in the learning
environment is the issue of how learning takes place. Many writers question
whether adult learning calls for a different view of learning from that which is
applicable to pre-adult learners (Jarvis, 2004). However, Jarvis argued that adult
learning environments are different from pre-adult learning environments
because of the nature of the students. Adult learners come to the classroom with
a well-developed sense of self, are self-directed and ready to learn (Knowles,
Holton III, & Swanson, 2005; Zembe & Zembe, 1995). They bring a bank of
experiences knowledge and skills that influence how new ideas are received, how
new skills are acquired and the experiences of others interpreted. They often have
multiple social roles which impact their readiness to learn and immediate utility
is most often the key motivator behind their learning efforts (Jarvis, 2004; Knowles
et al., 2005; Merriam et al., 2007; Zemke & Zemke, 1995). These factors all influence
how adults behave both in relation to their peers and their tutors. Brookfield (1986)
acknowledged the complexity of the adult learning environment when he made
the point that educators of adults can never predict how adults will respond to
being presented with new ideas, interpretations, skill sets, experiences or
materials. He noted, however, that transactions in adult learning contexts will be
characterized by respect for individual members contributions as they are jointly
interpreted and explored. The adult learner he argued, therefore, expects that in
the teaching-learning process continual negotiation of objectives, methods and
evaluation criteria will be accommodated.
Summary
The literature reviewed in this study suggests that given the complexity of
the adults life the decision to pursue part-time studies in higher education will be
met with many and varied challenges. These challenges may be categorised as
situational, dispositional or institutional. Nevertheless, highly motivated adult
students do overcome these challenges given: the presence of a good support
system at work, home and institution; that they are willing to make the personal
sacrifice; and that they can negotiate arrangements related to home, work and
studies as needed. Most of the literature reviewed for this study, however,
examined the subject of adult participation within the context of undergraduate or
professionalizing courses of study. Studies on the experiences of adults studying
at the graduate level were not readily available. This study with its focus on
graduate students will, therefore, add an important dimension to the existing
literature.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The studys purpose to explore and describe the experiences of adult
graduate students and to understand the meanings they put to these experiences
lent itself to a qualitative design. Creswell (2008) stated that:
Qualitative research is a type of educational research in which the
researcher relies on the views of participants; asks broad, general
questions; collects data consisting largely of words (or text) from
participants; describes and analyses these words for themes; and
conducts the inquiry in a subjective, biased manner. (p. 46)
This research was conducted in the School of Education at a university
based in Kingston, Jamaica. The university offers programmes ranging from
certificates to postgraduate degrees. The School of Education has been delivering
teacher education programmes for over 40 years. The programme from which the
study participants were drawn was the first Masters Degree to be offered out of
the School. All the postgraduate programmes are offered on a part-time basis, and
so this setting is fitting for a study looking at the experiences of part-time graduate
students. I selected this site because it was accessible to me in that it is my place of
work. I also teach on the programme and so I was familiar with all the participants
and have a fairly good relationship with the lecturer in whose class the students
interactions were observed.
The participants for the study were drawn from the registered, second- year
graduate students in a two-year Masters degree programme. They were selected
using the principles of purposive sampling in which the researcher selected
individuals because they could purposefully inform an understanding of the
research problem and central phenomenon in the study (Creswell, 2007). In
keeping with principles of purposive sampling, therefore, the participants were
chosen because they were all adult students who were engaged in part-time study
at the graduate level and as such had the kind of experiences that would be
suitable for the purpose of this study. The cohort was five students, and so they
were all included in the study.
Data Collection
Two data collection techniques were used in this study: interviews and
observation. The interviews explored questions concerning the students
experiences, challenges and support systems while studying. I employed the
general interview guide approach to ensure that the same type of information was
obtained from all the participants by covering the same material (Patton, 1990).
The interviews lasted between 30 and 45 minutes each. Each interview was audiotaped then transcribed and transcripts returned to the participants for verification.
In order to gather data on how the graduate students interacted with each other in
persisted with their studies. This they attributed to their personal commitment to
the course and the kind of support they received from their peers and family
members. In looking at adult students interaction in the classroom setting the main
finding related to their reliance on their experiences to clarify ideas and concepts
and to facilitate understanding.
The findings and discussion have been organized based on the research
questions that guided the research.
Research Question One: What are the Challenges faced by the Masters
students?
Psychological stressors. The students felt that it was pressuring to engage in
a study while working. All the participants in this study reported that they were
employed and had significant role responsibilities on the job. Consequently, they
found it pressuring to work and study. When asked how they felt about work and
study one respondent said:
For me, for the year and a half, it has been a stressful experience,
stressful in the sense of trying to balance, family, work and study. It
is like enough time is not in the day or enough days in the week, the
time just dont work out, so it is most of the time you feel like you
are not giving your best to any one area that is the main drawback.
(Student 1)
Another one said
It is more than I can handle, but I also tell myself that nothing has
changed apart from the fact that I added studying to what was there
before, I had a desire to find a way to work around it, I know that
work cannot be interfered with in the sense that I still have my
responsibilities and I have to carry those out irrespective of - so if it
means studying 3:00 oclock in the morning that I have to do,
whatever time, just to get that part done, then I have to do that, but
I cannot cut into work time, hence I have not been getting much
sleep. I am the one that is suffering, but I try not to let work suffer.
(Student 2)
Student 4 said: there were many moments of high and intense pressure,
very pressuring and it was not the depth of the work, I think it was the volume
and the requirements.
This finding of pressure caused by work and study is richly supported in
the literature where it is cited as a major concern for part-time adult students
(Barrett & Mighty, 2013; Kasworm, 2003; Kerns, 2006). As Kerns, and Barrett and
Mighty pointed out the pressure arises from the amount of time available for these
adult workers to attend classes regularly and to engage in academic activities.
Further, class schedules posed a problem for most of the students. Much
of the pressure working students experience is the clash between class attendance
and meeting work obligations. Several of the participants in this study identified
as a major problem clashes between their classes and work responsibilities. As
Blair et al. (2010) reported adult learners find that time management in general
and the careful timetabling of commitments is crucial to their success. One student
in the study said:
Sometimes I may have to miss classes for the things I have to do. Last
year I had a lot of challenges where my classes would be clashing
with other pre-scheduled appointments that I could not put off and
you know, so it has been a little challenging for me. (Student 3)
Another participant said:
I found that there are times when I needed to be here, but at the end
of the month or a Friday morning when the cheques had to be signed
it just keeps you from getting here and sometimes you have to run
out at lunch time to see to it to ensure that things are going
according to plan so those were some little nuisances that got in the
way. (Student 4)
Another participant expressed the challenge this way:
The schedule cuts into my Thursday, Friday, for which
administration is not very pleased. For this year, I know that I am
using my casual leave. I dont have any other days unless it is sick
leave that I can pay for myself if it is a case where I have to leave
like on a Friday the demand that work is there, you have to find a
substitute or someone to stand in for you. So, the timing is hectic
because you have to prepare the work then leave here, plus sort out
yourself to come to [the university]. I dont think it works that well
(Student 1).
The participants were of the view however that the availability of some
form of study leave would assist in dealing with this challenge. This is evident in
the following comment by a participant:
I dont think it is a [University X] thing, I think it is full time the
Ministry puts in some policy where study for a masters degree is
concerned if you are in the education system because majority of the
time or most of the people who you find doing a masters, they are
the persons with family who need more income and usually they are
the ones who dont have the time to really balance properly so I think
the ministry should look into that policy where you can get leave.
(Student 1)
The matter of government policy has been addressed in the literature where
it has been pointed out by Tight (1991) that there is little government policy on
part-time higher education (as cited in Jarvis, 2004).
Family stressors. Family responsibilities presented a major concern for the
students. In addition to the pressure of work and study, the clash of class schedules
and work demands several of the students spoke of the struggles they had juggling
studies with family responsibilities. This was particularly true for those who had
school-aged children. For example, one respondent said: I think my children tend
to bear the brunt along with me because they are small, so they are dependent.
Most evenings I just pick up something because I dont have time to go and cook.
(Student 2). Another student said:
When I am trying to do my work you hear , mummy I need this or
mummy I need that, so you have to cut your work to attend to
theirs, or cut your work to do dinner or to do laundry or just to be
with them not to mention the co-curricular activities, to drop off and
to pick up. Its so hard to keep apart, so its their time cut into most
of my time. (Student 1)
The literature reveals that family responsibilities are usually among the
factors identified by adult students that impact their ability to pursue further
studies (Fairchild, 2003: Jarvis, 2004; Kasworm, 2003; Kerns, 2006). In this regard,
the argument put forward by Fairchild (2003) about the importance of the age of
children as a determining factor to the level of impact family responsibilities has
on studies must be considered. In this study those adult students whose children
were grown or those who did not have children living with them did not complain
of pressures arising from family responsibilities. For example one participant
reported:
My children are grown and this is one of the reasons why I waited
until now to do this course because I wanted to dedicate as much
time as I could to my studies without the usual interruptions of
taking children to school and picking up and all of that. I just wanted
to focus. So I waited until my children graduated. Both graduated
from college and they are young adults, so I dont have those kinds
of disruptions. (Student #5)
Institutional challenges. The absence of efficient and effective student
services at the institution presented a serious challenge for the part-time adult
students. Blair et al. (2010) noted that:
Without clear and fitting information, even the most motivated
learner may feel confused and lose interest. It is at this stage that an
adult who feels motivated and has been given supportive guidance
These findings are not unusual as the critical role of financing to the adults
ability to complete their academic endeavours has been addressed by several
writers (Barrett & Mighty, 2013; Fairchild, 2003; Merriam et al., 2007). However,
as Kasworm (2003) warned, some higher education leaders have suggested that
because adult students work, they have limited need for financial assistance. This
she argued reflects a lack of understanding on the part of those administrators that
adult students typically support other members of their household.
Research Question Two: What Support Systems do These Adult PartTime Students make Use of as they Pursue their Course of Study?
Peers and family members. The participants viewed the support they received
from their study groups and family members as very important to their success.
Support has been widely discussed as a crucial component of the adult students
coping mechanism (Barrett & Mighty, 2013; Blair et al., 2010; Fairchild, 2003;
Kasworm, 2003) demonstrating its importance to the adult students success.
Several of the participants in this study spoke of the important role their
group mates played in their lives as students. For example, one participant said:
the greatest support came from the study group and teammates. During the
course, I found that if you had one or two persons who were on the same
wavelength as yourself you could get through a lot. (Student 4) Another student
said:
We find that some of us are going through similar life
situations..Most of the time we depend on each other for support.
We call on each other, stress each other and so on, but I guess because
of that we can say, look this is happening here. If we have a group
work, people will know how to juggle it and pull through for each
other. I feel like we are family (Student 1).
This idea that student peer group is of great importance to adult students
is also supported by Blair, Cline, and Wallis (2010).
In this study the students also spoke of the support they received from their
family members. This is in keeping with the observation made by Fairchild (2003)
that, support from family and friends is essential when adults are making
decisions whether to stay in school or to drop out. One participant in this study
noted:
I get support from both spouse and childrenmy daughter
lives with us and gives lots of support and encouragement
for example when I do the stats that I am not that familiar
with when I am having difficulties she says mummy so and
so, now you do it. She is very patient with me because she
understands that is not my strong point. So yes, I do get a
lot of support there. (Student 5)
Another student said: My kids are supportive in that if they know that
mommy have assignment, and they dont have to come and knock me up and
bother me. (Student 1)
Research Question Three: How do These Adult Learners interact in the
Classroom?
Students were participative and drew on their varied experiences in order
to clarify ideas and concepts and to facilitate understanding. During the
observation, it was noted that although there were periods of passive listening to
the class was mostly characterized by the active involvement of the students. They
would engage both their lecturer and each other in discussion and ask questions
to ensure understanding of the ideas that were being presented. The students often
shared examples from their own experiences on the job in order to clarify or to
illuminate a point that was made by the lecturer or to corroborate something that
was said by a classmate. These findings are supported by writers who speak to the
important part that learner experience plays in adult learning. Such writers speak
to the fact that adults learners come to the learning experience with a wealth of
experience that influences how they respond to the ideas and new information that
they encounter in the classroom (Jarvis, 1996; Knowles et al., 2005; Merriam et al.,
2007).
CONCLUSION
The research findings were very useful in providing answers to my research
questions. For example, the main research question was: What are the experiences
of adult learners enrolled in two-year, part-time Masters programme? The
findings revealed that the adults learning experiences are characterised by a
number of challenges arising from their adult roles and responsibilities and that
these challenges are further exacerbated by the inadequate provisions made for
them by institutions of higher learning. However where adults were able to draw
on various coping mechanisms such as peers and friends they were able to
successfully navigate their way through their studies. Additionally, the study
findings reiterated the idea that adult learners come to the classroom with a wealth
of experience which they draw on to help them navigate the challenges waters of
learning at the graduate level.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this research the following recommendations are
made:
1.
Programmes that target adults as students need to establish flexible office
2.
3.
4.
5.
hours to ensure that part-time adult students can access the various
students services that are critical to their sojourn as a part-time graduate
student.
There needs to be a reconsideration of the kinds of financial support that is
provided for adult part-time students. Even though these are working
adults, the pressure on their income puts a strain on their ability to
adequately finance their studies on their own.
More opportunities for online learning should be incorporated in the
programme delivery modality. This would assist in mitigating the clash
between students work responsibilities and class attendance and the
challenge of getting to classes on time.
Ensure that systems are put in place to support adult students emotionally
and psychologically as they try to deal with the psychological pressures of
juggling work, family and study.
Ensure that the learning experiences are designed to allow the adult
learners to pull on the experiences they take to the learning environment as
well as to engage in meaning full discussions with each other and with the
facilitators.
REFERENCES
Barrett, S., & Mighty, T. (2013). Family support, mode of entry and financial
resources: Key factors in adult participation in classroom learning. Journal
of Arts, Science and Technology, 6, 139 155.
Blair, E., Cline, T., & Wallis, J. (2010). When do adults entering higher education
begin to identify themselves as students? The threshold - of - induction
model. Studies in Continuing Education, 32(2), 133146. doi
10.1080/0158037X.2010.488355
Brookfield, S. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco
CA: Jossey Bass Inc.
Chao, E. L., DeRocco, E. S., & Flynn, M. K. (2007). Adult learners in higher education:
Barriers to success and strategies to improve results. US Department of Labor,
Employment
and
Training
Administration.
Retrieved
from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED497801.pdf
Creswell, J. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (2nd ed.). California, CA: Sage Publications.
Fairchild, E. E. (2003). Multiple roles of adult learners. New Directions for Student
Services, 102, 11-16.
CHAPTER TWO
GAMES IN SCIENCE TEACHING: THE TRAINEE TEACHER AND
PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR CLASSROOM EXPERIENCE
By
Debbie Devonish
University of Technology, Jamaica
ABSTRACT
The KETACT approach to assessing games to be used in the science
lesson for trainee teachers as well as their prospective science learners
proved useful at Excellentia College. The paper also explores the training
teachers perceptions of gaming as a pedagogical tool. The results
suggest that during the teachers professional development, their prior
experiences and formulated philosophies will determine their level of
acceptance for utilising alternative teaching aids, which can be used to
effectively enhance the science students learning experience.
INTRODUCTION
For many persons, the word game and science should never be in the
same sentence. Why not? This is best explained in the History of Science
Education, The Awesomeness of Science and Technology, and the past and
changing Perceptions of Science Teaching.
Teaching, as seen from the chronicles of Socrates and his teacher Plato, was
a series of very provocative discourses. Classes were in session then. Moving
through the ages, males were clad in business attire and taught in the most didactic
pedagogical display. Then we meandered through the era of educational theorists
heralding the news, that rote learning and simple transmission of information
from a teacher-centered perspective should be channelled into a new paradigm
shift--Constructivism (Piaget, 1936; Vygotsky, 1962). Constructivist thinking has
strongly influenced science education and extensive research has ushered in
science education reform. This reform allows for exploring critical thinking, and
active teaching and learning environments in, and outside of a physical classroom-a daring move from teacher-centeredness to student-centeredness where learning
is enhanced through active participation (Bruner, 1986; Schunk, 2004).
Mayo (2007) described the American science education status as
unbecoming and arguably, America does not stand alone. The situation being
faced seems to mirror what is occurring in many other territories. The literature
lays out the steady decline in academic performance in Science and the deleterious
effect on the nations scientific, economic and social viability. Most admirable is
A teaching aid is any material brought into the classroom to assist the
teaching and learning experience, especially where the science topics are abstract
and difficult to comprehend (Patil & Kachave, 2013; Soyibo et al., 2000). According
to Soyibo (1992), referenced in Soyibo et al. (2000) teaching aids assist the teacher
to concretize facts and concepts that have been presented theoretically and
verbally; They stimulate students interest while making learning meaningful and
interesting; they promote retention of information; student participation, better
communication between teacher and students, promote a variety of learning
opportunities and help students to use their senses in learning.
Generally, a game is defined as any form of competitive activity or sport
played according to rules (Oxford Dictionary, p. 582). The definition of
educational games differs with the contexts of related terminologies (Al- Sarhan,
Alzboon, Olimat, & Al-Zboon, 2013). In regard to computerised educational
games, Demsey et al. (as cited in Al-Sarhan et al., 2013) posited that a game is a set
of activities that requires one player or more, and achieves a certain goal,
controlled by a group of determiners, with various levels of difficulty. Labrow
(2009) referred to such games as creative activity, while Love (2008) referred to it
as strategies to encourage students to be active participants in the learning
process (p. 3) and as a teaching aid (Soyibo, McKenzie-Briscoe, McCulloch, &
Beaumont-Walters, 2000). Soyibo et al. (2000) cited in Soyibo (1992) suggested that
the major advantage of utilizing teaching aids such as games is that games are
useful in arousing and maintaining students interest in lessons (p. 77).
What is important in a Game?
Labrow (2009) arranged the creative activities according to four phases
which are: Developing a sense of team, Developing focus and concentration,
Developing spontaneity, and Developing scenes and stories. Overall, the
literature points to levels of complexity to heighten motivation, competitiveness
(even with oneself), and fruitful engagement.
Assessing the games for Science Teaching
According to Labrow (2009), the creative activities he compiled seemed
relevant for drama or English lessons, but were also successfully used to explore
History, Geography and Science objectives within the classroom. Labrow,
however, indicated cautiously that the choice of activity is better left for teachers
with a far better understanding of what will work in their particular subject area
(p. xi). In comparing the use of games in the science classroom at the tertiary level,
it was found that the learning outcomes attained outweighed the traditional
teaching strategies such as the lecture method, and attested to the fact that it was
not the visual stimulation, but the engagement which improved students
academic performance (Mayo, 2007).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Participants and Setting
The sample comprised a group of 40 trainee teachers enrolled in the Science
and Education Bachelors programme at Excellentia College (pseudonym). There
were 11 males and 29 females. The demographics showed that their ages ranged
from below 20 years to above 36 years, and they came from several secondary or
tertiary institutions. Their teaching-learning experiences were varied. The
students had gained experience through regular sessions such as teaching
assimilations, micro-teaching and team teaching in the practicum as part of their
course of study. One student held a Teaching Diploma, and five were teaching
voluntarily. The participants represented three cohorts, one each from Year Two,
Three and Four. All were pursuing a double science major and had completed, at
the end of their second year, a module on Instructional Methodology.
Procedure
The module on Instructional Methodology incorporated a lecture, and a threehour tutorial component which was taught by the researcher. During the tutorial
sessions, the students were exposed to various teaching and alternative teaching
strategies. However, Cohort One and Three were more purposefully taught
Games as a topic for four of the 13 weeks tutorial session.
Incorporating Games and Utilising KETACT in the Science Lesson
Soyibo et al. (2000) suggested that teaching aids must be designed for different
learning styles. For example, visual aids will appeal to the visual learner,
appealing to the sense of sight, and thus the teacher would employ the use of
teaching aids such as charts, diagrams, models, film strips, computer programs
and realia. However, this research goes a step further to hone in on one particular
teaching aid--Games. The aim was to get teachers in training to (1) develop the
games for addressing different learning styles at different cognitive levels; (2) to
incorporate games in lesson plans; and (3) to play and assess the games to promote
an improved science classroom experience. This is against the backdrop that the
principles of science can be taught not only by playing games but by designing
games and actually playing the game while increasing the complexity of what is
learned (Mayo, 2007). The students were:
1. introduced to literature on games in science teaching and the link to their
teaching philosophy ( results not included in this paper).
2. reminded of regular known games and their uses in the science classroom.
3. asked to share in playing games.
4. instructed to design games for specific lesson objectives.
5. instructed to design games for sections of the lesson plans (the
starter/introduction; during the development, and the lesson ending).
6. given props to design games (In this case, the SPIN wheel and the Box were
given. See Appendix A).
7. to critically assess the games for their applicability and scientific worth to
the science classroom experience.
The students were asked to use KETACT to assess the games. The meanings
are presented below:
K-Knowledge: The game must confer knowledge; complete a specific objective from
the lesson, or assess the knowledge to be gained from the lesson content delivered.
E- Engagement: The game must engage all students from the class in the activity.
T-Time-worthy: The objective of the game must warrant the time to be spent.
A-Application: The game must be easily understood, and the instructions must be
very clear so that the game can be executed smoothly. The students must be able
to relate or apply the information/content of the game to the objectives set in the
lesson. According to Eggen and Kauchak (1964 as cited in Chiapetta et al., 1998),
effective science teachers are those who use models to plan lessons, selecting
instructional strategies based on their potential to accomplish certain goals and
objectives (p. 294). In addition, Soyibo et al. (2000) posited the same sentiment,
that teaching aids such as games must be based on the lessons objectives (p. 77).
