INDUSTRIETECHNIK

SRI LANKA INSTITUTE of ADVANCED TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION

ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING
Instructor Manual

Training Unit

Electrical Measuring
Techniques 1
Theory

No: EE 073

Training Unit
Electrical Measuring Techniques 1
Theoretical Part
No.: EE 073

Edition:

2008
All Rights Reserved

Editor:

MCE Industrietechnik Linz GmbH & Co

Education and Training Systems, DM-1
Lunzerstrasse 64 P.O.Box 36, A 4031 Linz / Austria
Tel. (+ 43 / 732) 6987 3475
Fax (+ 43 / 732) 6980 4271
Website: www.mcelinz.com

ELECTRICAL Measuring Techniques 1

CONTENTS

Page

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................4

1.

BASIC MEASURING TECHNIQUES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS ................5

1.1

General ................................................................................................................5

2.

CONSTRUCTION OF A MEASURING DEVICE ..........................................................7

3.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENT.......................................................................................9
3.1
3.1.1
3.2
3.2.1

4.

5.

6.

Analogue Measurement .....................................................................................10

Analogue Panel Instruments ..........................................................................11
Digital Measurements ........................................................................................11
Digital measuring instrument..........................................................................13

FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASURING .........................................................................15

4.1

Measured value .................................................................................................15

4.2

Measurement errors and measurement accuracy .............................................15

4.3

Reading accuracy ..............................................................................................17

4.3.1

Indicators........................................................................................................18

4.3.2

Scales ............................................................................................................21

SOURCES OF ERRORS WHEN MEASURING.........................................................23

5.1

Device errors......................................................................................................23

5.2

Influence errors ..................................................................................................23

5.3

Switching errors .................................................................................................23

5.4

Human errors .....................................................................................................23

BEARINGS OF MEASURING DEVICES ...................................................................24

6.1

Pivot bearing ......................................................................................................24

6.2

Band suspension or wire suspension ................................................................25

6.3

Taut band suspension bearings.........................................................................26

6.4

Pin bearing.........................................................................................................27

7.

MECHANICAL COUNTER FORCE AND CURRENT CONVEYANCE ......................28

8.

DAMPING OF INDICATOR MOVEMENTS................................................................29

9.

8.1

Air chamber damping or air dashpot damping ...................................................30

8.2

Eddy current damping ........................................................................................31

8.3

Counter-current damping ...................................................................................31

DATA CONTAINED ON THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ......................................32

9.1

Measuring range and measuring units...............................................................32

9.3

Testing potential (voltage)..................................................................................33

9.4

Using position ....................................................................................................33

9.5

Accuracy class ...................................................................................................33

9.6

Measuring instrument and attachment...............................................................33

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The student should

explain the basic terms for measuring techniques.

describe the parts of a measuring device.

explain the difference between digital and analogue measuring indicators.

...

understand and avoid errors in measuring.

...

draw the elements of a measuring instrument (meter).

...

determine the proper application for each measuring device.

explain the specification from measuring devices.

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

1. BASIC MEASURING TECHNIQUES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1.1 General
By the definition of measuring we mean the broad reaching objective confirmation of a
physical value. Each measurement gives rise to a comparison procedure, i.e. in order to
determine the given measurement number, we must compare how often the same unit of
measure is contained in the measured quantity.
Quantity of measurement = unit of measure times the measurement number.
Every measurement is conducted with the appropriate measuring arrangement according
to a definite measuring method. lt is accomplished by the use of a measuring device or a
measuring instrument. Through this the measured quantity, the measured value or the
measured results are determined.
Measured results = (indication reading) times the scale value.
The sensitivity of a measuring device is the quotient of the Pointer deflection and the
value of the measured quantity, which the deflection caused, example: mm Volt.

