How energy is transferred within and between organisms

The source of energy which all organisms are dependent on, not necessarily directly, is the
sun. The photons the sun emits reach the earth and hit chlorophyll molecules on primary
producers... it is here where it all begins.
However, not all of the energy is transferred to producers as some may not hit a chlorophyll
molecule, the photons may be reflected or they may not be of the right wavelength; as only
the red or blue spectrum are absorbed giving the green/yellow appearance to most producers
as these wavelengths are reflected.
When the photons hit a chlorophyll molecule, present on the thylakoid membrane in a
chloroplast, they excite an electron. This can happen in either photosystem one or two. In
photosystems two, the excited electron will pass down an electron transport chain and at each
stage, will lose energy. Each energy loss facilitates an energy input somewhere else in the
cycle.
The first protein the electron passes through is called plastoquinone; it is an intrinsic protein
on the thylakoid membrane. It combines with two hydrogen molecules in the stroma and
changes shape, releasing the hydrogen into the thylakoid. Then, the electron will pass through
a cytochrome, b6f; then plastocyanin and will finally reach photosystem one. At this point the
journey of electrons in both photosystems will be the same.
The excited electrons in photosystem one and those electrons that have travelled from
photosystem two provide the energy for NADP to be reduced to form NADPH via the
enzyme ferrodoxin-NADP reductase. This NADP will be used later in the Calvin cycle.
The lost electrons from the photosystems are replaced by the splitting of a water molecule.
The water molecule will also produce oxygen as a by-product and hydrogen ions.
The hydrogen ions from the water molecules and from plastoquinone build up inside the
thylakoid. A concentration gradient is formed between the stroma and the inside of the
thylakoid; this is used by ATP synthase, an intrinsic protein, by propelling the hydrogen ions
out of the thylakoid generating the energy to produce ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate. This is the light dependant reaction.
This ATP will go through the Calvin cycle six times to produce one molecule of glucose. The
cycle involves carbon fixation, reduction and the regeneration of ribulose biphosphate. The
Calvin cycle is the light independent reaction.
This system is known as photosynthesis, and is essential for life as it turns the energy from
photons into a chemical form of energy that can be used by all organisms. The two essential
energy storing molecules are ATP and glucose.

ATP is a small molecule that can be used readily as an immediate energy source. It is ideal as
the bonds between the phosphate groups are weak and so have a low activation energy, when
a phosphate is lost lots of energy is released.
Examples of uses of ATP in organisms
It is used to join amino acids together to form proteins, which have a wide range of
uses in the body such as globular proteins like enzymes, or structural proteins like
collagen. The proteins are synthesised in the ribosomes of the cell.

The energy from ATP is used in active transport to transfer molecules against a
concentration gradient e.g Absorption of molecules in the small intestine

Formation of organelles, such as lysosomes, which are essential in breaking down

unwanted substances or microorganisms

Respiration is the breaking down of glucose to release energy to form ATP. There are four
stages in respiration which includes glycolysis, the link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation.
In glycolysis, ATP is used to make the glucose into a more reactive molecule, called
phosphorylated glucose. This is then split into triose phosphate and is used to reduce NAD
and form 4ATP molecules, to become pyruvate.
In the link reaction, decarboxylation occurs as 1co2 is removed meaning the pyruvate become
acetate, NAD is reduced and finally, coenzyme A combines with the acetate to form acetyl
co-A.
In the Krebs cycle, oxaloacetate (4C) combines with the acetate as the co-A is removed to
form citrate (6C) a series of oxidation-reduction reactions occur to produce reduced NAD,
reduced FAD and ATP as the oxaloacetate is regenerated.
The final process, oxidative phosphorylation, uses the reduced NAD produced in the Krebs
cycle by splitting it into electrons, hydrogen ions, and NAD. The electrons travel through an
electron transport chain, at each stage they lose energy this is used to move the hydrogen
ions against a concentration gradient and into the mitochondria membrane.
ATP synthase, the same as in the light dependant reaction, is used to propel the high
concentration of hydrogen ions down a concentration gradient generating the energy to
produce ATP from ADP and Pi. The hydrogen ions combine with oxygen molecules
(transferred into the blood via the alveoli in the lungs) to form water.
The respiration process produces 32 ATP molecules and can be summarised by:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy

ATP provides the energy to build molecules, to form proteins, organelles, cells... and it is the
energy that is stored in the bonds of these molecules that pass through food chains.
From the producer, which changes light into chemical energy, to the primary consumers, to
the secondary and so on it is essential that as much energy is transferred for maximum
efficiency.
The energy that passes down the food chains is used to increase biomass, for chemical
processes to occur and to maintain homeostasis. Energy losses occur via excretion,
respiration, via heat loss, because parts of the organism may be inedible or indigestible and
each time, less energy is transferred from one to the next. This means food chains are usually
contained to a maximum of five trophic levels.
At the top of every food chain are detritivores and saprophytes, which digest dead or
decaying matter so the compounds that make up the digested organism can be reused and
absorbed by producers.
Generally, the shorter the food chain, the more efficient it is, this is why in farming, food
chains are kept to a minimum.
In intensive animal rearing, the energy transfers are made to be as efficient as possible by
keeping the animals as close together to prevent energy loss by heat, by using antibiotics to
prevent disease ( as fighting the disease uses energy and may make the animal inedible) and
by ensuring the food they eat is mainly from producers. The reason to increase efficiency is to
ensure as much energy is used to increase biomass rapidly.
In agricultural farming, pesticides and biological control are used to ensure maximum energy
output for consumers is achieved. This means reducing unwanted consumers that damage
crops and transforming food webs into food chains.
To reduce competition for light energy, herbicides are used to create a monoculture of crops.
To reduce damage and to ensure as much of the energy from the crop enters the human food
chain, pesticides are used to kill organisms such as insects.
To ensure light is converted into chemical energy at its maximum rate, greenhouses are used
to control the limiting factors of photosynthesis. This includes the addition of CO2, keeping
light at maximum intensity and keeping the temperature at an optimum level for that crop.
In conclusion, energy in food chains is transferred between organisms by consumption. This
energy is used by the organism in the form of ATP for respiration, chemical processes, active
transport and maintaining body temperature (if the organism is endothermic).