CT- Critical Thinking: The games must employ and consider as many levels of
Blooms Taxonomy, and types of Gardners multiple intelligence as applicable. To
assess CT a game analysis matrix was utilised. The seeming marriage of Blooms
Taxonomy and Gardners Intelligences in a matrix may not be new (Green &
Henriquez-Green, 2008). However, its application in the KETACT approach to
assessing the suitability of games in the science lesson ensures that both Blooms
Taxonomy and Gardeners Intelligences are considered. It is utilised to ensure that
students are engaged physically and mentally. The game analysis matrix is
completed by a tick to indicate the taxonomy level and intelligence included in the
game, and a rating schedule rates the games after the game analysis matrix is
completed.
Data Collection
A questionnaire was utilised to gather information on the participants post
perceptions about the use of games in science teaching (see Appendix B). The
interview schedule used with all participants in the eighth week of Cohort Twos
sitting of the module. The participants were given time to reflect on their
experiences and were asked to return the questionnaire at the end of the thirteenth
week. The questions addressed three specific areas for the participants to reflect
on: Their perception of (1) the effectiveness of games in their lessons; (2) games in
their lesson planning for students; and (3) the use of games for their students
classroom experience, while teaching. Lesson observations were used to make
field notes as the trainee teachers played their games and voiced their perceptions
as the games were collaboratively assessed.
Trustworthiness and Credibility
Triangulation was considered from three sources: the written responses to
the unstructured questionnaire which enquired about the participants
perceptions; classroom observations in the researchers field notes, and
documentation of the participants oral expressions as they related their
experiences in a focus group session. Verbatim participant accounts were
recorded, and unedited artefacts were displayed for assessment. Memberchecking was also used to get teachers approval that the observations, resulting
pictures, and information from class material and field explanations captured their
classroom experiences as they reflected on the topic of games in science teaching.
Ethical Considerations
The researcher requested via written correspondence, permission of the
trainee teachers to participate in the project. They were shown pictures and
resultant information from the class material which would be shared in the report,
and signatures of the participants were secured. Pseudonyms were used to protect
the identity of the institution, and the participants.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section will concentrate mainly on providing examples of the
assessment of the games produced by the trainee teachers, utilising KETACT. The
key findings from the questionnaires will be presented as summaries, along with
examples of verbatim quotes to expose the views of the participants to their science
learning experience through their professional development journey.
The Assessment of the Games Utilising
Two game activities (The What is Pyramid? and The Functional Group
Game) were used to highlight the use of KETACT in rating the usefulness of the
game designed by the trainee teachers. The results will seek to describe the
participants mood, and agreed feedback on delivery and analysis.
Students Perceptions
The trainee teachers indicated that The What is Pyramid? was an
enjoyable game. Applying KETACT, they indicated areas for improvement. They
said, Some of the clues were difficult to guess. They explained that it took some
individuals more time and team effort to figure out the clues. The completed
matrix with a 69% coverage is shown in Appendix C while the rating schedule for
the game assessment is presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Rating Schedule for the Game Matrix Assessment
Percentage Coverage
Rating
Comment
10-29
Weak
30-49
Ok
Students may enjoy the game
activity but the science content
value may be low
50-59
Good
KETACT duly considered
60-79
Very good
Different levels of complexity and
variation achieved
80-100
Excellent
All criteria of KETACT have been
duly met
Note: The game can be considered very good with an allowance of two
intelligences omitted.
Using the matrix (see Table 2), the game What is Pyramid? received 69%
coverage and was deemed a very good game. The game had KNOWLEDGE
content which was suitable for the grade level. Unrelated scientific terms such as
slick, syrup, and olive were used. However, the advantage sighted was that
the link to real life substances would have allowed grade 11 students to see the
link of the topic Hydrocarbon to their lives. The trainee teachers said these terms
were adequate for the association required in the game. Science Association to real life
is paramount to improving scientific literacy in the region (Caribbean Examination
Council, 2011), and the objective of the science syllabi.
The game rules were clear, and the game was very EASILY EXECUTED. The
teachers played it easily, but it appeared to have taken more time than was
planned. This would render the game a possible poor candidate for TIME
WORTHINESS, since in a real classroom of students; the time for response may
vary according to the students academic level and situational challenges. The
game, used as an Introduction to the lesson, was a good start to the lesson,
particularly because the students seemed excited, and the game would have
achieved its objective as a starter activity, to engage and arouse the students for
the remaining stages of the lesson. The level of ENGAGEMENT could be
described as high since the game was successfully designed to incorporate the
whole class and just the overall presentation of the chart and the hot seat sparked
curiosity and it required thought (CRITICAL THINKING).
Using the grid also showed that the game could be improved by a possible
musical timer or the element of acting, such as in the case of charades, which could
add to the bodily kinaesthetic intelligence. Overall, the teachers posited that the
game was too long for the start of the class before getting to the real specific objectives of
the lesson. Therefore, it was agreed that the game was probably best suited for a
Table 2
Game Matrix Assessment: What is Pyramid?
Blooms Taxonomy
Elements- In order to play this game the person
needs to possibly:
Gardners Intelligences
Verbal
The trainee teachers appeared quite excited as they heard the rules and
instructions for the Functional Game. The author/participant also seemed very
excited as the game was being explained to his peers and the execution went
flawlessly. The main comment from the class was that they admired how
creatively the game was designed by Paul (pseudonym), a student who designed
the game. They were encouraged to see that it had so many different components:
Activity (Construct, Draw and Name) and the surprise element of Random Draw.
See Table 3 for the game matrix used for the assessment of the functional group.
Table 3
Game Matrix Assessment: The Functional Group
Gardners Intelligences
Blooms Taxonomy
1 2 3 4 5
Elements- In order to play this game the person needs to possibly:
read, write, narrate a story or event, memorize
* * * *
Verbal
specific data such as time/dates, think in words.
sing, remember melodies, or respond to X
Musical
rhythms.
do reasoning, logic assessment,
* * * * *
Mathematical
problem-solving, work with numbers and
pattern associations.
work with pictures, patterns and colours;
* * * *
Spatial
visualizing for completing tasks.
rely on touch, movement, processing knowledge
* * * *
Kinesthetic
through bodily sensations.
understand ones self so as to work alone;
* *
* *
Intrapersonal
recognizing strengths and weaknesses, setting
goals and doing reflection.
share, compare, relate and cooperate with other
* * * * *
Interpersonal
persons.
The game was deemed an effective plenary activity. It had 86% coverage
and, therefore, is an excellent game according to the use of the Game Assessment
Matrix. The only intelligence not accounted for was musical intelligence, and,
therefore, the participant can add that element to the game, if so desired.
The Researchers Perspective from Field Observations
This research was prompted by observations made in the science classroom
and during science lesson observations. The observations revealed that in some
instances trainee teachers:
1. when taking a class may tend to avoid using games or creative activities.
2. utilise games or activities which are inappropriate. This takes the form of
games/ activities not being linked to the lesson; having no value to the
teaching/lesson context; fostering student misconception; not being
executed well for student benefit, and may be time-consuming beyond
merit.
3. utilise the same activities all the time.
4. when writing the lesson plans, confuse the use of games/creative activities
with traditional teaching strategies such as lecturing, discussion; or
cooperative teaching/learning strategies such as Jigsaw, or alternative
strategies such as the use of concept maps, portfolios, and journals.
The questionnaire was completed by all participants after they had been given
time to reflect on their experiences after five weeks. The questions addressed three
6
*
*
*
*
specific areas for the participants to reflect: their perception of games in their own
course of study, games in their lesson planning for students and the use of games
for their students classroom experience, while teaching. The teachers wrote freely
and their comments are noted below.
The Students Perceptions of the Use of Games
The participants indicated that in their present course of study- Science and
Education, they were exposed mostly to discussion and lecture teaching strategies.
Six or 20% of the trainee-teachers lamented that their educational experience
would have been so much better if they had experienced a variety of teaching
strategies. Three or 10% indicated that a diversity of teaching strategies along with
games and other creative activities being used in their science modules would help
to enhance their practice as developing teachers. Twelve or 40% indicated that
they were exposed to other teaching strategies because of their education modules.
Seven or 23% participants recalled their experiences of games in the classroom and
listed the games they enjoyed. The majority of the participants indicated that they
were not formally introduced to games in science teaching as a topic. However,
the more adept participants indicated that in their instructional methodology
module they were exposed to the topic of incorporating games and that they were
given instructional aides to produce resources. Of the participants, 80% said that
in their course of study, this was the first time they were experiencing a game and
other creative activities in the classroom; they had never had such experiences
even in secondary school.
The Students Perceptions of Games in their Lesson Planning
The trainee teachers indicated that they realised that lack of preparation
prevents the incorporation of games in their lessons. They also repeatedly stated
that for good use and execution of an activity in the lesson many hours of planning
and thought were required. They also lamented that resources to make colourful
and exciting games could also pose a problem. The participants indicated that
when assessing the game after playing it with peers during class, flaws were
observed and it allowed for redesigning of the game. The participants also listed
some of the games which they incorporated into their lessons and explained the
procedures and rationale.
Participants indicated that the impact the games had on their teaching
experience was that just like their intended students, they had fun designing and
making the rules and steps for playing the games. They thought that they learnt
the material and understood it better as they found ways to link topic concepts
and find solutions to questions posed. Further, they felt challenged to think of
activities or design games which would grab students attention and found that
they wanted to produce novel problem-solving activities because their students
would learn more, have fun, and retain more content if critical thinking was
encouraged.
The Students Perceptions of using Games and Students Classroom
Experience
The trainee teachers explained that the games they developed were very well
received by their counterparts (students) and indicated that the games were most
effective when specific lesson objectives were met. They also had much to say as
they expressed their perception of its impact on themselves, as the teacher, and on
their students experience. The game experience for the students:
could be very effective if the students are receptive but said that they
envisioned slower students getting lost,
is the best way to get the students to interact with each other,
gets the students settled, especially if they seem agitated,
maintains the students attention; it is great for students with short
attention spans,
gets students excited about learning: it allows them to be involved in their
own learning,
will facilitate those who learn more by doing and observing,
incites competition which spurs them on to work competitively as a team,
and can act as a positive motivator when they are winners, or feel
empowered,
can be useful in transmitting useful and factual content in a fun way
promotes emotional development because students follow classroom rules
and have to practise self-regulation,
promotes better understanding because students have to share their
thoughts with each other, and
will help students to love science subjects as (the subjects) become more
enjoyable, and as the concepts are understood, they will not see it as being
hard.
The game experience for the teacher:
can be used as an effective ice breaker for the class, especially if the teacher
is anxious,
relaxes the teacher: the classroom atmosphere becomes more free for
relaxed expressions from both teacher and student,
is easier to revise or check for understanding because it is effective as a
plenary activity for revision of lesson objectives and can be used as a form
of alternative assessment,
is exciting because of the students response and teachers are satisfied with
the overall outcome and execution of the game when lesson objectives are
successfully met, and
Knowledge for Global Development
31
CONCLUSION
This research has sought to give voice to the teachers in training at Excellentia
College (pseudonym) as they were asked to reflect on the use of games in their
educational sojourn. Though this is a case study of Excellentia College, the
findings suggest that institutions in the business of training science educators
should consider the exploration of games and alternative creative activities
suitable to be utilised in the science classroom. The findings showed that science
educators, in exploring the use of games, should be aware of the necessity to assess
the usefulness and adequacy of the games for the specific lessons, to ensure a
fulfilling classroom experience for teacher and students. KETACT is a simple,
easy to use tool which can be quickly used to assess if any teaching tool/aid (i.e.,
game) will be effective for its intended purpose for the science lesson. The
consideration using the game assessment matrix will assist in identifying the
weaknesses or elements which need to be added to the game to render it most
effective for the science classroom at any educational level.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings the following recommendations are made:
Specific teaching of methodology at Excellentia College is an excellent route
that presently exists for science teachers in training. However, an
introspective look into the tutorial sessions by the researcher suggests that
purposeful teaching of games and alternate creative activities, encouraging
creativity, assessment of the activities and practice for usage in the lesson,
is a better route to reduce the inappropriate use of such activities in the
science lesson when used.
It will also encourage the newly trained teacher to use of games to foster
student engagement instead of shying away from the use of such because
of fear of class time and behavioural management issues. The purposeful
training of the topic will assist in teachers in training understanding the
value and implementation procedures of the games and also the most
appropriate gaming activities for their classes, so that the right balance is
struck.
Learning should be fun and science is hard, a regrettable perception aired
frequently by school aged students (Eisen & Laderman, 2005); which has
aided the apathy towards science education (Augustine, 1998; Kamen, 2012;
Mayo, 2007). The intentional encouragement of teachers in training to be
creative in designing their own games will prevent overuse of some games
and instructional strategies, which will eventually foster loss and lack of
student engagement and teacher boredom.
Creativity in designing games will foster teacher flexibility, as they wangle
new ways to present and assess the science subject content for their
students. Also as they design games specific to topics and specific to lesson
objectives, this will aid the teacher to be able to recognise and develop
lesson activities for the special needs of their students and particular
classes. Ultimately such specific design for implementation can enhance
student learning for better academic performance.
A game is not only intended to be fun, but it enhances long-term memory
and offers replicability inside and outside of the classroom. Students may
even be encouraged to seek educational science games via media sources
which will aid to heighten their practice and inquiry of scientific
knowledge. Therefore, as software developers attempt to collaborate with
APPENDIX A
GAMES IN SCIENCE TEACHING: THE SPIN WHEEL (ORIGIN UNKNOWN)
Students were given figure one- The Spin Wheel. They were asked to use this prop
to
1. design a game
2. use the game in their lesson plan
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
The Box
(An adaptation of the lesson starter: Originating from Berry BillingsleyReading University)
The entire class lesson was developed with the use of the Box as the instructional
resource pool.
Presenting the Homologous Series Activity Kit
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE
The aim of these semi-structured interview questions is to gather information on
your perceptions about games in science teaching. There are three specific areas
you are being asked to reflect on: (1) The perception of its effectiveness for your
own lessons; (2) The perception of games in your lesson planning for students and
(3) The perception of using games for your students classroom experience, while
teaching. All participants should complete sections A-C and D is to be completed
by those it is applicable to. Your participation is voluntary and any information
obtained from this will be treated confidentially and will be used as part of a
report.
Background Information
1. What is your age?
< 20 years
26-35 years
2. What is your gender?
3. What year group are you ?
21-25 years
> 36 years
Male
Female
2nd
3rd
4th
6. If so, how long have you been teaching this/these science subject(s)?
< 2 years
2-5 years
6-10 years
> 10 years
7. What is the highest grade level you have taught or want to teach?
2. Were you formerly introduced to the topic of the use of games for science
teaching? Explain.
2. How did you perceive the students classroom experience as you used
games in their science lessons?
2.
3.
How was the game experience when you got your peers/students to play
it?
Thank You!
APPENDIX C
GAMES ASSESSED USING KETACT
The Pyramid Game
Teacher:
_______
Cohort: ______ Grade level: ___________
Topic:
Source of Hydrocarbon compounds
Description Setting: A brightly multi-coloured chart was pasted at the front of the
class, and it grabbed the classs attention. A decorated hot seat was placed to the
side of the teachers desk, and the class chose representatives to sit and another to
pose the questions. The game was designed by George to be used as a starter to
lead into the lesson introduction. The aim of the game was for the class to guess
the days lesson topic. There were teams in the class to facilitate discussion. Using
random call cards the teacher solicited responses from the students to derive
hidden answers if the student in the hot seat could not answer. The team that
derived the topic first from the list of words uncovered on the pyramid won.
THE WHAT IS PYRAMID
GAME
Instruction: Students will be given
words/phrases related to a particular
category that is linked to the topic to be
taught in the days lesson. Students are
encouraged to find a single word that links
all the listed words or phrases. The
response must begin with What is a......
ORIGIN
______________ OF POWER
BEGINNING
Answer: Source
FUEL
FOOTPRINT
C
Answer: Cardon
LIGHT GAS
RMM 1.0079
H
Answer: Hydrogen
ROUGH
________________ OIL
COARSE
Answer: Crude
GREASY
SLICK
Under-chart
Overlaying-Chart
CHAPTER THREE
SUSTAINABLE EDUCATION REFORMS BEYOND THE 21ST CENTURY: A
PERSPECTIVE FROM CORRUPTION, CURRICULUM, TEACHER AND
TEACHER EDUCATION
By
Aina, Jacob Kola, & Olanipekun, Shola Sunday
College of Education (Technical) Lafiagi, Kwara State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Reforms in education are inevitable when the existing practices have
problems. This paper looked at Nigerias education system highlighting
some of the problems confronting it. The authors argued that the system
has been plagued with examination malpractices and projects that were
not properly executed because of corruption. Teachers and teacher
education were also discovered to be some of the major causes of the poor
educational standard and problems facing the education sector in
Nigeria. It was concluded that for any meaningful achievement/
realization of education reform, teacher and teacher education, peace
education, agriculture among others must be strengthened.
INTRODUCTION
Raji (2005) affirmed that reforms are necessary events in the process of
education. Reforms aimed at achieving sustainable education development may
be seen as measures towards the attainment of the desirable ends of schooling,
within the constraints of assumed needs of the society, and the rationalized role of
the schools. According to Omosewo (2008), reform is a long process that begins
with problem identification, involves study and analysis, and ends with
evaluation and the continuation or termination of the programme. It involves,
among other things, the development of policy alternatives, experimentation,
implementation, and feedback. It is worthy of note that most of the so-called
reforms in Nigerias education system need reformation themselves.
Education has become one of the most powerful weapons known for
reducing poverty and inequality in modern societies. It is also used for laying the
foundation for sustainable growth and development of any nation. However, it is
sad to note that education in Nigeria has not been receiving adequate attention by
the government. Thus, reforms in education are not issues- based but regimebased. Education policies are made without proper consideration for the needs of
the educational sector. Yesterday, it was a 6-3-3-4; today, it is a 9-3-4 system, and
tomorrow it could be something else. The essence of the present system, for
Knowledge for Global Development
44
example, is to instill vocational studies in the system which sadly has been
neglected.
The state of education in Nigeria largely explains the high level of
underdevelopment or low rate of development in the country (Gbenu, 2012).
There wouldnt be any need for reform if the existing practices in education were
good and effective. Unfortunately, our existing practices are defective and need
improvement. Reform in education suggests change and improvement in existing
practices (Abdulkareem & Fasasi, 2012). The National Policy on Education has
failed to achieve its objectives because of what we are experiencing currently in
the education sector of the nation.
The failure to sustain the past reforms is majorly due to the problem of
corruption in the country. For any reform to be sustained, there is the need to first
address the issue of corruption. Corruption is not limited to the leaders alone; it is
a problem of everybody. Parents are corrupt while teachers and students are not
left out in the game of corruption. The state of Nigeria education is bad presently
with clear evidence around us.
Reform in education is not new in Nigeria yet; there has not been a
sustainable improvement. This paper, therefore, does not only seek to highlight
some of the problems plaguing the education system in Nigeria but also to answer
questions such as: Why do we need reform? Or Why cant we rely on the present
education policy of the country for the century to come? How can reforms be
sustained? This paper also recognises that the world is moving fast in Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) through science and technology, hence if
our country is not to be left behind there is a need for reforms that can sustain the
system beyond the present century.
Corruption
Corruption has been the major problem of Nigeria; it is a disease that has
refused or resisted every medication. Olagunju (2012) observed that corruption is
not a contemporary affair but has been in Nigeria for a long time. Every
government has attempted to establish strategies to fight corruption but have
failed because it is either the Head of the regime itself that is into corruption or the
cabinet members that are corrupt.
Education projects are not properly executed because of corruption. We
have witnessed different types of systems of education in Nigeria. The 6-3-3-4
system of education failed because most of the equipment was looted by the
principals, teachers of secondary schools and education officials who knew the
importance of the equipment. The Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) has
been doing its best, but heads of institutions and governing councils of some
institutions are frustrating the effort by mismanaging funds sent to the
institutions.
program. Teacher education is both defective in content and pedagogy. There are
many teachers in Nigeria who possess a weak mastery of the subject content. Many
cannot adequately impart to the students the knowledge they claim to have in their
teaching subject. In developed countries like Finland, teachers are effective both in
content and pedagogical knowledge and are recognized to be effective (Sahlberg
2010).
The National Policy on Education (NPE) stipulated that teacher education
must Provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background
adequate for their assignment and make them adaptable to changing situations.
According to Afe (2006), NPE has failed to achieve its objectives because teacher
education programmes have been deficient in providing teachers with the
intellectual and professional background adequate for their assessment in the
nation.
There has been concern expressed everywhere in Nigeria regarding the rate
of failure of students in Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSSCE).
For some years, the percentage of students passing SSSCE examination at five
credits including English and Mathematics has been discouraging. In spite of some
minimal improvement since 2011, Ogundele, Olanipekun and Aina (2014) again
lamented the rate of failure of students in SSSCE in the result released by West
African Examination Council (WAEC) for May/June 2014. The Table 1 shows the
percentages of students who had above five credits including English and
Mathematics in Nigeria between 2006 and 2014.
Table 1
Percentage of Passes in West African Examination Council: 2006 2014
S/n
Year
Percentage of Passes
1
2006
22.0
2
2007
20.0
3
2008
26.0
4
2009
26.0
5
2010
23.0
6
2011
30.0
7
2012
38.8
8
2013
38.5
9
2013
31.2
Source: Ogundele, Olanipekun & Aina (2014)
Reasons for these poor performances are many but according to Ogundele
et al. (2014), poor pedagogical content knowledge and low self-efficacy of teachers
were cited among other causes.
Though, research shows that there is no conscious agreement on what
teacher effectiveness is, there are suggested indicators used in measuring the
effectiveness of teacher. Several of these indicators point to the evidence that most
Nigerian teachers in both primary and post-primary are not effective. Adeoti
(2012) cited Professor Peter Okebukolas findings that, most graduate teachers are
not professionals and are inadequately exposed to teaching practice while many
of them cannot communicate effectively in English. Darling-Hammond and
Youngs (2002) posited that one of the qualities of an effective teacher is verbal
communication. Communication skills are one of the conditions for recruitment
into the teaching profession in Finland, and that likely contributes to the
effectiveness of their teachers (Sahlberg, 2010).
