Cruising Flight Performance!

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics,

MAE 331, 2014
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Learning Objectives!

Denitions of airspeed!
Performance parameters!
Steady cruising ight conditions!
Breguet range equations!
Optimize cruising ight for
minimum thrust and power!
Flight envelope !

Reading:!
Flight Dynamics !
Aerodynamic Coefcients, 118-130!
Airplane Stability and Control!
Chapter 6!

Copyright 2014 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.!
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html!
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html!

1!

U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Standard_Atmosphere!

2!

Dynamic Pressure and Mach Number"

! = air density, function of height
= ! sealevel e" # h

a = speed of sound
= linear function of height

Dynamic pressure = q ! !V 2 2
Mach number = V a

3!

Denitions of Airspeed"

! Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with respect to air mass"

! Airspeed = Inertial speed if wind speed = 0"

! Indicated Airspeed (IAS)"

IAS = 2 ( pstagnation ! pambient ) "SL =

=

2 ( ptotal ! pstatic )
"SL

2qc
, with qc ! impact pressure
"SL

! Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)*"

CAS = IAS corrected for instrument and position errors

=

2 ( qc )corr!1

"SL
* Kayton & Fried, 1969; NASA TN-D-822, 1961!

4!

Denitions of Airspeed"

! Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with respect to air mass"

! Airspeed = Inertial speed if wind speed = 0"

! Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)*"

EAS = CAS corrected for compressibility effects =

! True Airspeed (TAS)*"

V ! TAS = EAS

2 ( qc )corr!2

"SL

! Mach number"

!SL
!SL
= IAScorrected
! (z)
! (z)

* Kayton & Fried, 1969; NASA TN-D-822, 1961!

M=

TAS
a

5!

Flight in the
Vertical Plane!

6!

Longitudinal Variables!

7!

Longitudinal Point-Mass
Equations of Motion"
! Assume thrust is aligned with the velocity
vector (small-angle approximation for !)"
! Mass = constant"

1 2
1
#V S " mg sin $ (CT " C D ) #V 2 S " mg sin $
2
2
V! =
%
m
m
1
1
(CT sin ! + CL ) #V 2 S " mg cos $ CL #V 2 S " mg cos $
2
2
$! =
%
mV
mV
h! = "z! = "vz = V sin $
V = velocity = Earth-relative airspeed

(CT cos ! " CD )

r! = x! = vx = V cos $

= True airspeed with zero wind

! = flight path angle
h = height (altitude)
r = range

8!

Conditions for Steady,

Level Flight"
!
!
!
!

0=
0=

Flight path angle = 0"

Altitude = constant"
Airspeed = constant"
Dynamic pressure = constant"

(CT ! CD ) 2 "V 2 S
m

CL

h! = 0
r! = V

1 2
"V S ! mg
2
mV

! Thrust = Drag"
! Lift = Weight"

9!

Power and Thrust"

! Propeller"

Power = P = T ! V = CT

! Turbojet"
Thrust = T = CT

1 3
"V S # independent of airspeed
2

1 2
!V S " independent of airspeed
2

! Throttle Effect"

T = Tmax! T = CTmax ! TqS, 0 " ! T " 1

10!

Typical Effects of Altitude and

Velocity on Power and Thrust"
! Propeller"

! Turbojet"

11!

Models for Altitude Effect on

Turbofan Thrust"
From Flight Dynamics, pp.117-118"
1
Thrust = CT (V, ! T ) " ( h )V 2 S
2
1
= ( ko + k1V # ) " ( h )V 2 S! T , N
2

ko = Static thrust coefficient at sea level

k1 = Velocity sensitivity of thrust coefficient
! = Exponent of velocity sensitivity
= "2 for turbojet

# T = Throttle setting, ( 0,1)

$ ( h ) = $ SL e" % h , $ SL = 1.225 kg / m 3 , % = (1 / 9,042 ) m "1

12!