The internal resistance or a measuring device is the resistance measured in Ohms an the
connecting terminal.
By internal consumption" of a measuring device we mean the absorption of the electric
power by the measuring device at its nominal value i, e. nominal (rated) voltage or
nominal (rated) current. The internal consumption is expressed in Watt (W).
By the definition accuracy (precision), we mean the comparison
of all readings (indications) with the true value, therefore, giving us a number or quantity
which defines the limit that errors will not exceed, when the device is used under
reference operating condition
(Temperature, pressure vibration do not change). From this information measuring
devices are divided into various classes. The error of a measuring device is the difference
between indicated value and true value.

2. CONSTRUCTION OF A MEASURING DEVICE

By the definition of ""measuring device" we include all separable and inseparable
attachments of the device, such as shunt and series resistance, connecting cables and
other measuring components. A measuring device may be broken down into the following
major components.
a) Housing:

Panel installation - and mounting assembly,

table

mounted

(work

bench)

and

special

housing for special application etc.

b) Moving element:

Soft iron, moving coil, cross coil, vibration

moving element and bimetal moving element
etc.

c) Indicating device:

Indicator (pointer) and scale, mirror scale

(reflection) etc

d) Damping:

Air damping and eddy current damping etc.

e) Restoring force, current

Spiral spring and taut band (ring) etc.

conveyance components
f) Moving element bearing support:

Pivot, bin, or taut band bearing etc.

g) Series and shunt resistance:

To extend the measuring range and fixed inside

the housing etc.

h) Test lead:

Highly flexible single-core lead with test probe,

testing terminal and plug connection etc

i) Series and shunt resistance:

To extend the measuring range,

movable

extra

components

outside the measuring devices

housing etc.
j) Current and voltage transformer:

For measuring high voltage and

current with a normal device or a
panel (contractor panel) device
etc.

k) Transducer and measurement amplifier:

For amplifying and transmitting

measured values over a long
distance etc.

I) Measuring switch:

To

correctly

values
device.

with

measure
one

more

measuring

3. TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
There are two kinds of signal: Analogue and digital
a) The value of the analogue signal changes continuously with respect to time and can
have any value e. g. 1, 1.5, 2.35 and 2.67 etc.
b) The value of the digital signal changes in steps and can only have specified values
(multiple of the basic step) e. g. 1,2,3 and 4 etc. or in steps of 1,5,10,15 for a step of 5 etc.

Depending an the type of indicator used we distinguish between digital and analogue
measurements.

3.1 Analogue Measurement

The electrical quantity is transformed in the movement element to a mechanical quantity
(movement) which is easier to understand. The movement changes by the same steps,
which are analogue and constant. On the subdivision graduation of the scale
the indicated quantity can be viewed as a number (analogue) value and translated to a
digital value.
Example: A clock
Analogue indication by
an indicator. Translated
to digital value:
1017 hours.

NOTE:
By analogue devices, the indicator may be referred to as a pointer. A constant change of
the measured value (scale) by using analogue indications is easily understood.

10

3.1.1

Analogue Panel Instruments

a) Advantages of analogue indicating measuring devices

Small and low price design.
No outside mains or auxiliary voltage required.
Instant knowledge of measurement changes and has the capability of easy regulation and
adjustment.
The reading of middle values of subdivision graduation is possible.
b) Disadvantages of analogue indicating measuring devices
Application for previously planned usage only.
The devices are designed for limited vibration only.
Errors in reading are very possible.
It becomes tiresome when making a series of registered measurements.

3.2 Digital Measurements

With digital indicators the measured results are shown as a series of numbers (digits). lt is
accomplished automatically with electronic counting switches and digital indicators.

11

The majority of electric quantities cannot be directly digital-measured. they must,

therefore, be translated from analogue todigital.The digital values are counted by the use
of a determined counting (metering) frequency and shown on the digital indicator.

A change in the measured value will cause a change on the indicator, but only when the
change is adequate enough to change the last number (digit) on the indicator (i. e. how
sensitive is the device?).
Example: A clock

Direct indication of
a given digital value:
1017 hours.