Aina, Ogundele and Olanipekun (2013), and Olanipekun, Garuba and
Mohammed (2014) argued that English is the major language of instruction in
Nigerian classrooms, and that good language proficiency in General English could
go a long way in influencing students academic performance in vocational
education studies since English Language is not only the medium of instruction
especially at the upper primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education but also
the language of textbooks. To this end, effective teacher education should ensure
that teachers are proficient in the use of English language. Most teachers in
Nigerian schools are not qualified, and this supports Ibidapo- Obe (2007) position
that one of the major challenges of Nigerias education system in contemporary
time is the production of qualified teachers to teach at various levels of the
educational system in sufficient numbers.
A teachers qualification is more than a certificate; there are seven
indicators that measure teachers qualifications according to Zuzovsky (2009).
These are formal education, experience, subject matter knowledge, pedagogy
studies, duration of training, certificate/licensing and professional development.
Assessment of Nigerian teachers by these indicators revealed that many of the
teachers are not qualified. Teachers self-efficacy is very low in Nigeria and is one
reason for poor students performance in national and international examinations
(Ogundele et al., 2014). Lunenburg (2011) argued that self efficacy affects
teachers level of efforts and persistence when learning and teaching difficult tasks
to the pupils. Bandura (1993) believed that teachers who do not trust their efficacy
will try to avoid dealing with academic problems and instead turn their effort
inward to relieve their emotional distress.
The teacher education programme in Nigeria is defective in many areas.
Odia and Omonfonmwan (2007) faulted teacher training institutions in Nigeria for
producing teachers that are inadequate in terms of knowledge of subject matter
and pedagogical skills. The teacher education curriculum is outdated, and the
teacher education programme is not research-based. Regarding the entry
qualifications and the quality of teacher education, Akinbote (2007) concluded that
the entry mode has no standards and that the entry qualification has no measure
for the standards. To this end, Akinbote further observed that trained teachers are
not good materials for teaching and majority of them are not interested in
teaching. In addition, the quality of teacher education has not kept abreast of the
expansion in enrolment. Invariably, this has affected the sustainability of national
education development.
Although, this according to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization [UNESCO] (2001), continues to be a global concern, yet it is
the general belief that the competence of teachers is central to the education of
children. In a way therefore, what constitutes competence in teaching is intimately
connected with the type of teacher education and development programmes
available for teachers. Therefore, one of the problems of education development
in the 21st century in Nigeria is teacher education associated with poor quality of
teachers produced from the Teachers Colleges (Taiwo, 1982). Unless there is a
reform of both teachers and teacher education programmes in Nigeria there may
not be any sustainable education reform in Nigerian, beyond the 21st century.
Teacher reform is a key factor in sustainable education reforms.
Teacher and Teacher Education Reform
Teachers and teacher education in Nigeria need to undergo serious reform
to achieve sustainable education beyond the 21st Century. This reform must
include addressing the problems discussed earlier associated with corruption,
teachers and teachers education.
Carrying out any reform that involves human beings is always very
difficult but taking note of some caveats will be of help. Reform relating to teachers
will involve total overhauling of the recruitment and training process. Those
teachers that need to go for in-service training for upgrading should be given an
ultimatum to do so while those whose service cannot be upgraded due to age
should be retired with their full benefits. Those who lack certain qualifications
should put everything in place to get themselves qualified. Effort should be
directed towards developing pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of all teachers
in primary and post-primary schools in Nigeria. Teachers in Nigerian schools
should be able to compete favourably with teachers in countries like Finland,
Canada and Singapore in effectiveness.
Each department in colleges of education and universities should be
allowed to admit students they are sure can cope with the academic exercise of the
institutions. Admission in most developed countries and some universities in
Africa are done by the academic department. The issue of post-Joint Admissions
and Matriculation Board (JAMB) is deceptive and is not helping the system. In
this reform there should be nothing like post-JAMB; let each department admit
students they know can cope with the academic work.
Teacher education programmes should be research-based. Research
evidence shows that teacher education in Finland is heavily research-based, with
voluntarily put together mainly for achieving educational goals. The government
should establish laws encouraging (not mandating) public organizations to be
actively involved in the education system of Nigerian. PPP is voluntary but if there
is a good working relationship between these private organizations and the
government, a partnership will be easy.
National conflict and violence have decimated the countrys national unity.
Any education that cannot promote the unity of the country is not sustainable
education thus; there is the need for inclusion of peace education in the school
curriculum. No nation can grow economically in the absence of peace even if there
are abundant resources. It is on this basis that Rukuni (2013) advocated for the
inclusion of peace education into the school curriculum as an independent subject
in Zimbabwe. The author believed teaching children and youth to imbibe the
culture of peace rather than violence right from primary and secondary school is
a panacea for a strong and united nation.
Nigeria, witnessing a plethora of violence in the past five years, has
underscored the imperative of peace education in the school curriculum. This
should be a course that must be designed for all levels of education in the country.
It should be a course that must be passed by all students before graduation both
in secondary school and tertiary institutions. This course must emphasise the
value of human lives and the importance of unity in a heterogeneous country like
ours. The role of religion in developing a nation must be properly defined in this
course. This should not be a course for only Humanities and Arts but must be for
all fields. The course could be taken for three years in any tertiary institution while
it must be throughout primary and secondary schools. In summary, it should be a
compulsory course for all students.
The cost of education is too high in Nigeria despite the abundant resources
we have. Some countries with fewer resources than Nigeria can offer education at
more competitive rates. For instance, in South Africa the cost of education is
cheaper than Nigeria, and their students enjoy schooling at all levels. Nigerias
students are learning under very harsh conditions compared to students in some
other countries of the world. Our reform should address students welfare which
is very important to successful learning. Students of University of Cape Town
dont pay for transport anywhere they live in town. School buses take students up
to schools and return them any time of the day to their homes Students who live
in hostels are well treated with good accommodation with internet facilities 24
hours of the day. Better can be done for students in Nigeria if all the loopholes
through which government resources are wasted are blocked.
The appointment of Governing Councils to oversee the affairs of tertiary
institutions in Nigeria by the government has been disadvantageous to the system.
The appointment of these bodies may have been done with good intentions, but
evidence shows that they are becoming a curse to our tertiary education. To
Harmonization
Body (Made
up of
professionals
in education)
Federal Ministry of
Education
Sustainable
Education
Reform
GLPS
Selected Developed
Countries
CONCLUSION
Education reform is imperative in Nigeria due to the perennial problems in
the current educational system in Nigeria. Based on this, the authors of this paper
suggested that teacher upgrading strategies and teacher education programmes
be reformed. The authors also suggested that the school curricula should include
peace education. The need for inclusion of out-of-class experience and Community
Service Learning (CSL) programmes in primary and secondary schools was also
advocated. In addition, there is a need for an education committee such as GLPTS
to be used to determine best practices in different developed countries of the
world. It is very important for this committee to study each countrys cultural
background and the governmental and educational systems. It is recommended
that a report on best practices from the developed countries be submitted to the
Federal Ministry of Education in Nigeria. It is also recommended that the Ministry
should set up a harmonization body, made up of professionals in education who
will be responsible for producing a paper to reform education in Nigeria. The final
report of the harmonization body will be submitted to the Federal Ministry of
Education for consideration. For the reform to be sustainable, there should be
proper monitoring from the experimentation stage to the evaluation stage in order
to determine if the reform should be upheld or rejected.
Given the above discussion, we hope to have a sustainable education
reform if the suggestions are considered. This reform will improve education in
Nigeria.
REFERENCES
Aaronson, D., Barrow, L., & Sander, W. (2007). Teachers and student achievement
in the Chicago public schools. Journal of Labour Economics, 25, 95135.
Abdulkareem, A. Y., & Fasasi, Y. A. (2012). Reforms in higher education in Nigeria
and the challenges of globalisation. Retrieved from
http://www.aauaeducationfac.org/ET/contents/December/PDF/Ref
orms%20
Adedoyin, O. O. (2011). The impact of teachers in-depth pedagogical
mathematical content knowledge on academic performance: As
perceived by Botswana junior secondary school pupils. European Journal
of Educational Studies, 3(2), 277-292.
Adeoti, V. (2012). Challenges of Nigerias education System. Retrieved from
http://www.thetidenewsonline.com/2012/09/09/challenges-of nigeriaseducation-system/
Afe, J. O. (2002, May 9). Reflections on becoming a teacher and the challenges of teacher
education. Paper presented at the Inaugural Lecture Series 64. University
of Benin, Nigeria.
CHAPTER FOUR
CLASS ATTENDANCE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN TWO NURSING COURSES IN A
UNIVERSITY IN JAMAICA
By
Andrea Pusey Murray
University of Technology, Jamaica
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between
class attendance and academic performance of undergraduate students
in two nursing courses in a university in Jamaica. The participants were
enrolled in a four-year degree nursing programme. A correlational
research design was used to provide answers to three research questions
that guided the study. A total of 40 undergraduate students who took the
two nursing courses participated in the study. No sampling was done
because the class size was small. Data collection for the study included
tallying the students class attendance and examining the students final
grades in both courses. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics
and the Pearsons correlation. The result showed a positive (weak)
relationship between class attendance and students academic
performance for the two courses, and there was a positive (moderate)
relationship between students performance in both courses. The result
also showed that time management, study skills, and financial
constraints impacted both students class attendance and academic
performance. Based on the findings, recommendations were made on how
to improve both students class attendance and academic performance in
both courses.
INTRODUCTION
Research on class attendance has established that, on average, students with
high attendance achieve higher academic performance in both coursework and
examinations than students with poor attendance (Gunn, 1993; Romer, 1993). The
majority of reports suggest a positive correlation between students attendance
and grades (Soto & Anand, 2009; Moore & Jensen, 2008; Moore, 2003; Hammed &
Kelland, 1994).
In higher education settings, students performance in their classes
(primarily in the form of grades) represents a primary indicator used to
communicate the preparedness of university students (Westerman, Perez-Batres,
Coffey, & Pouder, 2011). Attendance has been shown to be an important factor in
academic success (Gump, 2005).
In one study, the reasons cited most frequently by students for missing class
were boredom, illness, and interference with other course work or social life (Von
Blerkom, 1992). Unavoidable circumstances such as family emergencies or
transportation problems also account for student absences, although students cite
boredom or general lack of interest in attending class as reasons much more
frequently (Launius, 1997). It is widely recognized that absenteeism can
negatively impact grades in economics courses forthcoming (Park & Kerr, 1990;
Romer, 1993) and that high attendance rates can improve student performance in
a variety of classroom settings (Sheets, Topping, & Hoftyzer, 1995). Rodgers
(2002), using data on attendance in an introductory statistics module at an
Australian university, finds a strong positive association between attendance and
performance but, comparing across cohorts, report that the introduction of a
scheme which raised attendance was not associated with enhanced performance.
Rodgers infers that attendance alone does not improve achievement.
Smith, Zsidisin, and Adams (2005) suggested that the behaviour-based
process measures are indicators that allow instructors to observe, detect, and
correct patterns of individual student behaviour that may lead to their reduced
performance. Another common belief among students is that they can skip the
lecture class because they can "make up" for the missed material by talking to classmate, reading the textbook, or copying the notes (Moore, 2003).
Statement of the Problem
In 2011, there was a high failure rate in the two nursing courses: Concepts
Applied to Nursing, and Health Promotion (Personal communication, January 19,
2013). No study has been conducted at this tertiary institution to document class
attendance and academic performance among nursing students. This study was
designed to fill this gap.
From the problem outlined above, the independent variable was the
nursing courses, while the class attendance and students academic performance
were the dependent variables.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between class
attendance and academic performance of undergraduate students in two nursing
courses in a university in Jamaica.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1.
2.
3.
Research Hypotheses
H01:
There is no relationship between students class attendance and
their academic performance in the course Concepts Applied to
Nursing.
Ha1:
There is a relationship between students class attendance and their
academic performance in the course Concepts Applied to Nursing.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Traditionally, lectures and tutorials have been the dominant forms of
instruction in conventional face-to-face undergraduate courses. According to
Onyefulu (2009), non-attendance to class is a constant challenge for many school
administrators and lecturers in institutions of higher learning within and outside
Jamaica (p. 336). Research on class attendance has established that, on average,
students with high attendance achieve higher academic performance in both
coursework and examinations than students with poor attendance (Woodfield,
Jessop, & McMillan, 2006; Romer, 1993; Van Blerkom, 1992; Park & Kerr, 1990).
Despite the evidence that there may be a positive relationship between
attendance and academic performance, some students continue to be absent from
lectures. Researchers have identified several possible reasons for this absence.
These reasons vary from the more valid reasons, such as illness and part-time
work (Longhurst 1999; Woodfield et al., 2006; Massingham & Herrington; 2006),
to less valid reasons, such as sleeping late and engaging in various forms of
merrymaking (Longhurst, 1999; Moore & Jensen, 2008). Studies in the United
States of America (US) have confirmed that part-time work has a negative effect
on rates of college attendance (Carr, Wright, & Brody 1996; McNeal, 1997).
Onyefulu (2009) cited factors stated by the students for not attending classes as
follows: too busy doing assignments for other courses, specialist courses were
more important to them, time/days in which the classes were scheduled, and time
management (p. 358).
Marburger (2001) investigated the relationship between absenteeism and
exam performance in a sample of 60 students of a course called Principles of
Microeconomics. In this study, information on student attendance at each class
during the semester is matched with records of the class meeting when the
material corresponding to each question was covered. The results indicate that
students who miss class on a given date are significantly more likely to respond
incorrectly to questions relating to material covered that day than students who
were present. Rodgers (2001) found that attendance has a small but statistically
significant effect on performance in a sample of 167 introductory statistics course.
Kirby and McElroy (2003) studied the determinants of levels of attendance at
lectures and classes and the relationship with exam performance in a sample of
368 first year economics students, finding that hours worked and travel time are
the main determinants of class attendance, and that the latter, in turn, has a
positive and diminishing marginal effect on grades.
Battistich, Solomon, and Delucchi (1993) reported that supportive
environments in which members were friendly, helpful to one another, showed
concern for one anothers welfare and worked collaboratively, were associated
with increased liking for school, greater intrinsic motivation, concern for others
and self-esteem. The lecturer could therefore improve class attendance by
fostering a community sense within the classroom characterised by supportive
student-lecturer relationships, mutual respect between the lecturer and students,
and between students themselves, and adopting a cooperative pedagogic
approach in which learning is viewed as a shared activity between all members of
the community, including the lecturer (Furlong, Whipple, St. Jean, Simental, Soliz,
& Punthuna, 2003).
Nyamapfene (2006) in his study reported the average attendance recorded
for the module was 90%, with the lowest average attendance recorded of 80%. The
average lecture attendance over the whole semester was 56%. Woodfield et al.
(2006) suggested that high absenteeism levels may be explained by a comparative
lack of application on the part of the absentee. Benett and Yalams (2013), in their
study, reported a positive and significant relationship between students
attendance, participation and performance in class. The relationship between
attendance and performance is shown to be positive and significant with a
correlation of 0.656 while the relationship between participation and performance
was 0.587.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The correlational research design was used in this study. The nursing
students, who were used in this study, were from the main campus of the
institution. Students were selected using convenience sampling method because
of the researchers access to the students. The sample size was (n=40).
The researcher adhered to ethical principles by ensuring consent from the
participants before data were collected, and confidentiality and right to privacy
were maintained. Data collected included attendance records as well as students
final grades in both courses. Questionnaires were used to collect data on why
students did not attend classes.
RESULTS
Demographics. Of the 40 undergraduate nursing students who participated,
three or 7.5% were males and 37 (92.5%) were females. For the participants age
range, 21 (52.5 %) were within the age range less than 25 years, and 19 (47.5 %)
were over 25 years. Regarding the participants marital status, the findings showed
that 23 (57.5%) of the undergraduate students who participated in the study were
single. This was followed by 10 (25%) who were in a common-law relationship,
four or 10% who were married, and three or eight percent was divorced. The
findings showed that 21 (52.5%) who were less than 25 years attended both
courses.
The top student in the Concepts Applied to Nursing course attended all
lectures and achieved an overall score of 69% while the lowest scoring student
attended 42% of the classes and gained an overall score of 46. The top student in
the Health Promotion course attended all lectures and achieved an overall score
of 87% while the lowest scoring student attended 60% of the classes and gained an
overall score of 37%.
Research Question One: Is there any relationship between students class
attendance and their academic performance in the course Concepts Applied to
Nursing?
To answer the above research question, data were collected using class
attendance and performance records. The Pearson correlation analysis was used.
Presented in Table 1 is the descriptive statistics for the Concepts Applied to
Nursing Course.
Table 1
Attendance and Performance in the e Concepts Applied to Nursing Course
Mean
Std. Deviation
Attendance
81.8
22.8
Course work Grade
58.9
8.23
Final Grade
57.8
7.93
As shown in Table 1, the mean for class attendance was higher when
compared to the mean of course work and final grade. Similarly, the standard
deviation for attendance showed a widespread in students class attendance.
The Pearson correlation coefficients results of the analyses indicated a weak
negative correlation between attendance and course work grade (r = -.217, p =.177)
which was not significant, and a modest positive correlation between attendance
and final grade which was significant (r = .438, p =.005).
DISCUSSION
The results showed above average class attendance by the nursing students
in both the Concepts Applied to Nursing, and Health Promotion courses 82% and
88%, respectively. Similarly, Nyamapfene (2006), in his study reported a class
attendance of 90%, with the lowest average attendance recorded of 80%.
According to Benett and Yalams (2013), the students who attended over 75% of
classes invariably got good performances. Thus, the better the students
attendance, the better, in general, were their performances. While these findings
hold true for the class as a whole, they do not necessarily hold for individual
students. Unlike the study by Benett and Yalamas, the top student attended all
lectures and the overall score was 69% while the lowest scoring student attended
42% of the classes and the overall score was 46. Thus while generalizations are
possible, it would not appear that attendance is a predictor of performance on an
individual basis.
In this study the percentage of lecture attendance was significantly higher
in the younger age group, unlike that conducted by Salamonson, Andrew, and
Everett (2009), who reported a higher percentage of lecture attendance among the
older age group, which may be a reflection of their preferred learning format,
given that it has been as reported that older students genuinely enjoy attending
lectures.
Relatively low attendance rates are reported in numerous other studies
(Galichon & Friedman, 1985; Romer, 1993; Van Walbeek, 2004). There are a
number of possible reasons why students would not attend lectures. These reasons
include undertaking part-time (or even full-time) work, transportation problems,
financial, and accommodation problems, illness, family commitments, boring
lectures or lecturers, the time of day of the lecture, or preparation for assignments.
Cleary-Holdforth (2007) identified reasons why students do not attend classes as
family, social, work commitment, illness, faking illness, family emergencies and
faking family emergencies (as cited in Onyefulu, 2009, p. 355). From the present
findings, it is obvious that students reported similar reasons why they did not
attend lecture such as illness (seven students), financial problems (six students),
and having to work at nights (four students).
The findings were consistent with previous findings by Barling, Rogers,
and Kelloway (1995), Lee, Mawdsley, and Rangeley (1999), and Salamonson and
Andrew (2006), which showed that part-time employment, had a significant and
negative impact on academic performance. In this study, it was found that those
who worked part time did poorly in their academic performance. Juggling
academic study and paid employment has become the normal pattern for many
nursing students, with more than three-quarters of those in this study
participating in part-time employment during their academic semester. This
percentage is higher than a previous study of part-time employment and nursing
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Barling, J., Rogers, K. A., & Kelloway, E. K. (1995). Some effects of teenagers parttime employment-the quantity and quality of work make the difference. In
Y. Salamonson, S. Andrew, B., & Everett (Eds.), Contemporary Nurse: A
Journal for the Australian Nursing Profession, 32(1/2), 123-132.
Battistich, V., Solomon, D., & Delucchi, K. (1993). Interaction processes and student
outcomes in cooperative learning groups. The Elementary School
Journal, 94(1), 19-32.
Benett, T. G. & Yalams, S. M. (2013, March). Correlates of students attendance to
class participation, and performances in engineering modeles. Paper presented at
the IEEE Global Engineering Education
Conference, Technische.
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Carr, R. V., Wright, J. D., & Brody, C. J. (1996). Effects of high schoolwork
experience a decade later: Evidence from the national longitudinal survey.
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hmulian_Class (2011).pdf?sequence=1
Cleary-Holdforth, J. (2007). Students nonattendance in higher education: A
phenomenon of student apathy or poor pedagogy. Retrieved from
http://level3.dit.ie/html/issue5/cleary-holdforth/cleary_holdforth.pdf
Curtis, S., & Williams, J. (2002). The reluctant workforce: Undergraduates parttime employment. Education and Training, 44(1), 5-10. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00400910210416192
Furlong, M. J., Whipple, A. D., St. Jean, G., Simental, J., Soliz, A., & Punthuna,
S. (2003). Multiple contexts of school engagement: Moving toward a
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CHAPTER FIVE
BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS AS CORRELATES OF GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELING SERVICES IN NURSERY AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN
UYO METROPOLIS
By
A. A. Agbaje
University of Uyo, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The study investigated the relationship between the utilization of basic
psychological skills as correlates of Guidance and Counselling Services
in Uyo Metropolis Nurseries and Primary Schools. Three hundred
randomly selected Nursery and Primary school pupils of the State
Universal Basic Education constituted the sample of the study. The
sample consisted of 155 boys and 145 girls. Their ages ranged between 3
and 5 and 11 and 13 years respectively with a mean age of 102 years
and a standard deviation of 0.44 years. The need for counselling services
at primary school level questionnaire was employed in the study. Data
were collected and analyzed using Pearson Product Moment
Correlation. The results showed a significant relationship between the
utilization of Guidance and Counselling services, information,
placement, appraisal, follow-up, evaluation services, which are the
psychological skills and at the time Guidance and Counselling Services,
and pupils perception. Based on the findings it was suggested that
conscious efforts should be made by the school counselors and relevant
stakeholders to adopt Guidance and Counselling Services as tools for
handling pupils related concerns. The Counsellors should adopt
admired and effective planning measures by seeking help from the State
Universal Basic Education Board. Besides, the Education Board should
be asked to allocate more trained teachers to the schools due to free
education population explosion for effectiveness and productivity. Such
planning should be comprehensive, proactive and consultative in nature.