Models for Altitude Effect on

Turbofan Thrust"
From AeroModelMach.m in FLIGHT.m, Flight Dynamics,!
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/AeroModelMach.m"
[airDens,airPres,temp,soundSpeed] = Atmos(-x(6));"
Thrust = "u(4) * StaticThrust * (airDens / 1.225)^0.7 * (1 - exp((-x(6) 17000)/2000));"

Atmos(-x(6)) : 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere function

-x(6) = h = Altitude, m
airDens = ! = Air density at altitude h, kg/m 3
u(4) = " T = Throttle setting, ( 0,1)

Empirical t to match known characteristics of powerplant for

generic business jet"
(airDens / 1.225)^0.7 * (1 - exp((-x(6) 17000)/2000))"

13!

Thrust of a PropellerDriven Aircraft"

! With constant rpm, variable-pitch propeller"

T = !P!I

Pengine
V

= !net

Pengine
V

where

!P = propeller efficiency
! I = ideal propulsive efficiency
!netmax " 0.85 # 0.9

! Efciencies decrease with airspeed"

! Engine power decreases with altitude"

! Proportional to air density, w/o supercharger"

14!

Propeller Efciency, "P,

and Advance Ratio, J"

Effect of propeller-blade pitch angle!

! Advance Ratio"

J=

V
nD

where
V = airspeed, m / s
n = rotation rate, revolutions / s
D = propeller diameter, m
from McCormick!

15!

Thrust of a
Turbojet
Engine"
1/2
02*#
42
! o &# !t &
!t ! 1,%
T = mV
/ "15
(%
( () c "1) +
! o) c .
23+$ ! o "1 '$ ! t "1 '
26

! o = pstag pambient

m! = m! air + m! fuel

(" #1)/"

; " = ratio of specific heats $ 1.4

! t = ( turbine inlet temp. freestream ambient temp.)

% c = ( compressor outlet temp. compressor inlet temp.)

from Kerrebrock!

!
!

Little change in thrust with airspeed below Mcrit"

Decrease with increasing altitude"

16!

Performance Parameters"
L

! Lift-to-Drag Ratio"
! Load Factor"

CL

CD

n = L W = L mg ,"g"s

! Thrust-to-Weight Ratio"
! Wing Loading"

D=

T
W = mg ,"g"s

W , N m 2 or lb ft 2
S
17!

Steady, Level Flight!

18!

Trimmed Lift Coefcient, CL"

! Trimmed lift coefcient, CL"

! Proportional to weight and wing loading factor"

! Decreases with V2"
! At constant true airspeed, increases with altitude"

"1
%
W = C Ltrim $ !V 2 ' S = C Ltrim qS
#2
&

C Ltrim

# 2 e" h &
1
2
= (W S ) =
W S) = %
W S)
2 (
2((
q
!V
$ ! 0V '
19!

Trimmed Angle of Attack, !"

! Trimmed angle of attack, !"

! Constant if dynamic pressure and weight are

constant"
! If dynamic pressure decreases, angle of attack
must increase"

! trim

1
W S ) # C Lo
2W "V S # C Lo q (
=
=
C L!
C L!
2

20!

Thrust Required for Steady, Level Flight"

21!

Thrust Required for Steady, Level Flight"

! Trimmed thrust"

Parasitic Drag!

Induced Drag!

"1 2 %
2W 2
Ttrim = Dcruise = C Do $ !V S ' + (
#2
& !V 2 S
! Minimum required thrust conditions"
Necessary Condition
= Zero Slope!

! Ttrim
4 $W 2
= C Do ( "VS ) #
=0
!V
"V 3S
22!

Necessary and Sufcient

Conditions for Minimum
Required Thrust"
Necessary Condition = Zero Slope!

4 "W 2
C Do ( !VS ) =
!V 3S
Sufcient Condition for a Minimum =
Positive Curvature when slope = 0!

! 2 Ttrim
12#W 2
= C Do ( " S ) +
>0
!V 2
"V 4 S
(+)"

(+)"

23!

