Data Analysis / Applied Statistics & Excel

Michael Wasdell, MA
Epidemiologist
Evaluation & Research Services
Michael.Wasdell@fraserhealth.ca

Fraser Health Authority, 2011

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Department of Evaluation and Research Services

Susan Chunick

Director

Camille Viray

Education and Communications

Coordinator

Dina Shafey

Research Ethics Coordinator

Magdalena Swanson

Research and Grant

Development Facilitator

Michael Wasdell

Epidemiologist
2

http://research.fraserhealth.ca/

Objectives
Understand the relationship

between the research question,

research designs/method, type
of data and statistical analysis;
Use tools and resources to
identify the appropriate
statistical analysis, and;
Learn how to use the Excel
Data Analysis utility.
4

What is Statistics?
The collecting, summarizing, and

analyzing of data.
The term also refers to raw numbers, or
stats, and to the summarization of data.
Why is a physician held in much higher esteem than a
statistician?
A physician makes an analysis of a complex illness
whereas a statistician makes you ill with a complex
analysis!
5

Types of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Describe research

findings
z

e.g. Frequencies, averages.

Inferential Statistics: Makes inferences

about the population, usually based on a

random sample.
z
z

Allows generalization to population.

Quasi-experimental research does not
employ randomization, but might use
inferential statistics.

Statistics made simple

7

Tasty Statistics

1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

Everyone

Identify overall research goal.

Identify independent and dependent
variables.
Describe the level of the data.
Identify the number and pairing of
groups.
Check assumptions about data.
8

Identify Overall
Research Goal
Describe
Associate
Predict
Compare
9

Describe

Concerned with describing the status or

characteristics of a phenomenon
z

Case Study
an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, incident, or
community

Cross sectional
involve the collection of data from selected individuals in a
single time period.

Longitudinal
involve data collection at two or more times in order to
describe changes over time.

10

Associate

Concerned with identifying relationships and the

strength of relationships between two variables
Required before additional research is done to
assess causation
Two variables from the same subject are
assessed for association
z

Two different variables at the same point in time

(cross-sectional)
Same variable at two different points in time
(longitudinal)

11

Predict

Suspect certain factors contribute to a phenomenon

Concerned with identifying variables that are predictive
of particular outcomes
Independent (predictor) and dependent (outcome)
variables are identified
There may be more than one independent variable
There is a temporal order
z

Independent variable occurs before the dependent variable

Involves discovering a mathematical equation that can

be used to predict values for the data.

12

Compare
Interested in
z

identifying statistical differences between two

or more groups
Identifying statistical differences between
repeated observations within the same group

13

Identify independent and

dependent variables.
An independent variable is the variable

that you believe will influence some other

variable.
z

manipulated/assigned by researcher
(assigned to a treatment, workshop etc.)
pre-existing characteristic, not under control
of researcher (sex, age, exposure or
treatment)

A dependent variable is the variable that is

influenced by the independent variable(s).

14

Describe the Level

of the Data
Levels of Measurement
Categorical
Ordinal
Continuous

15

Variables Level of Measurement

Categorical mutually exclusive

unordered categories. E.g. food types,

gender, eye colour, ethnicity.
z

Categories cannot be arranged in any

particular order.
Can assign number codes, but calculations
would be meaningless.
Nominal, Dichotomous, Binary

16

Variables Level of Measurement

Ordinal - categories with an implied order,

but distance between intervals not always

equal or unimportant.
z

E.g. Low, middle and high income, or rating a

brand of soft drink on a scale of 1-5.

17

Variables Level of Measurement

Continuous
z

Interval - equal distance between each interval.

E.g. 1,2,3.
Arbitrary zero point
Celcius scale for temperature - temperature does not
cease to exist at 0 degrees.

Ratio - similar to interval scale, but has true zero

point meaning there is none of the variable. E.g.
Weight, salary ($0=$0).
with ratio variables, you can make assumptions about
the ratio of two measurements 6 grams is twice as
much as 3 grams.

18

Identify the Number

and Pairing of Groups

Study design and types of comparisons are

important determinants of statistical tests
How many groups are involved?
Are they paired (matched) in some way?
z

z
z

If the study uses a pre-post design, each participant is

assessed on the same measure at different points in
time.
Paired groups (two times)
Matched groups (three or more times)

19

Check Assumptions
About Data

There are various assumptions for each statistical test.