INTRODUCTION
The common purpose of all helping professions is the attainment of desired
positive behaviour change through a process of preventive, remedial or curative
services. Carl Rogers (1966) summed up the purpose of all helping professions as
that of enhancing the personal development and the psychological growth
towards a socialized maturity of its clients. Guidance and Counselling Services are
crucial because needs and their attending problems are unique to age cohort, types
of settings and the index audience of the setting, that is, environmental uniqueness
provide the child with appropriate models which will guide him/her into proper
selective behavior and good and desirable habit formation. Therefore, school
guidance at this level is more educative and preventive than curative. However,
in the upper primary classes, there are mixtures of age groups reflecting children
in childhood as well as adolescence. This implies a mixture of needs requiring both
guidance and counselling wherever behavior maladjustment is noticed.
In Nigeria, people critically look into the quality of a programme and the
gains it will yield to its citizenry. This is due to the many challenges facing the
programme. The recent student population explosion, resulting in a lack of space,
inadequate facilities and equipment like writing materials, textbooks, laboratory
equipment and so on, have become a matter of concern. Agbaje (2010) suggested
that lack of proper guidance and counselling as well as inadequate instructional
materials has not truly made school attractive to the young ones. Ekpo (2007)
pointed out that Universal Basic Education brought about a population explosion
in schools and with it a lot of problems such as lack of space, lack of trained
teachers. In addition pupils do not receive enough attention from the teachers
because the teachers have too much to do and have no time to listen to the
problems of the individual child. Children should be listened to if the purpose for
which they are in school must be accomplished. Hence, there is the need for
Guidance and Counselling Services for the pupils in Universal Basic Education in
order to achieve the main goal of the new National Policy on Education (2004)
which is wholesome and the maximum education for all Nigerians. It is to be
further stressed that in order to overcome these goals, educative activities will be
centred on the learners for maximum self-development. It is through guidance and
counselling that the much talked about maximum development of the individual
can be facilitated.
Freud (1933) identified four universal stages of psychosexual development
responsible for personality development, the oral (0 1 year old), the anal stage of
(1- 3 years old) the phallic stage (4 -5 years old) the latency stage (5 6 years old)
and the genital stage (12 years old). These stages must be properly checked in
children through a helping process of guidance to attain the fullest selfdevelopment that will affect their later life as adults. William Glasser (1990)
contended that there are two basic psychological needs: the need to love and the
need to feel worthwhile to oneself and others, with these factors a mans behavior
would be admired or frowned at. He stressed that people are not endowed with
natural ability to satisfy needs but must learn. This learning process begins early.
Those who develop success identity do so through a loving relationship with
responsible parents. These parents establish an involvement with their children
through love, teaching, discipline and modeling. Adler (1975) identified one other
factor as having some importance, and that is, that the aspect of the order of birth.
He posited that lifestyles often develop as a function of persons ordinal position
within the family. According to Adler, children do not have similar social
environment even though they come from the same parents and family
background. The childs perceptions of his situation and the meaning attached to
such situation, accompany his occupied position, determines his/her ordinal
position, that is being the first born, second born, the youngest or the only child
will affect or influence his or her lifestyle. It is thus, proper to use guidance services
to help those with abnormal lifestyles to develop social skills Bandura
(1971)
proposed that man by nature watches what others do and then repeats their
actions. Technically, man is also said to acquire behavior through observational
learning, Bandura and other proponents of the social learning approach have shed
much light on the ways in which man acquires, maintains, and modifies his
behavior through emulation of models.
Reisburg, Fridlud and Gleitman Henry et al. (2004), Meltzoff, Gopink and
Repacholi (1999), and Ekpo (2007) were in agreement with Banduras theory of
imitation learning particularly in the case of children. Ekpo (2007) suggested that
learning involves imitation through modeling and that guidance and counselling
need to provide the behavior in a real-life situation or through symbolic models
that demonstrate the behavior to be acquired in segmental steps and by using
reinforcement in conjunction with his techniques for it to be effective. Denga (2001)
explained that in the early stages of education children should be well guided or
assisted because what they learn in the early years lays the foundation for what
they will learn in life. Habits acquired in these formative years are therefore likely
to determine their orientation towards later day to day living and preferences since
children learn through imitation. They, therefore, need assistance to direct them
during their formative days in school. Ihiegbulum (2000) defined guidance in
Nigerian traditional society as the assistance given to the younger persons by older
people to enable them to develop the maturity of mind. This implies that a person
who is mature in mind is able to take wise and realistic decisions on his or her
own.
According to Agbale (2009), philosophy is primarily concerned with the
critical analysis of concepts, issues, and problems of guidance and counselling.
Agbale further added that principles of guidance like theories of any discipline
serve as a scientific shorthand that facilitates the understanding of the philosophy
of the discipline. In helping the client to build and develop self-understanding that
is essential for self-fulfillment and self-clarification, the counsellor needs to base
his practice on certain philosophical assumptions or principles of guidance (Ekpo,
2007; Uwe, 2005). Bakare (1990) saw guidance services as an umbrella term that
subsumes several services, all aimed at facilitating the resolution of educational,
vocational, personal and social-psychological problems. Salient among these are
the counselling services, the information service, the placement service, follow-up,
and evaluation service. These services complement one another and are not
separated by a wide gulf.
Socially, the child spends a great deal of time at the playground, since he is
in the company of others. Here chances of interpersonal conflicts become greater
and greater. The self-centeredness of early childhood increases the areas of conflict
with parents, peers and caregivers while at the same time the childs high need of
attention and approval comes into conflict with his/her self-desires,
possessiveness curiosity, sense of approval and need for care and attention. His
excitement about his increasing vocabulary makes him repeat by role play, by
imitative behavior, sounds and new words. These multi-dimensional
development areas of early childhood call for the attention of the parents, child
psychologists and child guidance counsellors and guidance at this stage is
primarily educative, preventive and directional (Denge, 2001; Nwachukwu, 2007).
Makinde (1983) confirmed that counselling services help facilitate the
intellectual development of all the pupils who vary widely in terms of social and
emotional dimensions of their personalities. These services will be of greater
assistance to the pupils who find it difficult to achieve a sense of personal identity,
and it would similarly help them to make decisions of their own and so find their
lifes work (Mallum, 2004). The Counsellor will help the teachers to assist the
children with reading and perpetual problems through developing programmes.
In the present study, Guidance and Counselling services are employed as
moderating variables; the aim was to see if these services would facilitate the
resolution of educational, vocational, personal and social-psychological problems.
Purpose of the Study
The present study sought to enhance guidance and counselling services of
Nursery and Primary aged pupils by applying some psychological skills to
manifest counselling services. Also of interest to this study is the possible influence
of Guidance and Counselling self-efficacy and gender on the causal relationship
between independent and criterion variables.
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level:
Ho1: There is no significant relationship in the utilization of Guidance and
Counselling services and the pupils perception
Ho2: There is no significant relationship in the informant seeking-facts and
placement services and the pupils perception.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship in the appraisal, follow-up and
evaluation services and the pupils perception.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A survey research design was adopted to carry out this study; this
technique is preferred because it is to describe systematically, the facts and
characteristics of a given population or area of interest factually and accurately
(Ipaye, 1983).
A sample of 300 participants was selected for the study. The participants
were randomly drawn from six public co-educational primary schools in Uyo
metropolis. Both genders were equally represented in the study. Each of the six
schools has a sample size of 50 participants, 25 boys and 25 girls, respectively. The
participants were nursery and primary pupils. Their age ranged between 11 and
13 nursery and primary years with a mean age of 10.2 years and the standard
deviation of 0.44 years, 3-5 and 11-13 years.
Random sampling was similarly used for the teachers who were gathered
in each school hall, that is, of the selected schools. They were asked to pick a piece
of paper each with inscription Yes or No, At the end a total of 180 participants
who had picked papers saying yes were used for the study.
The Guidance and Counselling Services Intervention Inventory (GCSI), was
developed by the researchers in 2009. It was a two-factor inventory with a total of
twenty items. This was used to obtain relevant information from the respondents
for the study. The response format for the items was Strongly Agree to Strongly
Disagree. The sub-scales had a total of 11 items. The test-retest reliability method
was used to estimate the reliability coefficients, which ranged between 0.79 and
0.89, and a Cronbach Alpha index obtained was between 0.73 and 0.85. The
internal consistency of the entire questionnaire was 0.87. The questionnaire was
used to identify the levels of effectiveness and productivity.
The second scale used in this study was the Decision Making Self-Efficacy
(DMESS) scale developed by Adeyemo (2001). The scale has five sub-scales,
namely: (a) Self-appraisal, (b) Occupational Information, (c) Making plans, (d)
Problem-solving, and (e) goal-setting. It has a total of 38 items with the response
format ranging from Not Sure with the value of 1, to Very Much Sure, with a
value of 5. The scale has theoretical values of 38 and 190. The overall scale has a
Cronbach Alpha value of 0.79. See Table 1 for the sub-scales and the reliability
coefficients.
Table 1
Subscales and Reliability Coefficients
Subscale
Self-Appraisal
Occupational Information
Problem-Solving
Making Plans
and Goal-Setting
Number of Items
9
11
6
6
5
Alpha
0.75
0.85
0.77
0.85
0.77
Procedures
Having obtained permission from the relevant school authority, pupils
were addressed at the assembly point. The topic of the speech was on the
importance of Guidance and Counselling services. Sequel to this, pupils were
asked to indicate their willingness to participate in the programme. The Ballot
method which is a form of random sampling was used to select the participants
for the study. The study was carried out in different primary schools in Uyo
metropolis. The training came up once each week, and each session lasted for only
one hour. Four schools served as experimental groups while the other two schools
were used as control groups. Two instruments, namely: Guidance and
Counselling Services Scale (GCSS), and Decision-Making and Self-efficacy Scale
(DMSES) were administered to the participants as a pre-test to ascertain their
levels of knowledge and to increase their awareness.
The experimental group one was exposed to Guidance and Counselling
Services training while the experimental group two was treated with Decisionmaking and Self-efficacy. However, the control group was not treated with
anything but was given a brief skill of counseling after the post test. A post-test in
Guidance and Counselling Services scale was administered later to the three
groups.
Pearson Product Moment Correlation was employed to analyze the data. It
was used because of its capacity to take care of the initial differences among the
participants.
RESULTS
In this section, the result of the data analysis done to test the hypotheses is
presented. The hypothesis is stated first, followed by the findings.
HO1:
HO2:
Therefore, there is a greater need for the teachers to be cordial and friendly to gain
trust and confidence from the pupils in order to get closer and to obtain
information from them which would be of great benefit in adolescence and
eventually into adulthood.
In considering the placement service and the pupils perception, a
significant relationship was found. The finding agreed with the research done by
Esu as cited in Denga (2001), which showed that through placement service, the
teachers and the school would be assisted to realize the importance of mental
health and to recognize the fundamental needs of children. Unachukwu and
Igborgbor (1991), and Hoose and Carlson (1973) were of the view that through
placement service when the bright and dull pupils are mixed in a class, this would
help develop the dull pupils, decrease delinquent behaviours as well as the dropout rate in schools. Unachukwu (1991) posited that as the nation becomes
increasingly alarmed with the school dropouts, juvenile delinquents and drug
abusers, primary school guidance and counselling becomes important as a sound
foundation for future academic, vocational, psychological and personal growth.
The third hypothesis revealed a significant relationship in the utilization of
appraisal, follow-up and evaluation services and the pupils perception. The
significant difference was rooted in the fact that the treated participants were
exposed to a comprehensive utilization of appraisal follow-up and an evaluation
treatment programme. The finding corroborated the assertions of Anagbogu
(1988), Denga (1996), Abiri (2006), Akinpelu (2004), and Kolo (2001) whereby
appraisal was seen as the measurement and evaluation of the human attributes or
characteristics. These attributes include intelligence or general abilities, aptitudes
or specific ability, interest and other personality characteristics which could be
assessed by the use of tests. The finding was also in agreement with Okafor (1991)
who discovered that an appraisal service serves a general purpose such as
prediction, selection, classification, evaluation as well as guidance and counseling.
Ekanem and Eneh (2005) similarly asserted that appraisal services can help the
counsellor to develop a comprehensive picture of the pupils. Ekpo (2007) and
Denga (2001) asserted that an appraisal service would help relate children
experiences to the staff for curriculum improvement and deeper understanding of
the pupils needs. The implication of the finding is that tests or assignments should
be given to pupils especially on discovery learning to know the level of their
intelligence and to seek to address which area of a student needs remediation and
referrals.
One other important aspect of the present study is the moderating influence
of follow-up and evaluation services and the pupils perception and the causal link
between the guidance and counselling services and the criterion measures. The
findings are in line with the previous studies done by Essuman (1985) and Hanson
(1971) which concluded that follow-up and appraisal services are needed for the
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CHAPTER SIX
COUNSELING AGAINST SUBSTANCE ABUSE IN CONTEMPORARY
AFRICAN SOCIETY
By
Anino Anigala, PhD.
College of Education, Warri
ABSTRACT
Substance abuse is one of the most common issues that the current
generation is compelled to battle with. Drugs have been abused for
centuries and have afflicted millions of people and societies around the
African continent. Substance abuse is mainly a health issue but over the
past decades, it has escalated into one of the worst social
nightmares. This paper, therefore, surveys the meaning of substance
abuse, historical trend in the African societies, its causes and effects and
the counselling strategies to minimize the menace.
INTRODUCTION
Substance abuse is not just an African challenge. It is a global one, which is
affecting many youths, both in and out of school. Concern over drug abuse among
African youths is, however, recent. A radical change appears to have taken place
about three decades ago when substance abuse crept into the mainstream
society. This trend has dramatically accelerated in the past 25 years (BefidiMengue & Enyime, 1994). There is also the consensus of opinion that these
changes in drug abuse have been preceded and accompanied by a gradual decline
and erosion of the traditional social fabric and values. According to Kilonzo and
Kaaya (1994), the African occupies a primate and central position in the social
system. This system is fast disintegrating. Social disintegration is also accelerating
under the adverse influences of growing poverty, civil war, tribal conflicts,
droughts and other natural disasters which in turn lead to famine and massive
displacement of populations creating a situation in which drug abuse worsens
rapidly (INCB) (International Narcotics Control Board Annual Report 1994, pp.
44-57).
This challenge impacts negatively on the academic, social, psychological,
economical and physiological development among the abusers and the society
they dwell in. Ngotho (2012) posited that the menace has strangled the youthful
population who are wasting away their prime lives instead of investing their
energy and time in building the nation.
This paper therefore addresses the following issues:
1
2
3
4
Substance abuse
The historical trends of substance abuse in Africa
Causes and effects of drugs abuse
Counselling approaches towards minimizing substance abuse
Substance Abuse
A drug refers to a substance that can bring about changes in the biological
function of human beings through its chemical actions (Okoye, 2001). According
to Musby (2002), substance abuse is a harmful pattern of use of any substance to
altering purposes which leads to frequent and serious problems. These problems
can affect performance at school, work or home. Musby further went on to say that
substance abuse is not simply drug abuse, but also includes the use of inhalants,
solvents, alcohol, caffeine, and cigarettes. Almost any substance can be abused, it
is also considered as a substance that modifies perceptions, cognition, mood
behaviour and general body functions (Balogun, 2006). They could also be
considered as chemical modifiers of the living tissues that could bring about
physiological and behavioural changes (Nnachi, 2007).
According to the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and
Control (2000), the term drug abuse as excessive and persistent self-administration
of drugs without regard to medically or culturally accepted patterns (as cited in
Haladu, 2003). World Book Encyclopedia (2004) defined drug abuse as the nonmedical use of a drug that interferes with healthy and productive life. In a similar
light, Manbe (2008) defined drug abuse as the excessive, maladaptive or addictive
use of drugs for a non-medical purpose. Furthermore, Lahi (2009) viewed drug
abuse as the use of drugs to the extent that they interfere with the health and social
function of an individual.
Wikipedia (2014) defined that substance abuse which is sometimes known
as drug abuse, as a patterned use of a substance (drug) in which the user consumes
the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or
others. The terms have a varied range of definitions relating to taking a
psychoactive drug or performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or nonmedical effect.
Some of the drugs most associated with this term include alcohol, substitute
amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines (particularly alprazolam), cocaine,
methaqualone, and opioids.
Historical Trends of Substance Abuse in Africa
Cannabis, the main drug being abused in Africa, was virtually unknown in
Nigeria before the Second World War (Asuni, 1990; National Drug Law
Enforcement Agency, 1994). There was no name for it in the vernaculars, and it
does not feature in any botanical survey of West African plants carried out during
the 1930s (Asuni, 1992). The idea of smoking cannabis in the Middle East and
North Africa was introduced by soldiers returning from World War II. They used
it to suppress timidity (Gureje & Olley, 1993). At present, however, it is being
incorporated into the local youth culture.
Diviners are already recommending it as a sexual charm and soil fertilizer
(Befidi-Mengue et al, 1994, World Health Organization, 1993). Also within the city
of Lagos and Port-Harcourt for example, Cannabis already features as a major
drug being abused among secondary school students. It is also the main drug
abused among psychiatric patients (Amumonye, 1980).
Cannabis, according to Asuni (1990), was earlier introduced to East and
Southern Africa by oriental traders, although the name used for cannabis in East
Africa is bhang, a term from the Indian sub-continent. It was also brought in by
the soldiers returning from the two world wars, the drug that is indigenous to East
Africa is Khat. It grows naturally on the sides of mountains in Ethiopia, Kenya
and to a lesser extent Tanzania. The past decades have seen the expansion of
cultivation and export of this drug to various countries. It is a major export earner
for Ethiopia and Kenya, Economic Commission for Africa, (Public Administration,
Human Resources & Social Development Division, 1994; Omolo, 1985).
Drug abuse in North Africa has a much longer history. The abuse of
cannabis in Egypt goes back to the 12th century (Kott, 1994). Legend has it that
Napoleons armies found it so easy to defeat the Mamluks at the end of the 18th
century because, according to one of his officers the mass of the male population
was in a perpetual state of stupor (Mabrook 1991, p. 141). This compelled
Napoleon to ban the sale and use of the drug during his reign.
Besides alcohol and tobacco, cannabis remains the main drug abused in
Egypt, as it is elsewhere in Africa. Hashish abuse is also increasing among those
seeking treatment in Egypt. Heroin use at the El-A-taba outpatient clinic reached
its peak in 1987 when heroin users accounted for 68% of all patients coming to the
drug dependence clinic (Souif, 1994). The emergence of drug abuse in much of
Africa in the two decades between the 1950s and 1970s is perhaps best described
by the Nigerian scenario. Between 1954 and 1959 Lambo (1965) working at Aro
Abeokuta identified only 0.45% addicts out of 4,000 psychiatric patients. Cannabis
and Pethidine accounted for most of these. Cannabis and Amphetamine abuse, as
sources of clinical concern, were first noticed by Asuni (1965) during the early
sixties. By mid-seventies, abuse of hypnosedatives was also emerging (Ebie &
Pela, 1981a, 1981b). In 1981, Ebie and Pela, Ebie and Peter, observed that heroin,
cocaine, morphine and (Lysergic acid diethylamide) did not feature at all among
drugs abused in the youth population. In their study of secondary school students
in Benin City, only 2.2% of males admitted using cannabis and two percent
females admitted using hypnosedatives. No females used cannabis or stimulants.
time with students, to the extent that students have found a new religion in which
drinking alcohol is the major sacrament. This refers to the kegites fraternity. The
findings of Piwana et al. (2007) also revealed that the drugs commonly used at cult
meetings are alcohol and tobacco. The above statistics attest to the fact that
substance abuse is prevalent in African societies and is devastating the entire
continent.
All cult groups according to them abuse these two drugs
regularly. Yusuf (2010) further attested to this by confirming that alcohol is the
most abused drug among African and particularly Nigerian youths and it causes
serious and potentially life-threatening problems for them. Some reasons have
been postulated for this menace.
Causes of Drug Abuse
Causes of substance abuse are the result of socio-cultural, psychodynamic,
cognitive, and biological factors (Boyd, 2010).
Socio-cultural factors. There are many socio-cultural factors that influence
alcohol and substance abuse. These include Relief from stress, group solidarity
and feelings of community and belongings, lifestyle appeal. These deal with the
impact of society and culture on addiction. Peer pressure equally falls within this
socio-cultural axis.
Psychodynamic factors. Boyd (2010) believed that this has to do with the
situation where emotional issues and history are linked together. For instance, a
person who had experienced abuse in time past feels scared and powerless and
could turn to drugs to deal with these feelings.
Cognitive behaviour disorders. These have to do with thought patterns and
faulty behavioural addiction. If an addict thinks that the advantages of using
drugs outweigh its disadvantages, he sticks to drug abuse.
Biological factors. Here Boyd spoke of genetic vulnerability to
addiction. Various studies have shown that people who are biologically related to
an addict are more likely to become addicts themselves. This view confirms the
results of the study by National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) in 1994
carried out in Kano and Lagos. It was observed that individuals from a
background of family breakdown are often over-represented among addicted
patients.