Airspeed for
Minimum Thrust in
Steady, Level Flight"
! Satisfy necessary condition"

# 4! &
2
V =%
W
S
(
)
2(
$ C Do " '
4

! Fourth-order equation for velocity"

! Choose the positive root"

VMT

2 "W % (
=
$ '
! # S & C Do

24!

Lift, Drag, and Thrust Coefcients in

Minimum-Thrust Cruising Flight"
Lift coefcient"

C LMT =
=

C Do

2
2
!VMT

"W %
$# '&
S

= ( C L )( L/D )

max

Drag and thrust coefcients"

C DMT = C Do + ! C L2MT = C Do + !
= 2C Do " CTMT

C Do

25!

Power Required for

Steady, Level Flight"

26!

Power Required for

Steady, Level Flight"
! Trimmed power"

Induced Drag!

Parasitic Drag!

)
" 1 2 % 2(W 2 ,
Ptrim = TtrimV = DcruiseV = +C Do $ !V S ' +
V
2 .
#2
& !V S *
! Minimum required power conditions"

! Ptrim
3
2$W 2
2
= C Do ( "V S ) #
=0
2
!V
2
"V S
27!

Airspeed for Minimum

Power in Steady,
Level Flight"
! Satisfy necessary condition"
! Fourth-order equation for velocity"
! Choose the positive root"

! Corresponding lift and

drag coefcients"

3
2"W 2
2
C Do ( !V S ) =
2
!V 2 S
VMP =

C LMP =

2 "W % (
$ '
! # S & 3C Do

3C Do

C DMP = 4C Do

28!

Achievable Airspeeds in ConstantAltitude Flight"

Back Side of the
Thrust Curve"

! Two equilibrium airspeeds for a given thrust or power setting"

! Low speed, high CL, high !#
! High speed, low CL, low !#

! Achievable airspeeds between minimum and maximum

values with maximum thrust or power#

29!

Achievable Airspeeds for Jet in

Cruising Flight"
Thrust = constant#

Tavail

"1
% 2(W
= C D qS = C Do $ !V 2 S ' +
#2
& !V 2 S

2)W
"1
4 %
2
C Do $ !V S ' ( TavailV +
=0
#2
&
!S
2

2
#
W
T
4
V 4 ! avail V 2 +
2 = 0
C Do " S
C Do ( " S )
4th-order algebraic
equation for V#

30!

Achievable Airspeeds for Jet in

Cruising Flight"
Solutions for V2 can be put in quadratic
form and solved easily#

V 2 ! x; V = x

Tavail 2
4 #W 2
V !
V +
2 = 0
C Do " S
C Do ( " S )
4

x 2 + bx + c = 0
2

b
" b%
x = ! $ ' ! c =V2
# 2&
2
31!

Thrust Required and Thrust

Available for a Typical Bizjet"
!
!
!

Available thrust decreases with altitude, and range of achievable

airspeeds decreases"
Stall limitation at low speed"
Mach number effect on lift and drag increases thrust required at
high speed"
Typical Simplied Jet Thrust Model!

x
$ ! ( SL ) e" # h '
Tmax (h) = Tmax (SL) &
= Tmax (SL) $% e" # h '( = Tmax (SL)e" x# h
)
% ! (SL) (

With empirical correction to force thrust to zero at a given altitude,

hmax. c is a convergence factor."

Tmax (h) = Tmax (SL)e! x" h #$1! e!( h!hmax ) c %&

32!

Thrust Required and Thrust

Available for a Typical Bizjet"

Typical Stall!
Limit!

33!

!is"rical Fac"i#d

! Aircraft Flight Distance Records"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_distance_record!

! Aircraft Flight Endurance Records"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_endurance_record!
Rutan/Scaled Composites
Voyager!

Rutan/Virgin Atlantic
Global Flyer!

34!

The Flight Envelope!

35!