A constant change of the measured value will only indicate fixed step changes of one or
more of the indicated (digits).

12

3.2.1

Digital measuring instrument

a) Advantages of digital indicating devices:

Easy and error free reading of the number (digit) indicator.
Usable in all desired positions.
With light indicators easy to read under bad visual conditions.
High vibration resistance due to semi-conductor construction. Easy application of the
measured data for printers or Computers.

b) Disadvantages of digital indicating measuring devices:

High cost of production because of the high technical expenditure. Also because of
required voltage source for the electronic components. Middle values of subdivision
graduation and tendencies cannot be fixed. Difficulty in adjustment and regulation of
values.

To combine the advantages of both types of measuring device many producers have
developed a combination device. In addition to the analogue scale a digital indicator is
also included.

13

Shown above is a digital multiple measuring device with additional analogue indicator for
observation of tendencies etc.

14

4. FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASURING

4.1 Measured value

For the regulation of measured values, the International System for Uniformity SI (System
International) is referred to. One speaks of a so-called SI-unit.
Each measurement made is an infringement on the system being measured and changes
the prevailing conditions. To ensure that the influence on the system is reduced as much
as possible, particular care must be taken
in selecting the correct measuring instrument and in employing the correct method for
making measurements.

The measurement must be as accurate as possible and must

have the smallest possible influence on the system!

4.2 Measurement errors and measurement accuracy

indicator value minus true value
Measurement errors
actual value minus rated value
With electrical measuring devices, the
relative error
is mostly in % of the rated value indicated.

(actual value - rated value) x 100

Relative error ( % ) =
rated value

15

Example:
Voltage measuring device with a measuring range of 0 to 100 Volts. Voltage to be
measured is 50 Volts = rated value.
Indicated value between 49.8 and 50.2 Volts 2-- actual value. This indicates a maximum
relative measuring error of +0.4 %.
Voltage to be measured is 100 Volts = rated value.
Indicated value is between 99.8 and 100.2 Volts = actual value. This indicates a maximum
relative measuring error of +0.2 %.

There fore, it is seen that the measuring error at the higher end of the scale becomes
smaller.

When selecting a measuring device, care should be taken

that the measured value is indicated
an the upper third of the scale, to reduce the measuring
error as much as possible.

16

The classification of measuring devices is based on the measuring accuracy and is

dependent on the quality and the application. Measuring instruments are divided into
quality classes:
Class

Application

0.1
0.2

Precision - and laboratory measuring devices

0.3
0.5

Portable measuring devices and laboratory devices

1
1.5

Workshops - and panel (contractor panel) measuring devices

2.5

The indicated number of the quality class is thereby the relative error.

Example:
Quality class 1.5 reflects a relative measuring error of +1.5

which

means:
That the indicator error may be +1.5 % of the rated value.

4.3 Reading accuracy

The reading accuracy of a measuring device must always be greater than the measuring
accuracy. By the application of the correct indicator arrangement the reading accuracy
may be increased.
The indicator arrangement that is discussed on the following Page, is an indicator
(pointer) with a scale.

17

4.3.1

Indicators

Indicators are separated into pointer and optical indicators. In the pointer indicator,
indications are achieved by the mechanical movement of a pointer which moves parallel
to the divisions of the scale.
Due to the distance of the pointer from the scale, a slanting view may be obtained, and
depending on the eye angle, a reading error may exist (paral lax error). To reduce the
moment of inertia, the pointer must be as lightly designed as possible.
lt should also be elastic and stable, so that in case of overloading it will not be damaged.
Behind the pivot point of the pointer is a balance cross with a balance weight attached, so
that the centre of gravity is located exactly at the pivot point of the pointer.

Through the use of pointer "Stop points", the movement of the indicator will be limited.
The stops are located before the starting point of the scale and after the end point of the
scale, thus outside of the electrical end points of the scale.