In a similar vein, Jill (2014) noted curiosity, escape from reality and peer
pressure as causes of substance abuse among youths. Equally, Answers Com
(2014) noted the following as major cause of Substance Abuse
Unstable family life. This happens when there are some traumatic childhood
experiences, that will not clear from the victims memory. They take recourse to
drugs to suppress the experience.
Ineffective parenting or lack of a nurturing parent. This happens when parents
shelve their responsibilities of training the child into becoming responsible
citizens. This leaves the child in the hands of others such as peers from whom they
imbibe unhealthy lifestyles including drug abuse. Furthermore, the National
Institute on Drug Abuse states the following as the causes of drug abuse, curiosity,
low self-esteem, tolerance, changed motives and hereditary tendencies. These are
in agreement with Boyds (2010) postulations. Substance and drug abuse no doubt
have its attendant effects or challenges on the user and the society he dwells in.
Effects of Substance and Drug Abuse
Mba (2008) as cited in Fareo (2012) identified numerous negative effects of
drug abuse on the body chemistry which include:
1.
Alcohol-related and physical problems such as liver cirrhosis, pancreatic,
peptic ulcer, tuberculosis, hypertension, and neurological disorders.
2.
Mental retardation of the fetus in the womb, growth deficiency, and
delayed motor development.
3.
Craniofacial and limbs abnormalities .
4.
Psychiatric, e.g., pathological drunkenness and suicidal behaviours.
5.
Socially broken homes, increased crime rate, sexual offences, homicide
and sexually transmitted diseases.
6.
Tobacco-related problems such as excessive stimulation of the heart and
narrowing of blood vessels which results in hypertension, headache, loss of
appetite, nausea and delayed growth of the fetus. Other problems include
aggravation or causes of sinusitis, bronchitis, cancer, stroke and heart attack
also result.
7.
Stimulants, cause irritability, exaggerated self-confidence, damage nose
linings, and sleepiness.
8.
Inhalants which may cause anemia, damaged kidneys and stomach
bleeding.
9.
Narcotic which may cause poor perception, constipation, cough,
suppression, vomiting, drowsiness sleep, unconsciousness, and death.
The abuse of the above substances in any society brings about serious health
challenges and promotion of violence in the activities of the Alqadar and Talibans
in the Middle East and Boko Haram insurgents in Nigeria. The young adults
involved in the heinous activities of killing and maiming fellow human beings
without provocation are usually under the influence of some of those drugs that
are stimulants. It is, therefore, necessary that counselors should join in the
campaign against substance and drug abuse using the following strategies
presented below.
Counseling Strategies
The following counseling strategies are suggested to help minimize the
incidence of substance and drug abuse in the African society:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
CONCLUSION
Drug and substance abuse is a big challenge that is causing serious concern
not only to Africans but globally. The challenge is prevalent among the youths
and young adults who engage in these acts for reasons which may be sociocultural, psycho-dynamic, cognitive and biological. Their abusive actions have
devastating effects on the abusers as well as the larger society. However, with
effective counseling programmes the challenge can be controlled and minimized.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
TEACHERS AND STUDENTS ATTITUDE TOWARDS CHEMISTRY IN
SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN AKURE SOUTH LOCAL
GOVERNMENT AREA IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA
By
Abulude, Francis Olawale
Science and Education Development Institute, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
This study is concerned with students attitude towards Chemistry in
selected secondary schools in Akure South Local Government Area in
Ondo State, Nigeria. Three hundred students (200 boys and 100 girls)
in their final year (Senior Secondary School) from five randomly selected
schools were involved in the study. Data were collected through the use
of a questionnaire, which was validated by a team of experts. Analysis
was done through the use of descriptive statistics. The results showed
that the students and their teachers both had a negative attitude to
Chemistry. The findings also showed the following: inadequate textbooks
for the subject, poor instructional material and government-oriented
problems which affected students attitudes towards the subject. Some
useful recommendations were propounded to guide and improve
students attitudes towards the study of Chemistry.
INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is the scientific study of the interaction of chemical substances
that are constituted of atoms or the subatomic particles: protons, electrons and
neurons. It is an integral part of the science curriculum both at the Senior
Secondary School as well as the institution. At this level, it is often called general
Chemistry and is an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts that
enable the students to acquire tools and skills useful at the advanced levels where
Chemistry is invariably studied in any of its various sub-disciplines.
Chemistry and indeed chemists are linked to everything on earth as aptly
captured in a slogan: What on earth is not Chemistry? Chemistry plays a pivotal
role in engineering, sustainable economic development and growth in any nation.
Put succinctly, there is no aspect of human endeavour on natural phenomena in
which Chemistry does not feature. It features prominently in the areas of oil and
gas, agriculture, health, environment, solid minerals, textile, cosmetics water
supply and sanitation, crime detection, pulp and paper, and waste management
among others (Zuru, 2009). Chemistry is the catalyst of sustainable national
growth and development.
Knowledge for Global Development
93
level (p. 26). Abdullah also stated that most teachers lack both content and
methodology. Not fewer than 50% of them are under qualified. Abdullah further
highlighted the following reasons why the government is to blame: the little
resources that are made available without the plant are subjected to very strict
corruption in the management and servicing of education. No trained or not
enough trained people for monitoring and evaluation of schools; collapsed
infrastructure, lack of instructional materials; hostility of the environment, no
laboratory training and experience, not enough professional teachers
development programmes and inadequate funding of the schools.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The survey research design was used because there was no manipulation
of the independent variables by the researcher. The population for this study
consisted of the SSS Students of Akure South Local Government Area of Ondo
State, Nigeria. A total of 300 students classified into gender (i.e., male and female)
were randomly selected from five secondary schools in Ondo State. The ages of
the students of the selected schools were between 15 and 18 years old.
In carrying out the study, the research employed the use of questionnaires
to collect necessary data for the study. The questionnaire contained close-ended
items which had the response format of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree
(D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). The questionnaires were for the final year
students of Senior Secondary School that are randomly selected in the above
schools. The questionnaire used for this study was self-constructed. The
instrument was divided into two sections. Section A contained the bio-data of the
students while Section B consists of questions on their liking for the subject,
teachers attitudes, availability of textbooks and instructional materials.
The draft questionnaire was shown to colleagues and some Chemistry
teachers in some secondary schools for scrutiny and content validation to ascertain
the contents face and construct validity.
The questionnaires were distributed in a good and smooth atmospheric
condition. Permission was sought from the school principals before the study was
conducted.
With the assistance of class and subject teachers, questionnaires were
distributed to the students. The researcher provided some vital instructions to the
participants with regard to the whole exercise. The questionnaires were collected
after completion and verification. Responses were analyzed using the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 15.0.
RESULTS
Research Question One: Do the students have positive attitudes towards
Chemistry?
As shown in Table, 1 62.3% respondents did not consider the subject as their
favourite subject, 71.3% did not intend to study Chemistry at a higher level, 72.7%
would prefer to opt out of the subject, and 73.3% believed that the subject was
difficult, while 64.3% believed that they do not understand Chemistry. From the
results obtained there is an indication that these students have a negative attitude
towards Chemistry as a subject.
Table 1
Attitudes of Students towards Chemistry
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Items
Is Chemistry your favourite subject?
Chemistry is one of the subjects you intend studying?
Chemistry is needed at all in your work or course of
study?
If you have an option for Chemistry, would you opt out of
the lesson?
Do you believe Chemistry is difficult?
Do you believe that you know and understand Chemistry?
Yes
117
86
162
%
37.1
28.7
56.0
No
187
214
138
%
62.3
71.3
46
218
72.7
82
27.3
220
107
73.3
35.7
80
193
26.7
64.3
Research Question Two: Are their negative attitudes towards the study of
Chemistry as a subject affected by unavailability of textbooks and other
instructional materials?
Seventy seven percent of the participants disagreed that they do not find it
easy or understand few textbooks; 59.7% are of the opinion that the few textbooks
or instructional materials that are available are expensive or difficult to come by,
while 50% each either agreed or disagreed on the use of instructional materials to
arouse students interest while teaching. See Table 2.
Table 2
Negative Attitudes of Students towards the Subject
Items
11.
27.
29.
Yes
No
69
23
231
77
172
50
128
50
179
40.3
121
59.7
186
198
62
66
114
102
38.0
34.0
204
68
96
32.0
19
Our Chemistry teacher is too lazy to look at our notes for the
purpose of making necessary correction.
Our Chemistry teacher is too harsh and incompetent.
160
53.3
90
46.7
134
44.7
186
55.3
172
57.3
128
42.7
140
50
104
50.0
113
37.7
187
62.3
20
26
27
28
Table 4
Students Response to making Chemistry a Compulsory Subject
Items
Yes
13. You often create time for problem solving in
Chemistry at your own volition.
118
14. Do you study Chemistry because it is
compulsory for science students in the
Secondary School Certificate?
200
15. Do you study Chemistry to enable you secure
and mission?
160
Do you study Chemistry to enable you secure
and mission?
17. Only very brilliant students should study
224
Chemistry?
22. Do you prefer any non-Chemistry subject to the 366
study of Chemistry?
24. If Chemistry is not a compulsory subject for
science students I would not register nor sit for 258
it in my school certificate.
No
39.3 182
60.7
66.7 100
33.3
53.3 140
46.7
74.7 76
25.3
88.7 34
11.3
86.0 42
14.0
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study showed that the negative attitudes of the students
are the function of lack of interest, erroneous beliefs that Chemistry is volatile and
poor motivation by teachers. This supports the findings of Cheung (2009) and
Cousins (2007) who suggested that students should be motivated always to put in
their best to the study of the subject. Eagly and Chaiken (2005) in their reports too,
concluded that the hatred from some science teachers especially Chemistry,
Physics and Mathematics is an offspring of negative attitude in the subject itself.
They advised students to discard the misconception that Chemistry is difficult and
volatile.
The findings of this study also corroborated the findings of Cheung (2009)
who concluded that the teachers background can hinder student/teacher
relationship in good academic performances in Senior Secondary School. Cheung
also stated that students can be affected by teachers teaching methods, ability to
arouse students interest towards learning a topic, poor and shabby orientation to
students on the part of the teachers when the teacher is not ready to discharge,
when teachers could not motivate their students.
The study also showed that negative attitude to the subject is influenced by
the parents attitudes. In the opinion of Berg (2005), this problem is attributed to
the illiteracy idea on the part of the parents. Berg emphasised the need of the
parents to encourage their children on the choice of Chemistry as a subject.
Lastly, the study showed that teachers did not use adequate instructional
materials and students complaint about textbooks not explicit enough for their
private study. This attitude of the Chemistry teachers were not in agreement with
ideas of Lang et al. (2005) and Popoola (2008) who believed, that they should use
recent/modern and adequate instructional materials to teach their students. By
using these students interest would be aroused.
CONCLUSION
The results of the study revealed that right or positive attitude to Chemistry
is essential if students want to perform well in both the theory and practical
components of the subject. More efforts should be made toward improving the
factors that tend to militate against positive attitudes of the students.
The findings also showed that Chemistry teachers should motivate
students and these students should be given sound foundation on Chemistry.
Modern text books should be provided to learners and teachers. Teachers should
employ modern methods of teaching that will facilitate individualized instruction.
The results of the study also showed that the students were glaringly opposed to
Chemistry as a subject. It is believed that their feeling is a reflection of their apathy
and frustration created in part by the prevailing conditions. To effect any
meaningful change in the present situation, Chemistry teaching and learning
facilitates must be provided and/or improved in all schools.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made:
1. Teachers should be given the privilege to attend seminars, workshops and
conferences so that they can be conversant with the recent developments in
the teaching of Chemistry.
2. Measures must be taken to improve the quality of Chemistry teachers. This
includes more careful recruitment, improved preparation of Chemistry
teachers in training institutions, retraining programmes for young teachers
with limited experience, in-service and long vacation courses, improvement
in teachers salaries with special allowances for Chemistry teachers. These
could be ways by which Chemistry teaching can be made more attractive
to the teachers.
3. Teachers should involve all students in practical work as it is known that
learners learn faster when a hands-on approach is used.
4. Teachers should assist in improving the attitudes of students toward the
theory and practical components of Chemistry in order to enhance
achievement in the School Certificate Examinations.
CHAPTER EIGHT
NEED FOR IMPROVEMENT IN THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ACCEPTANCE
OF ADOPTION AMONG NIGERIANS
By
P. E., Konwea & E. O., Osakinle.
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
In Nigeria, the pressure on women to bear children is high, and emphasis
is placed on procreation in any family setting so that a womans place in
marriage remains exposed to constant risk and uncertainty until it is
confirmed through childbearing. In a typical Nigerian family setting the
idea and practice of child adoption is often frowned on. However, with
the increase in the prevalence of couples with intractable infertility,
increase in the number of children without parents due to deaths from
diseases, accidents and terrorist attacks, the emergence of baby factories
to produce children for those who can afford to pay, increase in stealing
and selling of children to adopting parents. These factors among others
are pointers to the fact that there is a need for interventions to be
implemented to educate the public on child adoption and to improve their
attitudes towards adoption, those who decide to adopt and the adoptees.
INTRODUCTION
In Nigeria, the pressure on women to bear children is high. It is
expected that young girls marry quickly and are pressured to do so in order
to produce children early while those who are already married are expected to
produce children without any delay. Those who are married experience greater
pressure, however, in a typical African society, emphasis is placed on
procreation in every family setting (Omosun & Kofoworola, 2011). Thus, the
womans place in marriage remains exposed to constant risk and is not certain
or stable until it is confirmed through childbearing. Consequently, after the first
few months of marriage or settling in a mans house it is expected that the
womans tummy will begin to bugle and rather than look into the womans face
during interactions with her, people focus their attention on her stomach. In
fact, the value of children in the society cannot be underestimated to the extent
that a proud Nigerian could say that the life of a person without a child is
miserable Oyekan, 1999, p.16).
that such children are so troubled it would be impossible to adopt them and
create normal families (Gauthier, Stollak, Messe, & Arnoff, 2008; Martin,
2012).
Some cultures do not permit the practice of adoption, that is, treating the
adoptee as equivalent to biological children as these adoptees are regarded as
outcast, taboos, bastards, among others. Nigerian families hold on to
their family name as a precious heritage and would not want any unrelated
child to tarnish that name as they believe that adopted children are prone to
doing
(Oladokun, Arulogun, Oladokun, Morhassan-Bello, Bamgboye,
Adewole, & Ojengbede, 2009).
On the other hand, some people do not mind adopting a child. To them,
adoption benefits the adoptive parent as well as the child. They are positive in
their opinions as they see these children as minors who deserve people in their
lives to do whatever it takes to provide a secure and stable home in which they
can develop their full potential (Martin, 2012).
Some individuals are of the opinion that one could adopt a child if he or
she is a single parent, if they chose not to get married, are above a specific age
or are yet to get married. Or they may want to adopt when in marriage and they
seem to have gotten older and do not have children of their own. They could
also adopt when looking for a child of a particular sex, or after having their own
children. As single parents, some are of the opinion that adopting children
would help reduce boredom and keep them busy so as not to think about the
opposite sex. However, some males do not mind adopting a child as the last
option in saving their marriage. On the other hand, most men would, however,
prefer to remarry or marry a second wife instead of adopting a child usually
regarded as another mans child (Dimka & Dein, 2013). Other potential
adoptive parents believe that adopting children when looking for a child of a
particular sex would help especially when they feel they cannot go through the
period of pregnancy again. Still another wish to adopt children after having
their own either to add to the number they already have, to help children
without parents and to have children that would be in the house with them
when their biological children had left home.
Adoption, which is regarded as the taking of a child of a known or
unknown parentage, was widespread among the Muslims until Islam
prohibited it under the Quranic Edict which states that the real parentage of
people should be proclaimed. But if their fathers are not known they should
then proclaim them their brother in faith (Kigbu, 2003). Under the Islamic law,
it is the issue of guardianship that is recognized.
According to Kigbu (2003), guardianship involves the exercise of some
parental rights, whereas, adoption involves all parental rights vested in the
adoptive parents. Hence, the authority of the guardian over the child is limited,
while the authority of the adoptive parent is unlimited. Moreover, the guardian
is not legally the parent of the child unlike in the case of adoption whereby the
adoptive parent legally becomes the parent of the child, such that the child is
seen as the biological child.
Many times the society conveys the message that adoptive parents are not
the real parents (Miall, 1987) as is the case in Nigeria. Attitudes of the extended
family, neighbours, and close friends are very important to women. These
persons most times make comments which indicate a failure to accept adoption
and also an indication of societal failure to accept an adopted child as well.
The Need for Improvement in the Attitude towards Acceptance of Adoption
in Nigeria
Adoption as an alternate strategy is not widely practiced nor accepted as a
result of the stigma attached to its practice in most cultures. Some consequences
that have surfaced, and could be linked to peoples negative attitude towards
child adoption in our society and can also be regarded as pointers to the need
for interventions to be implemented to educate the public on child adoption
and to improve their attitudes toward adoption are examined as follows.
Infertility and Increase in the Number of Childless Couples
Infertility is of public health importance in Nigeria and many other
developing nations. This is as a result of its high prevalence and especially
because of its devastating psychosocial consequences on the affected couples,
especially in Africa.
Worldwide eight to 15% of couples suffer from infertility. In Africa, the
prevalence is up to 30% (Mayo & Muhwati, 2013). The childless couples suffer
from the conflux of personal, interpersonal, social and religious expectations,
thus, bringing a sense of failure to them. In some cultural settings in Africa,
infertile couples are not allowed to take a lead role in important family
functions and events. In addition, these couples are often socially ostracized by
their immediate families.
These challenges are not restricted to the developing world (Oladokun,
2009; Rutstein & Shah, 2005). Nevertheless, many young people are affected as
a result of their lifestyle in terms of poor personal hygiene, which is the lack of
adequate care of the body and bad sexual habits in terms of promiscuity, oral
sex, among others. These result in a high prevalence of urinary/ tract infections
and other sexually transmitted diseases which in turn lead to infertility.
The threat of infertility has influenced women to make decisions, some of
which are contrary to tradition, law, and common sense. There have been
reports that some women have resorted to snatching babies from other women
and babies are sometimes reported to have been sold (Oyekan, 2002). Infertility
remains a global health challenge due to its high prevalence and its serious
social implications. Being infertile has many negative consequences for a
woman; hence, women may go to any extent to secure a child for their home.
According to Oyekan (2002), the fear of infertility has influenced women to
engage in repulsive acts in the name of saving their marriage and gaining
respect in the society.
There are many management options for infertile couples. However, the
cost of these treatments and the low success rate despite the huge financial
resources constitute a major hindrance for most desiring couples. Adoption as
a management option has gained wider acceptance in developed countries,
however, with the advent of assisted conception, adoption rates in developed
countries have reduced, and it is only practiced by couples with intractable
infertility. A significant proportion of Nigerian couples have intractable
infertility that may need child adoption as an alternative (Oladokun et al., 2009;
Bagshawe & Taylor, 2003). However, in the study by Omosun and Kofoworola
(2011), most of the infertile couples were unwilling to adopt because they have
the desire to have their own biological child.
Increase inNumber of Children without Parents
A number of parentless and helpless children are scattered about in streets,
and some find themselves in orphanages. According to Ganguly (2008),
children who are in orphanages after some time become rebels as a result of
psychological starvation. In reality, these children need to experience love,
affection, and acceptance present in a family setting as this can contribute to the
solution of homelessness and crime in our society.
The number of children who lose both parents to death is on the increase
as there are those who lose their parents due to diseases like HIV/AIDS
(Onakewhor, Olagbuji, Ande, Ezeanochie, Olokor, & Okonofua, 2011; Ojewumi
& Ojewumi, 2012; Premium Times, 2013), accidents (Bun, 2012; Agbonkhese,
Yisa, Agbonkhese, Akanbi, Aka & Mondigba, 2013), and the recent rampant
terrorist attacks and bombing of public places (Ekweme & Obaji, 2012; Aro,
2013). These children either end up with guardians, who may or may not be
their relatives, or they are left alone to struggle to survive on their own while
some end in orphanages.
According to Ganguly (2008), children who are in orphanages after some
time become rebels who have a tendency to become hard core criminals or
psychopaths because they always go through a psychological starvation. Most
of these children have suffered some form of abuse or neglect. Thus, it might be
difficult for them to adjust to new families, neighborhoods, and schools while
in foster care. If these experiences are challenging enough for an adult, who
intends to adopt and is discouraged to do so one can imagine how they feel to
with the rising number of homeless and parentless children roaming the streets or
being kept in orphanages and the threatening increase in the number of childless
couples, there is a need to acquaint the populace with child adoption procedures
as an alternative strategy for managing infertility. This option would provide the
childless person with a child for his/her convenience and would also give the
needy child the ball of his life.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are made based on the findings:
1. Whatever might be the cause there are children who were brought into this
world, and they need to be taken care of. They do not deserve punishment
because their parents acted irresponsibly. If these children are adopted and
given a good environment to grow up, we would not only decrease the number
of helpless and parentless children but would also contribute to the solution of
some other problems like homelessness and crime.
2. Child adoption should be used as an alternative strategy or option for
managing infertility. This option would provide the childless couple with a
child for his or her convenience.
3. People should be educated about the importance of the practice of and the
procedure for child adoption in order to influence their attitude positively. If
the supposed negative experiences one might encounter are challenging
enough for an adult who intends to adopt and is discouraged to do so; imagine
how they feel to a child.
REFERENCES
Adamec, C., & William, P. (2000).The encyclopedia of adoption (2nd ed.). Retrieved
from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Adoption.
Agbonkhese, O., Yisa, G. L., Agbonkhese, E. G., Akanbi, D. O., Aka, E. O., &
Mondigba, E. B. (2013). Road traffic accidents in Nigeria: Causes and
preventive measures. Civil and Environmental Research, 3(13), 90-99.
Agborh, A. (2005, June). How woman, 32, stole baby. The Sunday Tribune
Newspaper. Lagos.