Before you select a test, be sure to check the
assumptions of each test.
Some examples of common assumptions are:
z

The dependent variable will need to be measured on a certain

level e.g. Continuous.
The independent variable(s) will need to be measured on a
certain level e.g. Categorical.
The population is normally distributed (not skewed).

If your data do not meet the assumptions for a specific

test, you may be able to use a non-parametric test
instead.

20

Parametric Tests

Parametric tests assume that the variable in question is

from a normal distribution (continuous).
Its a good idea to have a minimum of 30 cases for each
group.

Non-parametric tests do not require the assumption of

normality.

Most non-parametric tests do not require a

continuous/interval level of measurement; can be used
with nominal/ordinal level data.
21

1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

Identify overall research goal.

Identify independent and
dependent variables.
Describe the level of the data.
Identify the number and
pairing of groups.
Check assumptions about
data.

Having this recipe will

allow you to select an
appropriate statistical test.

Statistical test
decision tools link
recipe components
with the required
statistic.

Results in successful
statistical planning and
analysis.
22

1. Identify overall
research goal.
2. Identify independent
and dependent variables.
3. Describe the level of
the data.
4. Identify the number
and pairing of groups.
5. Check assumptions
about data.

Type of Dependent Variable Data

Goal

Continuous
Normal

Ordinal
Non-normal

Categorical

Describe one
group

Mean, SD

Median, interquartile
range

Proportion

Wilcoxon test

Chi-square

One-sample t test
Compare one
group to a
hypothetical value
Compare two
unpaired groups

Unpaired t test

Mann-Whitney test

Fisher's test
(chi-square for large
samples)

Compare two
paired groups

Paired t test

Wilcoxon test

McNemar's test

Compare three or One-way ANOVA

more unmatched
groups

Kruskal-Wallis test

Chi-square test

Compare three or Repeated-measures

ANOVA
more matched
groups

Friedman test

Cochrane Q

Quantify
association
between two
variables

Pearson correlation

Spearman correlation

Contingency coefficients

Predict value
from another
measured
variable

Simple linear regression

or
Nonlinear regression

Nonparametric
regression

Simple logistic regression

Predict value
from several
measured or
binomial
variables

Multiple linear regression

or
Multiple nonlinear
regression

Multiple logistic regression

23

Statistical Test Selection Group

Exercise

Using your table, select the appropriate

statistical tests for the research

scenarios.

24

During the group exercise

Steps to choose the appropriate statistical method

for the data analysis:

1.

Identify whether the research goal is one of describe,

associate, predict, or compare (difference).
Identify dependent and independent variables.
Identify the level of measurement in the dependent
variable (Categorical, Ordinal, Continuous).
Identify the number of groups. Are the groups
paired/matched (same group before and after) or
independent (not at all related, looking at different
groups)?
Select an appropriate statistical test using the decision
chart.

2.
3.
4.

5.

25

1. A pilot experiment designed to test the effectiveness of a

new approach to electrode placement for Electroconvulsive
Therapy (ECT) has been conducted over a one year time
period.
Patients from two different mood disorder clinics participated in
this study. Patients from Clinic X received ECT therapy
according to current practice guidelines. Patients from Clinic Y
received a new exploratory ECT treatment. Patients in each
clinic were matched for age, gender, and type of disorder. A
random sample of 30 was selected from each site for inclusion
in the study. At the end of one year, patients were administered
a memory test yielding a total score out of 100. What statistical
procedure needs to be selected to test for differences among
groups of patients on the memory test.
What is the goal: Compare
Indpendent variable: Type of therapy
Dependent variable: Memory Test
How many groups: 2
Paired/matched or independent: Independent
What is the level of measurement: Continuous
26

27

Statistical Analysis with

Excel Data Analysis
Check to see

if you have
excel Data
Analysis

28

Install Data Analysis Toolpack

Click on
Tools
Add-ins
Analysis
add Analysis ToolPak,
not Analysis ToolPakVBA
OK

29

Descriptive Statistics
Measures of central tendency (mean,

median, mode)
Variability (range, variance, standard
deviation)
Shape of Distribution (skewness, kurtosis)
Standard Error
Confidence Level

30

Descriptive Statistics - Procedure

Tools
Data Analysis
Descriptive
Statistics
Input Range
Rows/Columns
Output Options
z
z

New worksheet
Summary statistics

What is the age of the patients seen in our clinic?