18

The mechanical zero of the pointer may be adjusted by an external screw adjustment.
standard pointer

lance pointer

knife pointer

reed (tube) pointer

hairline pointer

knife indicator with mirror scale

4.3.1.1 Mirror scales

Mirror scales are used in precision devices and workshop (panel) devices of the higher
quality class. When reading, the indicator must cover its image (picture) in the mirror, so
to avoid reading errors caused by reading the scale from an angle (parallax error).

19

4.3.1.2 Optical indicators

Optical indicators are also used for high value precision and laboratory devices.
A mirror is mounted in place of the pointer on the moveable portion
of the meter . A beam is reflected from a light source onto the mirror, which in turn reflects
a light mark on a transparent scale. The effective length of the light beam indication can
be made much larger by the application of reversal (inversion) mirrors.

Construction:
Optical indicator arrangement of a light marking galvanometer.
The light path consists of a lamp, lens, aperture (condenser), galvanometer mirror,
cylinder mirror, plane mirror and scale.

20

4.3.2

Scales

a) Coarse and coarse-fine scale:

coarse scale

coarse-fine division
Coarse scales and coarse-fine scales are used primarily in panel instruments with a
quality class from 1 to 2.5
b) Fine scale:

Performance for precision - and laboratory devices with a quality class from 0.1 to 0.3 are
used mostly in conjunction with a mirror scale.
c) Extended scale:

Extended scale
Used primarily for current measurements with short overload time i.e. starting current.

21

d) Linear scales:

Linear scales are installed primarily in moving coil measuring devices

e) Non-linear scales:

f) Non-linear scalee_course:
The point under the division mark indicates the start and a like point will indicate the end
of the measuring range.

Non-linear scales are used primarily in moving-iron measuring devices, or to put special
stress an a portion of the measuring range.
expanded scale area

22

5. SOURCES OF ERRORS WHEN MEASURING

5.1 Device errors

As a result of careless assembly, damage, false adjustment or when used in a false
position.

5.2 Influence errors

These are errors caused by the effect of the environment, such as humidity (dampness),
temperature, vibrations, electrical or magnetic fields.

5.3 Switching errors

Caused by the influence of the electrical quantity being measured, through incorrect
method of connection before measurement or false selection
of the proper measuring device.

5.4 Human errors

Reading errors caused by looking at the indicator (pointer) from an angle (parallax error)
or false reading of middle value of subdivision graduation.

23

6. BEARINGS OF MEASURING DEVICES

The bearings are important for the quality of a measuring device. The bearings have the
function that all moveable and turning components must have the power of free deflection
across the complete scale. This should be possible with a minimum amount of frictional
resistance and should allow for use under various conditions.
With respect to the precision and how rugged the measuring device is, there are various
types of bearing.

6.1 Pivot bearing

Pivot bearings are used in most analogue indicating measuring devices. A steel axle with
a highly polished, cone formed pivot is seated in a jewel seat (wp).

Through the use of spring loaded jewels (jewels are mounted an the springs) for high
dynamic stress (strain).

24

6.2 Band suspension or wire suspension

This type of bearing system is scarcely found today, but is seen as the predecessor of the
taut band suspension. The wire suspension serves not only to support the moving parts,
but also to provide the control torque. Due to the requirement for absolute vertical
suspension of the axle, the area for employment of this bearing system is very Iimited.

25

6.3 Taut band suspension bearings

With this type of bearing, the moving element is suspended between two taut bands which
are under tension. Besides simply serving as bearings, these bands also serve as a path
for current flow and at the same time, provide a control torque. There is no problem with
bearing friction, and with the correct spacing of the taut band suspension the using
position is not critical. The taut band suspension bearings
are primarily used in precision and laboratory devices.

26

6.4 Pin bearing

The pin bearing is installed primarily in ruggedly constructed Instruments. A highly
polished, thin pin is situated at the end of a steel axle. The pin runs through a stone guide
with a stone seat. Through this construction style, the bearing axle is protected against
shifting.