Aro, O, I. (2013). Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria:Its implications and way
forward toward avoidance of future insurgency. International Journal of
Scientific and Research Publications, 3(11), 1-9.
Bagshawe, A., & Taylor, A. (2003). ABC of subfertility - Intractable infertility.
BMJ, 327(7423), 1098-100. Retrieved from http:// www.bioline.
org.br/pdf%3frh09008
Bolarinwa, R. (2000, September 5). In search of her stolen twins. The Punch, p. 35.
Bun, E. (2012). Road traffic accidents in Nigeria: A public Health Problem.
AFRIMEDIC Journal, 3(2), 34-36
Dimka, R. A., & Dein, S. L. (2013). The work of a woman is to give birth to
Children: Cultural constructions of infertility in Nigeria. African Journal of
Reproductive Health, 17(2), 102-117.
Ekweme, A. C., & Obaji, M. P. (2012). Boko Haram assaults in Nigeria: Towards
effective ass media response. New Media and Mass communication, 5.
Ethnoschurch. (2007). Definition of Adoption. Retrieved from http://www.
ethnoschurch.com/adoption
Ganguly, P. (2008). Child adoption. Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com
/articles/childadoption.html
Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff, J. (2007). Recall of childhood neglect
and physical abuse as differential predictors of currentpsychological
functioning. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24(4), 256-263. Retrieved from
http://psychweb.cisat.jmu.edu/graysojh/pdf.
Gbeminiyi, S. (2007, April 22). Unknown men Kidnap mad womans daughter.
Sunday Tribune, p.17.
Kigbu, S. K. (2003). Child Adoption: Nature and Procedure under Nigerian Law.
Retrieved from http://dspace.unijos.edu.ng/../472-502.pdf
Martin, V. J., & Henshaw, R. (1936). Formal procedure of Customary Law Adoption
Retrieved from http://dspace.unijos.edu.ng/../502- 523.pdf
Mayo S., & Muhwati, I. (2013). Socio-cultural perspective in causes and
intervention strategies of male fertility. A case study of Mitrontoro
Ngezi, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 17(2), 89-101.
Miall, C. E. (1987). The stigma of adoptive parents status perception of community
attitude towards adoption and the experience of informal social
sanctioning. Family Relations, 36, 34-39.
Nwaoga C. T. (2013) Socio-religious implications of child adoption in Igboland
southeastern Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 4(13).
doi:105901/ MISS. 2013 v4n13p 705.
Ojewumi, T. K., & Ojewumi, J. S. (2012). Trends in infant and child mortality in
Nigeria: A wake up call assessment for interventions towards achieving the
2015 MDGS. Science Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 2, 1-10.
Ojochide, A. O. (2012). Adoption of children in Nigeria. [abstract]. Retrieved from
www.google books.com
Oladokun, A., Arulogun, O., Oladokun, R., Imiran, O., Morhassan-Bello, I. O.,
Bamgboye, E. A., Adewole, I. F., & Ojengbede, O. A. (2009). Acceptability
of child adoption as management option for infertility in Nigeria:
Evidence from focus group discussions. African Journal of Reproductive
Health, 13(1), 79-91. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/m/pubmed/20687267
Oladokun A. O., Arulogun, O., Oladokun, R., Adenike-Bello F., Morhassan-Bello
CHAPTER NINE
A THEOLOGICAL APPRAISAL OF 1 CORINTHIANS 14:34-35 AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS ON WOMEN DEVELOPMENT
By
Isiorhovoja, U. Osbert, & Evan Osbert
Delta State University, Abraka
ABSTRACT
The paper examines theologically 1 Corinthians 14:33-36 on the silence
of women and exclusion from public participation in both religious and
secular life. It examines the origin of the text, vis--vis the sitz en leben
in Corinth as well as the authors religious background. A
multidimensional approach was adopted which includes exegesis, critical
analysis, historical and hermeneutical interpretation of the phenomenon.
It discovers among other things that the insertion of the text in chapter
14 after verse 33, distorts the free flow of the central themes which started
in chapter 11. This suggests that our text is a later interpolation. The
passage deals with a specific local difficulty unique to the Corinthian
church, where the tendency for women to usurp authority (authentein)
over men existed /was prevalent because of the predominant role of
women in the cults in Corinth. The paper concludes by recommending
that since the problem is localized in the Corinthian church, its
application should not be universally generalized. Women played
dominant roles in the early church history and Paul personally
commended their service that should serve as role models for women.
INTRODUCTION
A discourse on the text of 1 Corinthians 14: 34-35 and its theological
interpretation is by no means easy; this is premised on the fact that Paul had earlier
prepared women for active participation in congregational worship in 11: 2-16 by
advocating modest appearance. However, in Chapter 14, he seems to enjoin
absolute silence of women running contrary to the admonition he had given earlier
(Carson, 1989).
The concept of women subordination and exclusion from public
appearance and participation are drawn from this text which remains enigmatic
to scholars. In verse 34, Paul left an open-ended statement, in the churches.
Hence, there are elements of universality in his statement, but he had women
whom he commended and made bold to refer to as co-workers.
Shorter (1996) argued that Paul might have fallen back on his background
in Judaism that is legalistic in nature; he avers that in Pauls time, there were Jews
who tried to combine Gods grace with the observance of the Law. Paul seems to
argue from a legalistic experience that runs contrary to his advice and
encouragement to women on modest appearance during worship, a thesis which
he strongly advocated in Chapter 11 for women who may officiate during
worship.
Stanley (1992) from a traditional perspective noted that Paul conforms to
what one might expect from a Jewish writer of the time, including his view of
scripture as authoritative as we have in the text under deliberation. Consequent
upon this contemplation, we see the sharp distortion of the flow of thought, which
is a major break in the theme. Hence, many questions are being raised on the
genuineness of the text on womens silence.
Origin of the Text
According to Derstine (2008), questions are raised based on the authenticity
of these verses having Pauline origin. However, for those of a fundermentalist
persuasion, a conservative Protestant movement that originated in the United
States of America in the 19th century, the answer is a facile yes based on the idea
that God has preserved His Word to us intact; it is therefore sealed and subject no
longer to addition or subtraction. A study of the variant readings of the School of
Copyists based in Alexandria, Egypt (the Alexandrine School) Codices Vaticanus
Sinaticus, Alexandrinus- indicates how bold these men were in eliminating or
adding entire verses, words or letters to suit their theological biases against the
New Testaments favourable treatment of the Law of God. The nitty gritty of
textual evidence sigla? For variant readings, we see evidence within the Codex
Vaticanus (B) itself that indicates the verses in 14:34-35 as an interpolation into the
epistle.
Payne (1995) posited that since the earliest manuscripts (MSS) date only to
the mid-4th century (Sinaticus) and early 5th century Vaticanus (B), the manuscript
(MS) which cast the greatest aspersion on the integrity of 1 Corinthians 14: 34-35,
Codex Fuldensis (546 AD), is considered by textual critics to be an earlier witness,
attested to by Bishop Victor who was the Bishop that carefully revised and
corrected the Codex Fuldensis.
Many questions have been raised about the veracity of Pauline theology
regarding women which has to do with their active participation in the church.
Barrett (1971) disfavoured/discounted the veracity of 14:34-35; he notes that these
two verses were added later as a marginal note at a time when good order was
considered more important than anything else. Hence, removing these verses
which distort the flow of thought, verse 36 links up well with verse 33.
faced with the question of why Paul commanded that women should not teach
men. There have been many unsatisfactory responses to this question. She opines
that Paul had a theological bias against married women which can be seen in his
being single, and so his directives were rather reactionary.
Payne (2009) from his most recent research published in his book Man And
Woman, One In Christ: An Exegetical And Theological Study of Pauls Letters supported
the view that 14:34-35 was an interpolation, as were his views on all of the other
passages dealing with gender roles in Pauls letters. Despite Payne and other
scholars findings concerning umlauts (distigmai) in the text, Wallace B. Daniel
among other conservative scholars insists that this is insufficient evidence that 1
Corinthians 14:34-35 is an interpolation (Payne, 2009). Wallace in his work entitled
The Textual Problem of 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 argued that despite the variance in
which verses 34-35 are placed in the text, they must have been a part of the original
text because they exist in all of the early manuscripts and if possible, Apostle Paul
added the paragraphos (marginal note).
Payne (1995) in an earlier pursuit of this textual problem notes that Codex
Vaticanus of the fourth century, which is probably the most important manuscript
of the New Testament, clearly distinguishes 1 Cor. 14:34-35 as a separate
paragraph. Other manuscripts which support this claim are P46, Origen,
Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, Claromotanus (DP), 33 and every other ancient Greek
manuscript. Thus, these two verses were consistently represented in the
manuscripts as a separate paragraph and not grouped with 14:33b attesting to the
verse being an interpolation.
In a quest to determine whether verses (34-35) are authentic or not, scholars
study the internal evidence found in the manuscript. The study examines the
question of probability: transcriptional and intrinsic. Transcriptional probability
takes into account the habits and tendencies of scribes and how the manuscript
was generated or published. It asks the question, given what we know of the
scribal tradition and method, what parts of a manuscript most likely reflects the
original? Johann Bengel (1689-1752) in answer to this question developed the first
principle of text criticism that the text which best explains the origin of all other
forms is most likely the original. Applying this principle, some scholars believe
that 1 Corinthians 14 was originally written without verses 34-35. They believed
that 34-35 were marginal gloss, which were subsequently incorporated into the
text at two places.
Douglas (2000) noted that many scholars still question the appropriateness
of applying Bengels first principles on 1 Corinthians 14: 1 end.
a.
There has been no real evidence of gloss. Most glosses intend to explain a
passage, not introduce a problem to the flow of the text. The universal
presence of verses 34-35 in all ancient manuscripts suggest a more likely
possibility of a displacement of the passage in one Greek copy where the
verses were transposed after verse 40; while subsequent copies made the
error more ubiquitous. But the reason for the transposition is unknown.
b.
A more important text critical principle that takes precedence over Bengels
first principle is Lectio difficilior Portior which stated that the manuscript
with the more difficult reading as is referable. It is based on the
observation that scribes tend to smooth out the rough textual spots of a
manuscript and not introduce difficulties to the text. Verses 34-35, following
verse 33 represents a more difficult reading and therefore has the greater
claim of authenticity.
c.
In instances where marginal gloss was added into subsequent copies of the
Bible, ancient manuscripts on hand show versions with and without the
added gloss. Because all ancient manuscripts of 1 Corinthians 14 contain
verses 34-35, if it were marginal gloss, the marginal gloss had to be
inserted very early and perhaps into the original manuscript. This begs the
question: if verses 34-35 were so obvious in the margin as marginal gloss,
how could scribes mistakenly consider it as authentic and part of the
original text?
d.
There are no marks or asterisks that indicate scribal question as in other
verses where they are placed in the adjacent margin in 1 Corinthians 14.
e.
If verses 34-35 were marginal gloss, scribes would consider them as
authentic and part of the text if Paul himself wrote the marginal gloss as an
insertion. Some scholars speculate that if the location of the insertion could
not be determined, scribes could locate it at the end of the subject, which
could have been after verse 40 (Wallace, 2004).
Intrinsic probability asks the question, what was the author most likely to
have written? It examines among other things, the literary habit of the author
such as his use of words or literary style, the immediate context and the harmony
with the authors work elsewhere in the Bible. Hence three basic inquiries are
raised here, thus:
a.
Verses 34-35 disrupt the flow of thought of the passage regarding tongues
and prophecy. The difficulty in the flow of thought is accounted for in the
text-critical principle of lectico difficulior portior where the manuscript with
the more difficult reading is considered more authentic.
b.
Verses 34-35, which silences women in the church, seem to contradict 1
Corinthians 11:5, where Paul accepts the praying and prophesying of
women with a modest appearance before the congregation in worship. The
apparent contradiction with 1 Corinthians 11:5 only exists when one views
1 Corinthians 14:34-35 as an absolute statement (they are not permitted
to speak; ) without any qualification. Yet, when verses 34-35 are read
after verse 33, one can perceive Pauls flow of thought and see the larger
c.
d.
context, which would qualify the apparent absolute statement of verses 3435.
Verses 34-35 contain terms that are seemingly not typical of Paul. One such
feature is, just as the law always says. Scholars note that Paul always
cites a biblical passage to justify his position, but never appealed to the law
to support Christian behaviour. However, there is evidence to dispute those
who challenge the authenticity of verses 34-35. Because of the similarities
in terminology found in 1 Timothy 2:11-12 and Ephesians 5:21-33; verses
34-35 are considered unPauline because some scholars consider these
verses as the work of a later redactor who was determined to subordinate a
womans public role in the church by editing Pauls pastoral letters.
However, this is not as terms associated with subordination are found
elsewhere in Pauls work: to subject, a verb found in verse 32, can be
found in Romans 8:7,20; 13:1,5; 1 Corinthians 15:28; Ephesians 5:24 and
Colossians 2:20. To be silent, a verb found in verse 34, can be found in 1
Corinthians 14: 28. To learn, a verb found in verse 35 and 1 Timothy 2:11,
can also be found in 1 Corinthians 4:6 and 14:31, 35; Galatians 3:2; 1 Timothy
5:4, 13; and Titus 3:14. To permit, a verb, can be found in 1 Corinthians
14:34.
Furthermore, Pauls letter contains terms that occur once in all his
letters in the entire New Testament (hapex legomena). This makes it very
challenging to determine what unpauline is, considering these pieces of
evidence. Consequently, it reveals: (i) The use of the terms elsewhere in
Pauls work (ii) the fact that Pauls letters contain hapex legomena, and (iii)
that the manuscript evidence for the omission of verses 34-35 is weak, the
argument of unPauline terminology or odd usage is not very strong.
Much easier to dismiss than to comprehend is Pauls reference to the Law
in verse 34. Absent in the Mosaic Law or Pentateuch is any explicit directive
that a woman be silent. Several approaches to this interpretive challenge
have been proposed as follow:
i.
The Law refers to an unspecified local law contemporary to the
time. In this interpretation, women were expressing their freedoms
allowed under 1 Corinthians 11:5 but were too noisy, and Paul
appeals to this unmentioned local law to silence them. But Paul did
not use the term law to refer to any local laws outside the Bible.
ii.
The Law refers to Pauls earlier directives in 1 Corinthians 14: 2733. In this interpretation, women did express their freedoms under 1
Corinthians 11:5 but were too busy and had become noisy, hence,
Paul refers to his prior decree to silence them.
iii.
The Law is Pauls reference to Jewish traditions. There are two
interpretations based on this definition of the Law. One school of
Hypothesis one. Some scholars have argued that the text is an interpolation
added by an ancient scribe (Fee, 1987; Trompf, 1980; Conzelmann, 1974). It is
supposed that very early in the textual history of 1 Corinthians a scribe added a
marginal gloss to the text in order to harmonize it with 1 Timothy 2:8-15 and later
that marginal gloss was placed in its present position. Some scribes placed the
marginal gloss after verse 40. The evidence for this is that the Western manuscript
tradition places verses 34 and 35 after verse 40. It is also argued that the verses
interrupt the flow of the context: they contradict 11:5, and some phraseology (e.g.,
"as the Law says") appears foreign to Paul.
However, there is no textual tradition for the omission of these verses.
Every known manuscript contains them. While the Western text moves the verses
to the end of the chapter, they do not omit them. Their transposition is best
explained by the difficulty of the text itself. Because it does seem to interrupt the
context, an early scribe in the Western church moved it to the end of verse 40 (Ellis,
1981; Metzger, 1971).
Hypothesis two. Bilezekian (1985) and Odell-Scott (1983) argued that Paul is
quoting traditionalist opponents in Corinth (see also Allison, 1988). In 11: 5, 10
Paul approves the action of women praying and prophesying in the assembly.
However, this was not acceptable to all the Corinthians, especially the Jewish
Christians there. Just as he had done earlier in the letter (cf. punctuation in NIV at
1:12; 6:12, 13; 7:1 [note]; 8:1 [note]), Paul quoted his opponents and responds to
them. His response comes in 14:36 and is indicated by a Greek particle which
signifies a rejection of 14: 34-35. This understanding of 14:36 would be: "Nonsense!
You men (masculine gender) did not originate the Word of God, and, nonsense!
You men (masculine gender) are not the only ones to receive it." Consequently,
Paul rejects the Jewish restrictions and authorizes women to speak in the assembly.
However, there is no explicit indication in the text that verse 36 is addressed
only to men. The Greek masculine gender may include women. The Greek particle
is disjunctive, but it may be a response to Corinthian independence in the face of
the universal practice of the church given in verses 33 and 34. Are the Corinthians
the only ones to receive revelation? They are acting contrary to the practice of the
whole church itself. Further, this would be the longest quotation from Paul's
opponents in the letter with the shortest response. There is no precedent for a
quotation with such detailed argumentation (note all the "for's"). Carson (1987)
argued Paul's quotations of his opponents are short, "followed by sustained
qualification," and Paul's response is unambiguous in the context. The argument
here does not meet any three of these criteria.
Hypothesis three. Martin (1984) and Liefield (1986) argued that the text is a
cultural accommodation based upon rabbinic practices in the synagogue or
cultural mores. In order to accommodate the sensibilities of Jewish Christians in
the congregations, Paul followed the practice of the synagogue by not permitting
women to speak. Women did not take an active part in the synagogue. But
apparently the reason was not based upon divine prohibition as much as culture
and propriety (Moore, 1932). Paul does not regard speaking by women as sinful,
but as "disgraceful" or "shameful". It is argued that Paul sees the issue in terms of
culture much like 11:6 where it is disgraceful for a woman to have her head
shaved.
However, this understanding of "the Law" is unknown in Paul. "Law" here
has the definite article; it is "the Law". In 14:21, the only other reference to "Law"
in the chapter, Paul quotes Isaiah 28:11, 12 and refers to the fact that "it is written
in the Law." It is difficult to believe that Paul would have referred to a rabbinic
tradition with such definiteness and authority in order to reject a practice he had
just approved in chapter 11. Further, "shameful" does not necessarily imply
sinfulness, but neither does it necessarily exclude it. Paul's reference to the Law is
not in support of the silence of women but in reference to their submission. The
Old Testament, according to 1 Peter 3:5, 6, does teach submission. It is that
principle which Paul applies to the Corinthian situation.
Hypothesis four. Paul prohibits the babbling and disorderly conduct of
women who were interrupting and disturbing the service. Kroeger (1987) has
argued that the constant shouting and wailing of women known to be part of some
of the Greco-Roman cults was the problem in Corinth. The influence of pagan cults
in the Corinthian church indicates that this is a potential problem. Where complete
silence is enjoined, and where an assembly is gathered where no meaningless
noise is permitted (14: 9, 11-13, 28), Paul's prohibition against the babblings of
women makes sense. In addition, it is argued that the Greek term for "speak"
(laleo), may simply refer to unintelligible speech or babbling.
However, the contextual usage of the verb laleo indicates that meaningful
speech is in view. While it may refer to babbling in some contexts, this is not its
normal meaning. There is no indication that the women were being disruptive to
the assembly except in the asking of questions. It is simply assumed that there are
babbling women. Further, why prohibit all women from speaking if it is only the
babbling of a few women who are the problem? Even more, the prohibition is in
line with what is practised in all the congregations of the saints. Are we to believe
that cultic babbling was a problem in other congregations as well? Any
explanation which limits the prohibition to the Corinthian church is suspect since
Paul apparently draws upon the universal practice of the church for his argument
(Howard, 1983).
Hypothesis five. Ellis (1969) argued that the text specifically relates to the
wives of the prophets. Since the term "women" may be translated "wives," it is
argued that Paul is regulating the role of the prophet's wives. Verse 35 may
indicate that the wives were interrupting their husband's prophecies by asking
questions. They are specifically told to wait till they get home to ask those
questions.
However, it makes relative, Paul's injunction to a narrow concern. Is it true
that "in all the congregations of the saints" the prophet's wives cannot ask
questions in the assembly? May single women ask questions? The argument rests
on the assumption that Paul is forbidding disorderly speaking.
Hypothesis six. Hicks (1989) in support of Lightfoot (1978), argued that Paul
prohibits all public speaking by women where they exercise leadership over the
assembly (including both inspired and uninspired speech). Some would extend
the prohibition to total silence on the part of the women so that they could not
even ask a question during the assembly, say "Amen" at the appropriate time, or
make any sound. It is argued that the term laleo refers to public leadership in the
assembly throughout the context of Chapter 14 and that Paul is prohibiting female
leadership in the public assembly of the church. This leadership includes leading
singing, leading in prayer, reading Scripture and exercising any spiritual gift in
the assembly (see also Wayne, 1988).
The most obvious difficulty with this interpretation is Paul's discussion in
chapter 11. Does Paul condemn in 14:34 what he approved in 11:5? This seems to
set up an explicit contradiction in Paul. The value of this approach to 1 Corinthians
14:34-35 will depend on how well it can be reconciled with 1 Corinthians 11.
Hypothesis seven. Some argued that Paul is explicitly prohibiting women
from participating in the judging of the prophets (Sigountos & Shank, 1983) and
Hurley, 1981). It is argued that the context is specific. He is regulating the use of
tongue-speaking and prophesying. Indeed, verse 39 uses a closure device that
involves tongues-speaking and prophesying specifically. This indicates that those
two activities were Paul's main concern. The issue of women must be subordinated
to either one or both of those issues. Verses 34-35, it is argued, relate to his
regulation of prophesying. There are two parts to the prophetic task in these
verses: (1) the prophesying itself (v. 29a); and (2) the judging or evaluation of what
other prophets said (v. 29b). He regulated the prophesying itself in verses 30-33,
but in verses 34-35 he regulates the judging of the prophets. Women are permitted
to prophesy as they are empowered by the Spirit, but they are not permitted to
evaluate the prophecies of others since this would involve them in a teaching
function within in the church. Women are not permitted to teach men in an
authoritative context or manner (cf. 1 Tim. 2:12). Women are not to ask questions
during this time because it might be perceived as judging.