31

Histogram

Graph showing the

frequency of data
falling within
various ranges.
Provides a visual
representation of
the central
tendency,
variability and
shape of the
distribution.

From http://www.microbiologybytes.com/maths/1011-17.html

32

Histogram Procedure
Tools
Data Analysis
Histogram
Input Range
Bin Range
Labels
Chart Output

33

Associate - Correlation

Allows an examination of the association

between variables
z
z

Information about the strength of association

Information about the direction of the association

A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is

no relationship between the variables, -1
negative relationship, 1 positive relationship.

34

Correlation Procedure
Tools
Data Analysis
Correlation
Input Range
Rows/Columns
Output Options

Is there an association between age and pre-surgical functioning?

35

36

Predict Linear Regression

Linear Regression
Focuses on prediction
Involves discovering the equation for a line

that is the best fit for the given data.

The resulting linear equation is then used
to predict values for the data.

37

Linear Regression Procedure

Tools
Data Analysis
Regression
Input Y Range
(dependent variable)
Input X Range
(independent
variable)
Output Options

Does pre-surgical functioning predict post-surgical functioning?

38

Compare T-Test
Independent Samples T-Test
Allows the comparison of the means of 2

non-paired groups.
Compares actual difference between two
means in relation to the variation in the
data (expressed as the standard deviation
of the difference between the means).

39

Two Sample T-Test Procedure

Tools
Data Analysis
T-test: Two Sample
Assuming Equal
Variances
Input 1 Range
(dependent variable for
group 1)
Input 2 Range
(dependent variable for
group 2)
Output Options

Is there a difference in age between males and females?

40

Compare T-Test
Paired Samples T-Test
Allows the comparison of the means of 2

paired measures (eg., pre-post

measurement, repeated measurement
under different conditions).

41

Paired Samples T-Test Procedure

Tools
Data Analysis
T-test: PairedTwo
Sample for Means
Input 1 Range
(dependent
variable at time 1)
Input 2 Range
(dependent
variable at time 2)
Output Options

Is there a difference in functioning after surgery?

42

Compare ANOVA Single Factor

Single Factor (One Way) Analysis of Variance

T-test can only be used for comparison of two
groups
ANOVA allows us to identify differences among
the means of one variable measured in two or
more independent groups.
One way ANOVA comparing only two groups
provides similar outcomes to the t-test

43

Single Factor ANOVA Procedure

Tools
Data Analysis
ANOVA: Single
Factor
Input 1 Range
(dependent
variable organized
with one column or
row of data per
group)
Output Options
Is there a difference in pre-surgical functioning between
the three major age groups ?

44

Type of Data

Goal

Continuous

Ordinal or Non
Normal

Categorical

Describe one group

Mean, SD

Median, interquartile
range

Proportion

Compare one group

to a hypothetical
value

One-sample t test

Wilcoxon test

Chi-square
or
Binomial test **

Compare two
unpaired groups

Unpaired t test

Mann-Whitney test

Fisher's test
(chi-square for large
samples)

Compare two paired

groups

Paired t test

Wilcoxon test

McNemar's test

Compare three or
more unmatched
groups

One-way ANOVA

Kruskal-Wallis test

Chi-square test

Compare three or
more matched
groups

Repeated-measures
ANOVA

Friedman test

Cochrane Q**

Quantify association
between two
variables

Pearson correlation

Spearman correlation

Contingency
coefficients**

Predict value from

another measured
variable

Simple linear
regression
or
Nonlinear regression

Nonparametric
regression**

Simple logistic
regression*

Predict value from

several measured or
binomial variables

Multiple linear
regression*
or
Multiple nonlinear
regression**

Multiple logistic
regression*

45

Resources
Choosing a statistical test

http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templa
tes/student_resources/workshops/stat_workshp/
chose_stat/chose_stat_01.html

http://www.whichtest.info/

Online statistical calculators

http://statpages.org/

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