The disadvantage of the pin bearing is caused by its high friction resistance. Therefore,
this bearing type can only be used in measuring instruments with a high operating torque.
However, it is not sensitive to vibration and is frequently used in measuring Instruments
for railroad and automotive construction (construction of cars).

27

7. MECHANICAL COUNTER FORCE AND CURRENT CONVEYANCE

Through applying an electrical measuring quantity an the measuring instrument, a turning
torque (so called operating torque) is created. To achieve a balance (equilibrium), a
control torque must be set against this operating torque. This can be achieved by using a
spiral spring or taut band. The spiral spring is produced out of a non-magnetic alloy and is
designed so that during the complete life of the measuring device, it holds its operating
torque (turning moment) constant. In measuring devices requiring a current path to their
moveable components (turning coil or electrodynamics meter), the spiral spring is used at
the time as a current conducting component (current conveyance). In this case, it must be
able to withstand certain electrical requirements. Due to the heat generated in the spring
by electricity, the torque of the spring will change. Therefore, two spiral springs are used,
one turning against the other. Taut band is not only used as bearings, but also as a
control torque and as a current conveyance. In devices where electromagnetic control
torque is used (cross soil instrument), springs and taut bands are not used and the current
conveyance is conveyed through a thin foil.

28

8. DAMPING OF INDICATOR MOVEMENTS

By the turning moving elements (indicator deflection) the hair springs will be strained i.e.
the taut band will be turned (twisted). Because of this stored energy mass moment of
inertia the indicator will swing back and forth over the true value and then after a given
period of time will come to rest.

Under-damped condition.
The indicator
swings back and forth
many times before it
comes to rest.

Critically damped condition.

The indicator comes
to rest without swinging
over the measured
value.

Over-damped condition
The indicator
takes a long period of
time to reach the measured
value.

E-MEG 1.0e TL

30

29

This swinging of the indicator may be reduced through damping. The measured value
may, therefore, be observed relatively quickly. Depending on the type of the indicator
construction, different types of damping are employed.

8.1 Air chamber damping or air dashpot damping

Vane is attached on the indicator of the measuring device.
With the movement of the pointer air is expelled from the enclosed air chamber.
Therefore, the Speed of the indicator will be reduced and "over-swinging" almost
completely stopped.

NOTE:
The air chamber damping has the advantage that no magnetic or electrical interference
fields are produced, thus avoiding interference with the measured value. However, the
large area requirement due to the air chamber size is a disadvantage.

30

8.2 Eddy current damping

An aluminium blade (small strip of aluminium) or a small aluminium frame moves with the
indicator between the poles of a permanent magnet. In the aluminium a small current flow
(eddy current) will be produced. This current flow will cause (produce) a counter force
in the opposite direction of the original movement direction.
This will reduce the indicator deflection, (overshoot) and swinging time. This damping is
often used with moving coil meter Instrument.

8.3 Counter-current damping

In highly sensitive precision measuring devices the so-called counter current damping is
used. Through the movement of the moving coil between the poles of a permanent
magnet a small voltage will be induced, and using a parallel resistor connection a small
current will flow. This current flow causes a deflecting power, which has a direction
opposite to that of the moving coil. The indicator movement will thus be reduced.

31

9. DATA CONTAINED ON THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

In addition to the manufacturer's name, the Instrument type and serial or production
number, the important application data needed for use of the measuring device are in the
form of symbols on the scale of the device.

9.1 Measuring range and measuring units

The measuring range is indicated by series of numbers under the divisions of the scale.
V

Volt

(mV, V, kV...)

Voltage

Ampere

(mA, A, kA ...)

Current

Watt

(mw, kW, Mw ...)

Power

Ohm

(m , K , M ...)

Resistance

Hz

Hertz

(kHz, MHz ...)