However, verse 34 is considerably removed from the topic of "judging" in
verse 29. Verse 33a might be considered a closure for the topic of tongues-speaking
and prophecy, and verse 33b might be considered a new topic sentence. Further,
this seems to limit the verb laleo in a way that is inconsistent with the rest of the
chapter.
CONCLUSION
A reflection on the text based on the manuscripts that are available revealed
the appearance of the passage in the original. The only bone of contention is the
placement of the verses and its authenticity whether it is Pauline or un-Pauline in
nature. However, based on all available evidence, the silence of women is widely
attested to by the majority of the manuscripts and its placement after verse 33.
Furthermore, there is evidence in the Pauline epistle that supports the
silence of women as we have in 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 like 1 Timothy 2:11-12 and
Ephesians 5: 22-25. Thus, it is the characteristic nature of the Apostle to ensure that
women are not given elaborate positions as we have in the society in the days of
Paul. Thus, women were not considered for their overall development; they were
better kept away from any public appearances.
It is therefore not surprising to note that the issues surrounding womens
predicament in most societies are traceable to the text under consideration. Hence,
the challenge of womens emancipation calls for a serious understanding of a local
injunction of the Apostle that was unduly generalised universally.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
RECOMMENDATIONS
From the study, we wish to recommend as follows:
That the text under consideration is Pauline; it has a similar appearance in
other epistles by the author.
Though the situation is unique to Corinth, it was not localised to Corinth.
Hence the universal undertone.
Paul may have been influenced by his Jewish background in putting
together this epistle to the church at Corinth; otherwise, why did he
commend women whom he referred to as co-labourers.
The few educated women he worked with did excellently, and he attested
to the genuineness as labourers.
There is the need for adequate contextualisation of the Pauline text as we
have in 1 Corinthians 14: 34-35.
REFERENCES
Abogurin, S. O. (1988). The first letter of Paul to the Corinthians, Kenya: Nzima Press.
Allison, R. N. (1988). Let women be silent in the churches (1 Corinthians 14: 33b36): What did Paul really say and what did it mean? Journal for the Study
of the New Testament, 32, 27-60.
Barrett, C. K. (1971). A commentary on 1st Epistle to the Corinthians, London: A & C
Black.
Bilezekian, G. (1986). Beyond sex role: What the Bible says about a womans place in
church and family, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.
CHAPTER TEN
AN INSIGHT INTO LOW CONTRACEPTIVE PREVALENCE AND ITS
PROBABLE CONSEQUENCES AMONG YOUTHS IN EKITI STATE,
NIGERIA
By
E. O. Osakinle
Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Understanding the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents is of
utmost importance and carries with it implications for improving
individual health outcomes, especially reduction in unintended
pregnancies and STIs such as HIV/AIDS. Using data from poor urban
youths in some cities in Nigeria, we try in this paper to look
comprehensively at the individual level factors that may influence
contraceptive use and pregnancy outcomes among adolescents as they
transition to adulthood, in a bid to understanding the needs and
challenges that they face. Preliminary results point to the fact that there
is a diversity of experiences among adolescents with regards to
knowledge, attitude and behaviour. Age, education and marital status
were often strongly associated with SRH experiences of adolescents,
pointing to the fact that targeted programs are needed to reach them with
a range of SRH information and services at different stages before they
initiate sex, as sexually active unmarried youths, or as married
individuals and couples.
INTRODUCTION
Understanding the drivers of sexual and reproductive health (SRH)
outcomes is critical for improving individual health outcomes especially the
reduction in unintended pregnancies and STIs. We propose to use existing data
from a longitudinal study conducted between 2007 and 2010 among youth (12-22
years) living in two informal (slum) settlements in Ekiti State, Nigeria to
comprehensively examine individual-level factors associated with contraceptive
use (Mumah, Beguy & Wawire, 2013).
Young people comprise a considerable proportion of populations in subSaharan Africa. These young people face numerous sexual and reproductive
health (SRH) challenges during their transition to adulthood. These challenges
include, among others, limited access to SRH information and services. The long
term impact of unmet SRH needs are telling - high incidence of HIV among young
people and a substantially higher contribution of adolescent childbearing to total
Knowledge for Global Development
130
fertility rates than in other parts of the world (Glasier, 2006). While ages at puberty
and initiation of sexual activity have decreased in many parts of sub-Saharan
Africa, age at first marriage has increased over time, thus increasing the period
that adolescents are susceptible to pre-marital pregnancies and poor SRH
outcomes. In sub-Saharan Africa, adolescents who initiate sex are exposed to
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS as well as unintended
pregnancies (Osakinle, 2003). For example, the proportion of young women who
have a child by age 20 ranges from 47% to 75% in this region (Gupta, & Mahy,
2003). Risk of unintended pregnancies is heightened for adolescents because of
low contraceptive use during early sexual experiences. Unintended pregnancies
often end up in clandestine and unsafe abortions, which are associated with
adverse health consequences, including maternal deaths (Mensch, Singh, &
Casterline, 2005). Overall, poor sexual and reproductive health outcomes among
young women and girls have long term adverse consequences on womens status
including poor educational and employment opportunities.
In Nigeria, adolescents make up a considerable proportion of urban
populations in the country because of the high volume of young adults who
migrate from rural to urban areas to look for employment in cities. Many such
migrants in Nigeria live in the numerous informal settlements, which house
between 60% and 70% of the citys residents. Adolescents living in these
settlements face unique challenges as they transition to adulthood in a hostile
environment that is characterized by high levels of unemployment, crime,
substance abuse, poor schooling facilities, and lack of recreational facilities.
Previous studies show that people living in informal settlements are at greater risk
for HIV infection, risky sexual behaviours, early childbearing, and other adverse
SRH outcomes than those in non-slum parts of the city. Extant literature posits that
young women living in poor settlements are at a higher risk of unintended
pregnancies and higher prevalence of unplanned or unwanted premarital
childbearing when compared to their richer counterparts.
All of these challenges constitute social barriers that may impinge upon
young peoples ability to have control over their sexual and reproductive life and
to experience to the fullest extent, the kind of sexual and reproductive life they
value. Consequently, living in slum settlements remains a perpetual hazard to
young peoples development (Okonofua, 2007). While much has been done to
provide insights into adolescents SRH outcomes in the country, little attention has
been paid to understanding and meeting the SRH challenges and needs of
adolescents living in resource-poor urban settings. Yet, the wellbeing of the urban
poor, a substantial proportion of who are adolescents, will increasingly drive
national development indicators including health and poverty indicators in
Nigeria. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of individual level factors
associated with contraceptive use and pregnancy outcomes among young people
is critical for informing the development of policies and programs to enhance the
sexual and reproductive health of young people. We draw on data from the
Transition-to-Adulthood (TTA) project conducted among young people in two
informal settlements in Nigeria to explore.
Sexual behaviour and reported use of contraceptives
According to the findings of the TTA Project, 122 (28.7%) of the respondents
had had sexual intercourse. The mean age at sexual debut was 19 years 2.3 years
and most one hundred percent (100%) had their sexual debut between ages 20 and
24 years. Concerning the prevalence of contraceptive use, 78 (63.9%) of the
sexually active respondents had used some form of contraceptive however, only
30 (26.7%) of the sexually active respondents were currently using some form of
contraceptive (Osakinle, 2011 & 2012).
Condoms were the most commonly used methods of contraceptives, 68
(87.2%) followed by oral contraceptives 11 (15.4%) and emergency contraceptives.
Other methods of contraception mentioned included the use of foaming tablets
(one or 1.3%) and native concoctions (two or 2.6%). The knowledge of the effective
methods of contraception among the respondents who had had sexual intercourse
is shown below. Sixty-one (50.0%) perceived condoms as the most effective
method of contraception whereas 58 (47.5%) regarded abstinence as being most
effective. Only seven or 5.7% of the respondents perceived emergency
contraception as being effective (Osakinle, 2011 & 2012).
Factors associated with contraceptive use and sexual behaviour
Nineteen or 61.2% of the sexually active respondents over 25 years old had
used a contraceptive during intercourse while 49 (53.8%) of those less than 25 years
had used a form of contraceptive. The older the sexually active respondents were,
the higher the chance they had used some form of contraceptive (X2=31.34, p=
0.00). The proportion of youths who had ever had sexual intercourse increased
with age and were statistically significant (p<0.001). A significantly higher
proportion, 28 (39.4%) of respondents from polygamous homes had ever had
sexual intercourse compared with 94 (26.6%) of females from monogamous
families (p<0.001). Twenty- four or 39.3% of females who had either parent dead
had had sex, while 22 (37.3%) of those with parents living apart were sexually
active and this was statistically significant (X2=7.64, p=0.02) (Osakinle, 2003 &
2010).
Attitudes towards Contraception
Concerning the attitudes toward contraceptive use, the majority of both
boys and girls agreed that it was smart to use contraceptives to prevent unplanned
pregnancies. The majority of adolescents also believed that it was a good idea to
compared to six percent and two percent, respectively of boys and girls who were
still in school.
Youths were also asked, during in-depth interviews, if they had used
protection during their first sexual encounter and if not, what the reasons were for
not having done so. Females were more likely to report not using any protection
or contraception during their first sexual intercourse. Lack of knowledge was often
cited as the reason for not using a condom or contraception. Other reasons cited
for non-use of protection during the first sexual intercourse were love/trust and
being in a marital union. The aspect of trust was distinctly clearly associated with
the perception that the couples were young and therefore, did not expect that their
partner had, at that age, had sexual relations with other partners which would
have put them at risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. Further in the
interview, a few of the respondents had these comments to make:
I didnt suspect she would be infected or anything
I trusted her, both of us were innocent
We were married and didnt see the need to use protection
A larger proportion of adolescents with secondary level of education
reported recent sexual activity compared to those with primary or lower
education. However, a lower proportion of in-school adolescents than out-ofschool adolescents reported recent sexual activity (7% vs. 42% among boys, and
5% vs. 55% among girls), (Osakinle, 2003). As expected, married adolescents were
much more likely than their non-married counterparts to report recent sexual
activity. It was also important to examine the number of sexual partners in the 12
months preceding the survey. The majority of sexually active adolescents had only
one partner: 67% for boys and 94% for girls, with young women reporting fewer
sexual partners over the past 12 months than their male counterparts (Okonofua,
2007). There was a little difference based on education with respect to the number
of partners over the last 12 months among boys. In addition, it is striking and
counterintuitive that girls who were still in school were more likely to have
multiple partners than their counterparts who were no longer in school (17% vs.
6%), although they were less likely to report recent sexual activity. The opposite is
observed among boys but the difference by schooling status is very marginal (32%
vs. 34%), (Osakinle, 2003).
CONCLUSION
It could, therefore, be concluded that the majority of non-users of
contraception in Ekiti State Area of Nigeria are still married women, who live in
rural areas and have never used contraception before. However, there are some
important new trends emerging that deserve attention. As the population of Ekiti
becomes more urban and more educated, non-users of contraception also are
becoming more urban and more educated to stay away from sexually transmitted
CHAPTER ELEVEN
PHYSICAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT AS A PREDICTOR OF
MOTIVATION TO LEARNING IN SELECTED PUBLIC SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN DELTA STATE, NIGERIA
By
Okposio O. Collins
College of Education, Agbor, Delta State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Provision of a healthy environment for teaching and learning cannot be
over- emphasized. The school environment in which an individual child
stays and learns determines to a large extent the effectiveness of learning
and academic achievement of that individual. Healthful school
environmental factors are required for safety, healthy living conditions
and mental development for a students academic excellence. This paper,
therefore, examined the result of physical school environmental factors
as predictors of motivation to learning in selected public secondary
schools in Delta State. A descriptive research design was used for this
study. Simple random sampling technique using the fishbowl method
with replacement was used to select four Local Government Areas from
each of the three senatorial districts in Delta State. The sample for the
study constituted 1,800 respondents. A modified, adapted questionnaire
was used for the study. The instrument yielded a reliability coefficient of
0.83. The inferential statistics of multiple regressions were used to
analyze the hypothesis. The findings revealed that school location and
essential amenities (pipe borne water and electricity) significantly
predict motivation to learning while school building and
classroom/furniture do not significantly predict motivation to learning.
In conclusion, this study has confirmed that some physical school
environmental factors (school location and essential amenities have
contributed significantly to the motivation to learn. It was recommended
that school planners and the state government provide and improve on
the physical environmental factors by having thorough planning for
future expansion and development before establishing schools.
INTRODUCTION
School planning, organization, and management are directly or indirectly
related to healthful school environmental factors. The physical environment
includes all the external conditions or factors required in a healthy school
environment. Its adequacy and availability determine positive learning and selfmotivation among students. Healthy school environments support learning and
contribute to students health by minimizing distractions that threaten either
students physical or mental wellbeing. It can also positively influence student
motivation and promote the expectation that all students can succeed in their
learning (Kersen, 2009). A healthy school environment can improve health and
increase students and teachers productivity while an unhealthy school
environment poses a danger and insecurity, causes or intensifies illness among
teachers and students which will result in high rates of absenteeism, less time in
the classroom and ultimately reduced academic achievement. The availability and
adequacy of the physical environment will, however, make learning more
meaningful thus providing proper education which is the right of every Nigerian
child (Anyanwu, Adio-Moses, & Obaretin, 2008).
The school health program outlined in the National School Health Policy
(2006) indicated a series of harmonized activities in the school environment for the
promotion of the health and development of the entire school and, community.
The provision of a healthful school environment is seen as one of the inter-related
aspects of the school health programme which has to be guaranteed to ensure
efficient performance of the staff and students.
According to the National School Health Policy (2006), a healthful school
environment includes all the consciously, organized, planned and executed efforts
to ensure safe, and healthy living conditions and promote mental development.
The physical environment is one of these aspects of a healthful school environment
which encompasses the site on which a school is located, the school building and
all its contents including physical structures, infrastructure, furniture, presence of
chemicals and biological agents and the surrounding environment including air,
water, roadways and other hazards (World Health Organization, 2009).
In keeping with this, the School Health Advisory Council (2009) described
the school environment as the physical and aesthetic surroundings, psychosocial
climate, safety and culture of the school. Periodic review testing of factors and
conditions which influence physical environment in which students motivation is
influenced by these external factors that can start, sustain, intensify or discourage
learning behavior is stipulated (Reev, 1996). In a conducive physical environment,
highly motivated students will stay and be involved in learning for a long time
while unmotivated students will give up easily when the school environment is
un-conducive. Such highly motivated environments will reduce the dropout rate
and increase the level of students success in their academics since. Students
believe that their ability to learn is shaped by messages and experiences at school.
Students who are positively motivated display positive emotions. They are
satisfied with their work and show more enjoyment in classroom activities while
students without appropriate motivation will appear quiet, sullen and bored. They
will not take any apparent pleasure in learning activities and will often complain.
Therefore, physical environmental factors should be adequate and available to
promote students motivation for educational success.
The physical environment of a school must be safe, healthy and attractive
to motivate students in Teaming health education. Udoh (2001) submitted that a
school if well sited is expected to be located on a reasonably well drained level
ground, away from potential environmental hazards, and such school should also
be accessible but reasonably isolated room the tick of housing areas, busy high
ways, industrial plants, railroads, streams, ponds or be protected from hazards
and trespassers by a suitable fencing with other essential amenities being
provided. The school building where learning is taking place should be attractive
and also be protected from excessive noise, heat, cold and dampness. McGuffey
(2008) concluded in his study that students whose classrooms were in newer
school buildings that were fully carpeted and air conditioned showed more
positive motivation to learning than those in old and dilapidated buildings. Such
non-conducive environments cannot trigger support or change motivation that
will enable students to learn effectively in order to achieve educational goals.
The physical condition of most public secondary schools in Delta State is
not motivating. Most public secondary schools were planned without considering
future development and expansion. Some are sited very close to environmental
hazards such as factories, highways, flooded playgrounds, etc., which generate
noise that causes irritation, distraction, mental and emotional stress during classes.
Some of the school buildings are already old and dilapidated with broken doors
and windows. Some classrooms are poorly ventilated, overcrowded with poor
furniture and leaking roofs which make the class non-conducive for effective
learning and teaching. These incidentally affect the psychological disposition of the
students and thereby reduce their flare for academic work.
Research Hypotheses
Four hypotheses were tested:
Ho1: School location will not significantly predict motivation to learning in
selected public secondary schools in Delta State.
Ho2: School building will not significantly predict motivation to learning in
selected public secondary schools in Delta State.
Ho3: Classroom and furniture will not significantly predict motivation to
learning in selected public secondary schools in Delta State.
Ho4: Essential amenities (pipe-borne water and electricity) will not significantly
predict motivation to learning in selected public secondary schools in Delta
State.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The descriptive research design was used in the study. The population for
this study comprised the student of public secondary schools in Delta State,
Nigeria. The sample comprised 1,800 participants, who were selected using the
multi-staged sampling method.
In stage one of the sampling, simple random sampling (fishbowl)
technique, with replacement was used to select four Local Government Areas from
each of the three senatorial districts (Delta North, Delta South and Delta Central).
The four Local Government Areas selected were Ethiope East, Ika South, Warri
North and Isoko South.
In stage two, proportionate sampling technique was used to select 10% of
the total public secondary schools in Delta State. A total of 18 public secondary
schools were selected.
In stage three, the selected schools were stratified into urban and rural areas
using location and infrastructure as strata. Nine schools were selected from rural
while another nine were selected from the urban areas. In stage four, simple
random sampling technique was used to select 100 students from each of the
selected school. A total of 1,800 students were sampled.
A modified questionnaire was used to collect data. The reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was 0.83. Data were analyzed using multiple
regression statistics at 0.05 level of significant.
RESULTS
Ho1: School location will not significantly predict motivation to learning in
selected public secondary schools in Delta State. Multiple regression analysis was
used to test the above null hypothesis. See Table 1 for the results.
Table 1
Using School Location to Predict Motivation to Learning
Unstandardize
Standardize
Sig
Coefficient
Coefficient
B
t
Variable
Std. error
Beta
School Location
1.329
0.330
0.096
4.026
0.00
As shown in Table 1, the B-value of the independent variable of school
location was 1.329. This shows the level of contribution of school location to
predict motivation to learning. The standard regression weight (Beta) was 0.096,
which showed a relationship between school location and motivation to learning.
The t-value was 4.026. Since 4.026 was greater than (>) 0.00 at 0.05 level of
significance. The hypothesis which stated that school locations will not significant
predicts motivation to learning was therefore rejected.
Table 3 showed that the B-value of the independent variable classroom and
furniture was -0.102. This showed the level of contribution of classroom and
furniture to predict motivation to learning. The standard regression weight Beta
was 0.009 while the t-value was 0.312. Since 0.312 was less than (<) 0.755 at 0.05
level of significance, the hypothesis which stated that classroom and furniture will
not significantly predict motivation to learning was not statistically significant
and, hence, was not rejected.
Ho4: Essential amenities (pipe borne water and electricity) will not
significantly predict motivation to learning in public secondary school in Delta
State. Multiple regression analysis was used to test the above null hypothesis. See
Table 4 for the results.
Table 4
Using Essential Amenities (pipe borne and electricity) to Predict Motivation to Learning
Unstandardize
Standardize
Sig
Coefficient
Coefficient
B
Variable
Std. error
Beta
t
Essential
Amenities
1.090
0.325
0.099
3.351
0.00
As shown in Table 4, the B-value of the independent variable (essential
amenities) was 1.090, which showed the level of contribution of essential amenities
to predict motivation to learning. The standard regression weight (BETA) was
0.099, and the t-value was 3.351. Since 3.351 was greater than (>) 0.00 at 0.05 level
of significant. The hypothesis which state that the essential amenities will not
significantly predict motivation to learning was statistically significant and,
therefore, was rejected.
DISCUSSION
The analysis of the data collected revealed that school location was
significant, and hence the null hypothesis was rejected. Precisely, there was a
significant effect of school location on motivation to learning. This implied that
school location has a relative effect on motivation to learning in public secondary
school in Delta State. This was observed to have occurred as a result of wrong
citing of some public secondary school in Delta State. The findings supported the
submission of Udoh (2001) who stated that schools should not be sited within the
visibility of factory that produce much noise, emitted so much smoke in order not
to affect the comfort and health of the students which may not motivate students
to learn. Such condition will reduce absenteeism, increase punctuality and
concentration level of students during classes. The findings also supported the
observation of Ogbe and Nwajei (2004) that school premises must be far from the
valley through which water flows especially in raining seasons as such may not
cause flood which constitute a danger and keep students away from school. Also,
monitoring and evaluation tools for a Comprehensive School Health Programme
(2010) pointed out that school compound should be at least 40 meters away from
a major road, major source of noise and distractions for better concentration while
in class to achieve better academic performance.
Also, the above table showed that school building was not significant, and
hence the null hypothesis was not rejected. This finding revealed that the school
building did not have significantly effect on motivation to learning. This might be
as a result of some school building not being old and dilapidated. The null
hypothesis was against the notion of McGuffey (2008) which stated that student
whose classrooms are in the newer school building which are fully carpeted and
air conditioned are highly motivated than those studying in the older buildings.
School environment which gives acceptance increases their interest in learning.
The findings rejected the prediction of Brooks-Pilling and Wright (2005) that a well
architecturally design and aesthetic school building can have a significant positive
effect towards fostering a predictive learning environment. On the same view,
Earthman (1995) reported a positive association between school building and
positive reinforcement to learning. He advised that concrete and blocks should be
mixed well to avoid crack walls and collapse. Enough windows to allow cross
ventilation for safety and positive motivation.
The result revealed that the classroom and furniture have no significant
effect in predicting motivation to learning. The null hypothesis was not rejected.
This implied that classroom and furniture have no significant effect on motivation
to learning in public secondary school in Delta State. This was against the notion
of Makita (2008) who stated that the size and shape of the classroom, its position
of classroom chairs, lighting, and adequate furniture will increase students
interest, attitude and attention to learning. He also stressed that classroom
structure should be well ventilated, free from airflow obstruction by other
structures to provide a conducive atmosphere for optimal educational growth.
Again, Anyanwu, Adio-Moses, and Obaretin (2008) observed the negative effect
of an overcrowded classroom. They reported that it will dispose the students to a
communicable disease through the polluted air they breathe and the heat that is
generated from their bodies which can lead to the spread of communicable disease
among student. This poor condition will not provide strong feelings for positive
motivation to learn.
The finding also showed that the essential amenities (pipe borne water and
electricity) had a significant effect on motivation to learning in public secondary
school in Delta State. The findings supported the notion of Boothby (2000) that
electricity which provides lighting to school building has a positive psychological
effect on the students since it contributes to the visual comfort of the students and
improves learning capacity of the students. Also, provision of portable water is a
first step towards a healthy physical learning environment which invariably
affects learning positively. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2000)
agreed that provision of safe and sufficient water, sanitation and other basic
necessities for a healthy physical environment can help to control some water
borne diseases in school. Such external factor can affect attitude, trigger, support
or change student motivation which invariably affects their learning.
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings, conclusions were drawn that some physical
environmental factors predicted motivation to learning. The relative physical
environmental factor should be adequate and available as to motivate student for
learning. Schools should be well equipped with necessary safety and disaster
prevention for good learning condition to be maintained. School compound
should be at least 40 meters away from major road and source of noise and
distractions for better concentration in class and to achieve better academic
performance.
It is therefore recommended that the school planners and state government
should pay adequate attention to proper planning, considering future expansion
and development before citing any school. Funds should also be provided for
infrastructure and maintenance of the old and dilapidated schools to avoid
collapse. There should be proper fencing, installing electrical appliances with
other learning facilities to sustain students interest in learning. And essential
amenities (pipe borne/electricity) should also be made available before given
approval to any secondary school in Delta State. The school authority should
reduce the number of students admitted in a class with a maximum of 30 to 35 per
class to avoid over-crowdedness that gives room for easy spread of disease and
infection. Other sources of water supply and electricity should also be made
available either from bore-hole and generator to avoid power failure.
REFERENCES
Anyanwu, F. C., Adio-Moses, R. O., & Obaretin, M. T. (2008). The relationship
between environmental factor and health problems of secondary school
students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 5(6), 567569.
Boothby, B. (2000). Are they sitting comfortably. NASAN, 12-15.
Brooks-Pilling, T., & Wright, C. L. (2005). Building schools that support learning.
Retrieved from http:/www/school building.org/pdf
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Essential amenities (Pipe-Borne
Water). Retrieved from http://www.essntialarnenities /ed.org/htrn
Earthman, G. I. (1995). A statewide study of students achievement and behaviour and
school building condition. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the Council
of Education Facility, Planners, and Intern in Dallas, Tx.
Kersen, K. J. (2008). Creating and maintaining healthy school environment in
secondary schools. Retrieved from http://www/nchealthy
schools.org/component
Makita, L. (2008). Effects of creative educational drama, activities, developing oral
skills. American Journal of Applied Science, 2(1), 24-25
McGuffey, C. W. (2008). Pupil attitudes towards existing school as compared in
new fully carpeted, air conditioned school. Retrieved from
http://www.epdp/atesc/edu/ocallaghan.pdf
Monitoring and Evaluation Tools for a Comprehensive School Health
Programme. (2010). Federal Ministry of Education Abuja, Nigeria.
CHAPTER TWELVE
THE ROLE OF SCHOOL FACILITIES IN ENHANCING ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA
By
Veronica Beetseh & Kwaghga Beetseh
Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
This study is aimed at showing that school facilities have an important
impact on students academic performance and teachers effectiveness in
particular. The research demonstrates that comfortable classroom
temperatures and noise levels are very important to efficient student
performance. The age of school buildings is a useful indication in this
regard since older facilities often have problems with the external
environment and noise level. A number of studies have measured overall
building conditions and its connection to students performance; these
consistencies have shown that students attending schools in better
condition outperform students in substandard school buildings or school
facilities by several percentage points. School facilities also influence
teachers effectiveness. Teachers report that physical improvement
greatly enhances the teaching environment. School overcrowding also
makes it harder for students to learn; this effect is greater for students
from families of low socioeconomic status. The study also showed that
class size reduction leads to higher student achievement.
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of teaching and learning is to bring about in the
learner desirable change in behaviour through critical thinking. This process does
not take place in a vacuum but rather in an environment structured to facilitate
learning. School facilities constitute the major components of both direct and
indirect element in the environment of learning. Several studies have shown that
a close relationship exists between the physical environment and the academic
performance of students. The quality is directly related to the availability or lack
thereof, of physical facilities and the overall atmosphere in which learning takes
place.
Based on my studies, my review of ground and experience in the field, my
conclusion is that unavailability of school facilities does affect students academic
achievement. In particular, the researcher, have reached the following conclusions:
school facilities design features and components have been proven to have a
without parents forcing them. A well-furnished classroom, with seats, desks and
good ventilation will propel students to be attentive in the classroom, and as they
pay attention, they perform better, academically. If there is a provision of required
learning aid, well-painted classrooms, visual aid material, and well-experienced
teachers, students will be motivated to learn.
Educational Equipment. In a school system where there is adequate
educational equipment, students perform well academically. For instance, the
school library that is well-equipped with relevant books will encourage students
to read and do research on their own for more knowledge. Laboratory equipment
also helps facilitate practical subjects. The availability of laboratory facilities will
help students with practical tasks. After the theoretical aspects, the students go
into the practical aspects, and this makes them perform better in their academic
work.
Relaxation Centres. The provision of suitable relaxation centres in the school
can help to relieve tension on the part of both staff and students, hence,
encouraging performance. Students can relax under the shade of trees and receive
fresh air.
Classroom Control. Comfortable school facilities can relax the students and
change their restless and noisy behaviour. Availability of infrastructure will enable
the school teachers to classify students according to the acceptable standards. The
ideal classroom should not be more than 25-30 students in a class. In a class where
students are not overcrowded, it is easier for the teachers to control or manage
students behavior as well as provide individual attention, which may result in a
better academic performance of the students.
CONCLUSION
The condition of school facilities has considerable influence, not only on the
students achievement but also the work and teacher effectiveness. This fact has
been proven true as the performance of some students from well-equipped schools
differ from other students who are in school with less well-equipped facilities.
Availability of required facilities in schools will enhance students academic
performance. In a situation where the learning environment is not conducive,
academic activities proceed at a low rate, resulting in a poor academic
performance of students. It could, therefore, be said that the performance of the
students to a large extent depends on the school facilities, which in turn
determines their future lives. Schools exist because of students; the school prepares
an individual for future adults roles. The purpose of the school is mainly to serve
as a channel for acquiring knowledge and skills and to enhance the full
development an individual.
It is, therefore, necessary for instructors and school administrators to ensure
that the school environment does not deviate from its main purpose in the sense
that instructors control and maintain the type of activities that occur in school
environment in terms of extracurricular activities. Parents and guardians should
also be encouraged to send their wards to school with well-equipped facilities
because it will result in a better future for their children.
REFERENCES
Ayres, P. (1999). Exploring the relationship between high school facilities and
achievement of high school students in Georgia (Doctoral dissertation).
University of Georgia.
Cash, C. S. (1993). Building condition and student achievement and behavior
(Doctoral dissertation). Viginal Polytechnic Institution and State
University.
Earthman, G. I., Cash, C. S., & Van Berkum, D. (1996). Student achievement and
behaviour and school building condition. Journal of School Business
Management, 8(3), 26-37.
Idoko, A. A. (2005). Understanding schools management. Makurdi, Benue State: Ugo
Printing Press.
ONeivll, D. J. (2000). The impact of school facilities student achievement, behavior
attendance and teacher turnover rate in central Texas Middle schools. (Doctoral
Dissertation). Texas A & M University.
Ochai, G. (2012). The scope of educational administration. Makurdi. Benue State:
Success World Publication.
Uveryol, J. S., & Iyorhii, D. (2014). School plant management. Lecture Note. Federal
University of Agriculture Makurdi.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A FACILITIES MANAGEMENT
DEPARTMENT IN ONE TERTIARY INSTITUTION IN KINGSTON,
JAMAICA
By
Marva West-Williams
VTDI, Kingston, Jamaica
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of the study is to assess the effectiveness of the facility
management unit in one tertiary institution in Kingston. The Context,
Input, Process, Product model was used to do the evaluation. The
findings showed that there were areas of facility management
programmes within the tertiary institution studied that were adequate
and met stakeholders expectations. These included resources allocated to
the facility management department to support maintenance and
repairs. However, some areas needed improvement, for example, some
human resource training on literacy and numeracy and financial
resources to support the erection of labs and recreational facilities were
never sufficient. Overall, the participants were satisfied with the services
of the facility management.
INTRODUCTION
School facility, constitute the major components in the environment of
learning. The school facility consists of all types of buildings for academic and nonacademic activities, equipment for academic and non-academic activities, areas for
sports and games, landscape, farms and gardens including trees, roads and paths.
Others include furniture, toilet facility, lighting, acoustics, storage facility and
parking lot, security, transportation, ICT, cleaning material, food services, and a
special facility for the physically challenged persons. It is the objective of every
school administrator to have an effective school. According to Uline and
Tschannen-Moran (2005), a key characteristic of effective school was the
establishment of a stimulating and attractive environment. In other words, school
facilities should form an integral component of learning (Lackney & Picus, 2005).
Studies have shown that a well-equipped, functional, clean and safe
environment impacts positively on the teaching and learning process (Asisbaka,
2008; Marmolejo, 2007; Gersberg & Nenonen, 2007). The overall building
Knowledge for Global Development
151
condition, the age of the building and the windows in the instructional areas
affected learning as well as the morale of students and staff (Bullock, 2007). Over
time, deterioration migrates to adjacent buildings which engendered
topophobia or fear of place in stakeholders instead of topophilia (love of
place). Topophobia, therefore, adds to a continuous cycle of economic and social
depression. In addition, the quality of a school infrastructure also impacted on
teacher retention and absenteeism (Schneider, 2003). The improvement of schools
could be expensive, however, according to McGowen (2007), the most enduring
transaction that could be made by school officials were school facilities. The
evaluation of school facilities, therefore, allowed educators and planner to ensure
there was an alignment of academic initiatives with tangible factors of the school
buildings (Olson & Kellum, 2003). Based on these points, this evaluation sought
to determine the adequacy and effectiveness of the facility management policies,
resources and strategies for a tertiary institution in Kingston.
Statement of the Problem
It is a foregone conclusion that facility management plays a critical role in
education (Asisbaka, 2008; Marmolejo, 2007). According to Asiabaka (2008),
facility management plays a critical role in the actualization of educational goals.
Asiabaka (2008) further stated that students, staff and visitors are grossly impacted
by inadequate facility management programmes. It de-motivates and stifles
creativity and innovation which is critical for an effective teaching and learning
environment. Propst (1972) stated that financial and human resources allocated to
facility management should be adequate and relevant in order to achieve the
desired results. Policies and strategies implemented should also lend itself to
flexibility in order to facilitate the quantum leap in school offerings and
programmes (Asiabaka, 2008).
The administrators of the institution studied, have created policies and
avail resources to facility management, however, since its inception; the institution
has been experiencing difficulty in attracting students to full capacity. Although
tuition fees, location and quality of staff of the institution under study are on par
with its competitors, it has been observed that students are not very happy with
the facilities on campus. Furthermore, applicants seem to be more interested in
pursuing their studies in other institutions with better facilities. Since the facility
has not been evaluated, the researcher under took this study to address this
problem.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness of the facility
management unit in one tertiary institution in Kingston. To achieve this purpose,
the researcher assessed the adequacy of the facility management policies, the
stakeholders awareness of the policies, and the adequacy of the human and
financial resources allocated to the facility management department. The
researcher also assessed the extent of the stakeholders involvement in the
establishment of the policies relating to facility management, the extent to which
the facility management department is meeting the needs of the stakeholders, the
services of the unit that needed improvement, and whether the stakeholders were
satisfied with the services provided by the unit.
Research Questions
The following questions guided the study:
1. How adequate are the facility management policies?
2. How adequate are the human and financial resources allocated to facility
management department for carrying out their duties?
3. What aspects of the services of the facility management need improvement?
4. To what extent are the stakeholders satisfied with the services provided by the
facility management department?
Limitation of the Study
The data collection method was restricted to a self designed questionnaire
and interview, and the study population was limited to the stakeholders who were
enrolled in the institutions summer programme. Another limitation was the lack
of current scholarly articles on the topic.
LITERATURE REVIEW
School Facility
Australian Council for Educational Research (2008) defined school facilities
as the plan or layout of the building or buildings collectively used for instructional
purposes. Researchers indicated that there are many school facilities that are
inadequate to meet the needs of current modes of instruction (Earthman, 2002;
Schneider, 2003). The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (2008) proposed that school facility be planned to take into account
educational innovations, team teaching, community-based learning and the use of
technology in order to meet the educational needs of stakeholders in todays
society. School facility should also meet the needs of special needs stakeholders.
Restroom should be modified, ramps installed, rails, elevators and special safety
lights should be included in school facilities to accommodate special needs
individuals (Chan, 1996). Tepfer (2008) identified two building systems. First, a
building model conceived as structural frame (beams, columns), exterior skin
(windows, roof and exterior doors), heating, cooling, ventilating system and
electrical system (computer and telephone networks). Second, building model he
considered more meaningful and sophisticated and included skin (roofing,
thermal comfort, labs, safety, classroom lighting and acoustics. Buckley et al.
(2004) further purported that an improvement in educational outcome is
supported by the provision of a quality facility followed by a maintenance
program that will ensure building quality.
An effective facility management program is one in which space is
furnished with comfortable and versatile furniture and equipment (Gersberg &
Nenonen, 2007; Asiabaka, 2008) and supports the educational enterprise (Buckley
et al., 2004). Asiabaka argued that the traditional furniture for schools is poorly
suited for the modern way of working in the educational environment and
suggested that an effective facility management programme would include the
provision of an informal learning environment which may resemble a living room
with plants, pictures, and an aquarium.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The Context, Input, Process and Product (CIPP) model developed by
Stufflebeam in 1971 was used for the study (Fitzpatrick, Sanders & Worthen, 2004;
Stufflebeam, 2003). The context evaluation phase is aimed at determining the
programme situation and needs. The input evaluation phase is aimed at assessing
the resources, strategies and plan for meeting the programme needs. The process
evaluation phase is designed to assess the implementation of plans to help staff
carry out activities effectively. The product evaluation phase is designed to assess
the programme outcomes (Fitzpatrick et al., 2004; Stufflebeam, 2003).
One of the problems with any evaluation is getting the findings used. With
this in mind, the CIPP aims to ensure that its findings are used by the decisionmakers by getting them involved (Fitzpatrick, Sanders & Worthen, 2004). CIPP
also takes a holistic approach to evaluation has the potential to act in formative, as
well as summative evaluation.
Population and Sample
The institution used for the study is a tertiary institution in which the
academic affairs of the school are handled by the school administrators and
academic staff, while the aesthetics and safety components are handled by the
Facility Management Department. The population of the study was (N= 327).
Purposive sampling was used to select a portion of the participants (students and
staff). However, no sampling was done for the facility manager and the staff of
that department due to the small numbers. The total sample size was (n= 203). See
Table 1 for the numbers of each stakeholder group in the population and sample.
Table 1
Number of stakeholders in population and sample
Stakeholders
Population
(N)
Students
350
Staff
20
Facility Manager
1
Facility Management Staff
6
Total
327
Sample
(n)
180
16
1
6
203
Table 2
Participants Responses on Policy Awareness
Items
1. I am aware of the policies of the facilities
management programme within the
institution
2. The roles and objectives of the facilities
management department were
communicated to me
Note: percentage is in parentheses.
SD
15
(9.3)
D
U
A
SA
31
39
58
18
(19.3) (24.2) (36.0) (11.2)
18
34
49
53
(11.2) (21.1) (30.4) (32.9)
7
(4.3)
and numeracy skills were limited, as well as their physical capabilities. This is
because over half the staff members were over 50 years of age. This situation is
not ideal as research has indicated that resources allocated to facility management,
whether human or financial should be adequate and relevant in order for the
educational institution to achieve its desired results (Propst, 1972).
The financial resources on the other hand, although adequate for
maintenance, the availability of funds to facilitate the erection of much needed
infrastructures such as labs for the practical component of programme offerings
and recreational facility, were inadequate. These infrastructures, according to
Buckley et al. (2004) and Hunter (2006), are integral to effective teaching and
learning. The decision, however, to ensure that there were no cuts in the budgetary
allocations for maintenance, repairs and restoration is a commendable and wise
one. Berry (2002), Lefkowits (2004), Agron (2003), and Wisconsin Centre for
Education Research (2008), all stated that the decision not to cut a budget usually
sends a caring message to stakeholders which ultimately encourage them to
remain faithful and satisfied customers of the organization. Budgetary allocations
for capital expenditure, however, must be made available in order to support the
educational efforts and to help build and modernize effective school facilities
(Moore, 2008). This will help to improve customer satisfaction while at the same
time contribute to an effective facility management programme.
Research Question Three: What aspects of the services of the facility
management need improvement?
As shown in Table 3, 102 (63.4%) agreed that the mechanisms to ensure
safety and security were adequately maintained. This is followed by 56 (34.8%)
who also agreed that the Facility Management Department was responsive to
complaints, and 65 (40.4%) were in agreement that natural disasters are handled
promptly and efficiently by the department.
Table 3
Participants Responses on Services that Needs Improvement
Items
SD
D
U
A
SA
3. Mechanisms to ensure safety and
4
11
44
80
22
security are adequately maintained
(2.5) (6.8) (27.3) (49.7) (13.7)
4. The facility management department is
responsive to complaints
5. Natural Disasters are handled promptly
and efficiently
Note: Percentage is in parentheses.
12
(7.5)
-
29
(18)
13
(8.1)
64
48
(39.8) (29.8)
83
55
(51.6) (34.2)
8
(5)
10
(6.2)
The facility management staff members were asked to indicate the services
in their department that needed improvement. Responses from three members of
the department to the question are as follows:
Respondent 005:
More frequent drills required.
Respondent 003:
Inconsistencies in having steering committee meetings.
Respondent 001:
Inconsistencies in the administration of surveys to solicit feedback
from customers, and also members of the department tend to be laid
back at times.
Areas highlighted for improvement according to the findings included the
canteen facility, labs to facilitate practical component of the programmes offered,
bathrooms and recreational facilities. Monroe (2002) posited that facility
management from planning through to disposal is a continuum and not a series
of discrete projects. Monroe further stated that facility management provides
services only and a quality programme is based on the customers perception.
Although the canteen in the institution studied is outsourced and is a shared
monitoring responsibility of the facility management, it cannot be ignored because
if the stakeholders are dissatisfied, this can lead to loss of business (Brown, 1995;
Hayes, 1998; Kessler, 1996).
With regards to the issue of labs, many students expressed disappointment
and dissatisfaction. This is because the students have to travel to other locations
off-campus to access such facilities. The students described their experiences as
frustrating because they were made to feel unwelcomed by the students and staff
at the other locations whenever they had to use the labs. According to Buckley et
al. (2004) and Hunter (2006), the unavailability of labs can impact on students
morale and performance.
Research Question Four: To what extent are the stakeholders satisfied
with the services provided by the facility management department?
As shown in Table 4, 65 (40.4%) agreed that they were satisfied with the
services of the Facilities Management Department. This is followed by 119 (74.4%)
who said that they felt safe in the institution, and 101 (62.7%) who were in
agreement that the layout of the facility enhances learning.
Table 4
Responses on Satisfaction Levels of Services of the Facility Management Department
Items
SD
D
U
A
SA
6. I am satisfied with the services of
5
31
60
60
5
the Facilities Management Dept
(3.1) (19.3) (37.3) (37.3) (3.1)
7. I feel safe whenever I am within the
confines of the institution
2
(1.3)
14
(8.8)
25
91
28
(15.6) (56.9) (17.5)
6
(3.7)
18
36
84
17
(11.2) (22.4) (52.2) (10.6)
The results indicated general satisfaction with the services of the Facility
Management Department. Observation findings indicated that several safety
features such as cameras, monitoring devices and security officers were stationed
at strategic locations on the campus. The presence of such security features,
according to Berry (2002), plays a vital role in ensuring and assuring safety and
security of stakeholders. The researcher could not find any study on stakeholders
satisfaction to support this finding.
CONCLUSION
The evaluation results indicated that there were areas of the facility
management within the tertiary institution studied that were adequate and met
stakeholders expectations. There were, however, some areas that need to be
improved, for instance, the handling of hazardous waste.
Although some of the participants indicated that they were aware of the
facility management policies, there were some participants who indicated that
they were unaware of the policies. The resources allocated to the Facility
Management Department were adequate in some regards and insufficient in other
areas. The literacy and numeracy skills and the physical capability of some of the
staff members who are over 50 years are of concern. Although the financial
resources were adequate for the maintenance and repairs, however, resources to
support the erection of labs and recreational facilities were not sufficient.
Some of the participants indicated that their needs were being met in regard
to the parking facility, amenities for persons with disabilities and tools and
equipment to facilitate their learning. The findings showed that some areas of
facility management need improvements. These include the canteen facility, labs,
the bathrooms and the recreational facilities.
Overall, the participants were satisfied with the services of the facility
management especially as it relates to safety and security and the layout of the
facility to enhance learning.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings the following recommendations are made:
1. Efforts should be made to ensure that sound policies are reflected in order
to improve the practices of the facilities management unit.
2. Efforts should be made to increase the number of the stakeholders who are
aware of the policies of the facilities management.
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