Frequency

9.2 Types of current

Direct current
Alternating current
Direct and alternating current
One phase measured multiphase (alternating) current
Three phase measured multiphase (alternating) current.

32

9.3 Testing potential (voltage)

Testing potential 500 V.

Testing potential over 500 V i.e., 2000 V.
No testing potential.

9.4 Using position

Vertical using position.
Horizontal using position.
Angle of usage i.e. 60 tilt angle.
Departure from the permissible position
using position.

9.5 Accuracy class

Class determined by the measuring range end value.
Class determined by the length of the scale.

9.6 Measuring instrument and attachment

Moving coil instrument.
Moving iron instrument.
Electrodynamic quotient instrument.
Enclosed electrodynamic quotient instrument.

33

Moving magnet instrument.

Vibrating instrument.
Device with built-in measuring rectifier.
Separated series and shunt resistance.
Special information.

34

EE073: Electrical Measuring Techniques 1

Theoretical Test

35

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 1
QUESTIONS:
1.

Define the term measuring.

2.

Define the term sensitivity of a measuring device.

3.

Define internal consumption" of a measuring device.

4.

List some examples of moving elements of measuring devices.

5.

Name two types of measurement.

6.

State the advantages of analogue measuring devices.

7.

State the disadvantages of analogue measuring devices.

8.

State the advantages of digital measuring devices.

9.

How are the measured results shown an a digital indicator?

10.

State the disadvantages of a digital measuring device.

36

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 2
QUESTIONS:
1.

Define "relative error".

2.

State one rule that must be obeyed when taking measurements.

3.

State two definitions for "measurement errors".

4.

A current measuring device has a range 0 - 50 mA. If the current to be measured

is 25 mA (rated value) and the indicated value is between 24.8 and 25.2 (actual
value) find the relative error.

5.

A voltage measuring device has a range from 0 - 100 V. If the voltage to be

measured is 50 V (rated value) and the indicated value is between 49.8 V and 50.2
(actual value) find the relative error.

6.

In which part of the scale of a measuring device is the relative error the smallest?

7.

Name the parts of a pointer indicator.

8.

Why are weights attached on the balance cross of a pointer indicator?

9.

Name two main categories of indicator.

11)

10. Explain the principle of Operation of a simple optical indicator.

37

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 3
QUESTIONS:
1.

Name the different types of scale.

2.

Which of the following scales would you use in a precision measuring device?
a. Coarse scale.
b. Coarse fine scale.
c. Fine scale.

3.

State the uses of a non-linear scale.

4.

State the sources of error when taking measurements.

5.

What is meant by "human errors"?

6.

What is meant by "influence errors"?

7.

What is meant by "device errors"?

8.

What is meant by "switching errors"?

9.

Name the parts of a pivot bearing.

10.

Name four types of bearing.

38

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 4
QUESTIONS:
1.

What is the main purpose of the use of bearings in a measuring device?

2.

Why is band suspension rarely used today?

3.

In which devices are taut band suspension bearings used?

4.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of pin bearings?

5.

How is the mechanical counter force (control torque) achieved in measuring

devices?

6.

What is meant by damping of a measuring device?

7.

Name the three basic types of damping used in measuring devices.

8.

Explain what is meant by critical damping.

9.

Explain the principle of Operation of an "air chamber" damping for a measuring

device.

10.

Explain the principle of Operation of eddy current damping.

39

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 1
(Solution)
1.

Measuring is the broad reaching objective confirmation of a physical value.

2.

Sensitivity of a measuring device is the quotient of the pointer deflection and the
value of the measured quantity, which the deflection caused.

3.

The absorption of the electric power by the measuring device, at its nominal value.

4.

Soft iron, moving coil, cross coil and bimetal moving element etc.

5.

Digital, analogue.

6.

Small and low price design.

No outside mains or auxiliary voltage required.
Instant knowledge of measurement changes, and a tendency to easy adjustment.
The reading of middle values of subdivision graduation is possible.

7.

Application for previously planned usage only.

The device are designed for limited vibration.
Errors in reading easily occur.
It becomes tiresome when making a series of measurements.

40

Test 1 - answers continued

8.

Easy and error-free reading.

Usable in all positions.
Easy to read under bad visual conditions.
High vibration resistance.
Easy application for use of measured data for printers or computer.

9.

As a series of numbers.

10.

High cost of production. Middle values of subdivision graduation and tendencies

cannot be fixed, difficulty in adjustment and regulation of values.

41

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 2
(Solution)

1.
2.

Relative error ( % ) =

(actual value - rated value) x 100

rated value

The measurement must be as accurate as possible and must have the smallest
possible influence an the system.

3.

Measurement errors: Indicated value minus true value Actual value minus rated
value.

4.

Relative error ( % ) =

(actual value - rated value) x 100

rated value
25,2 - 25

x 100 = 0,8 %
25
24,8 - 25

x 100 = -0,8 %
25

Relative error %

5.

+ 0,8 %
(actual value - rated value) x 100

Relative error ( % ) =
rated value
50,2 - 50
=

x 100 = 0,4 %
50
49,8 - 50

x 100 = -0,4 %
50

Relative error %

+ 0,4 %

6.

At the higher end of the scale.

7.

Pointer, pivot, balance cross and balance weights.

42

Test 2 - answers continued

8.

So that the centre of gravity is exactly located at the pivot point

of the pointer.

9.

Pointer indicators and optical indicators.

10.

On the moveable portion of the meter, a mirror is

mounted (in place of the pointer). A beam is reflected from a light source onto the
mirror, which in turn reflects a light mark an a transparent scale.

43

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 3
(Solution)
1.

Coarse scale, coarse fine scale, fine scale, extended scale, linear scale and nonlinear scale.

2.

Fine scale.

3.

In moving iron measuring devices, to put special stress

an a portion of the measuring range.

4.

Device errors, influence errors, switching errors and human errors.

5.

Human errors are reading errors, caused by looking at the indicator from an angle
or false reading of middle values of subdivision graduation.

6.

Errors caused by the effects of the environment i.e. humidity and temperature etc.

7.

Errors which result from careless assembly, damage, false adjustment or when
devices are used in a false position.

8.

Errors caused by the influence of the electrical quantity being measured through
incorrect method of connection or false selection of the proper measuring device.

9.

Steel axle, highly polished pivot, jewel seat (cup) and bearing
adjustment screw.

10.

Pivot bearing, band Suspension, taut band Suspension and pin bearing.

44

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 1

TEST 4
(Solution)
1.

Through the use of bearings all moveable and turning components can have a free
deflection across the entire scale with the minimum amount of friction.

2.

Because of the requirements for absolute vertical suspension of the axle, the area
for employment is very limited.

3.

Precision and laboratory measuring devices.

4.

Disadvantage: High friction resistance.

Advantage: Non-sensitive to vibrations.

5.

By the use of spiral springs or taut bands.

6.

Damping is the reduction of the swinging time of the indicator of a measuring

device.

7.

Air chamber damping, eddy current damping and counter current damping.

8.

The indicator comes to rest without swinging over the measured value.

9.

A Vane is attached an the indicator of the measuring device. With the movement of
the pointer (indicator), air is expelled from the enclosed air chamber. Therefore,
the speed of the pointer will be reduced and "over-swinging" almost completely
stopped.

45

Test 4 - answers continued

10.

An aluminium blade moves with the indicator (pointer) between the poles of a
permanent magnet. In the aluminium a small current flow (eddy current) will be
produced. This current flow will cause a counter force in the opposite direction of
the original movement direction. This will reduce the swing time of the indicator.

46

KEY TO EVALUATION

PER CENT

MARK

88 100

75 87

62 74

50 61

0 49

47