Flight Envelope Determined by

Available Thrust"

! All altitudes and airspeeds at which an aircraft can y "

! in steady, level ight "
! at xed weight"
! Flight ceiling dened by
available climb rate"
! Absolute: 0 ft/min"
! Service: 100 ft/min"
! Performance: 200 ft/min"

Excess thrust provides the

ability to accelerate or
climb"

36!

Additional Factors Dene the

Flight Envelope"
!
!

Piper Dakota Stall Buffet"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCCjGAtbZ4g!

!
!
!
!
!

Maximum Mach number"

Maximum allowable
aerodynamic heating"
Maximum thrust"
Maximum dynamic
pressure"
Performance ceiling"
Wing stall"
Flow-separation buffet"
!
!

Angle of attack"
Local shock waves"

37!

Boeing 787 Flight

Envelope (HW #5, 2008)"
Best
Cruise
Region"

38!

!is"rical Fac"id#s

Air Commerce Act of 1926"

! Airlines formed to carry mail and passengers: "

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Northwest (1926)"
Eastern (1927), bankruptcy"
Pan Am (1927), bankruptcy"
Boeing Air Transport (1927), became United (1931)"
Delta (1928), consolidated with Northwest, 2010"
American (1930)"
TWA (1930), acquired by American"
Continental (1934), consolidated with United, 2010"

Lockheed Vega !

Ford Tri-Motor!

Boeing 40!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a8G87qnZz4!

!
!

39!

Commercial Aircraft of the 1930s"

Streamlining, engine cowlings!

Douglas DC-1, DC-2, DC-3!

Lockheed 14 Super Electra,

Boeing 247, exterior and interior!

40!

Comfort and Elegance by the End of the Decade"

!

!
!

Boeing 307, 1st pressurized cabin (1936), ight engineer, B-17 pre-cursor, large
dorsal n (exterior and interior)!

Sleeping bunks on transcontinental planes (e.g., DC-3)"

Full-size dining rooms on ying boats!

41!

!
!

Seaplanes Became the First

TransOceanic Air Transports"
PanAm led the way"

! 1st scheduled TransPacic ights(1935)"

! 1st scheduled TransAtlantic ights(1938)"
! 1st scheduled non-stop Trans-Atlantic ights (VS-44, 1939)"

Boeing B-314, Vought-Sikorsky VS-44, Shorts Solent!

Superseded by more efcient landplanes (lighter, less drag)"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8SkeE1h_-A!
42!

Optimal Cruising Flight!

43!

Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio"

! Lift-to-drag ratio"

D=

CL

CL
CD = C + !C 2
Do
L

! Satisfy necessary condition for a maximum"

CL

CD

! CL

C Do

1
2" C L2
#
+ " C L2
C Do + " C L2

=0

! Lift coefcient for maximum L/D

and minimum thrust are the same"

( C L )L / D

max

C Do

= C LMT
44!

Airspeed, Drag Coefcient, and

Lift-to-Drag Ratio for L/Dmax"
Airspeed!

Drag !
Coefcient!
Maximum !
L/D!

VL/Dmax = VMT =

( C D )L / D

max

2 "W % (
$ '
! # S & C Do

= C Do + C Do = 2C Do

( L / D )max =

C Do !

2C Do

1
2 ! C Do

! Maximum L/D depends only on induced drag factor

and zero-! drag coefcient"
! Induced drag factor and zero-! drag coefcient are
functions of Mach number"

45!

Cruising Range and

Specic Fuel Consumption"
! Thrust = Drag" 0 = ( CT ! C D ) 1 "V 2 S m
! Lift = Weight"

2
1
#
&
0 = % C L "V 2 S ! mg ( mV
$ 2
'

! Level ight"
h! = 0
r! = V

! Thrust specic fuel consumption, TSFC = cT"

! Fuel mass burned per sec per unit of thrust"

cT :

kg s
kN

m! f = !cT T

! Power specic fuel consumption, PSFC = cP"

! Fuel mass burned per sec per unit of power"

cP :

kg s
kW

m! f = !cP P

46!

!is"rical Fac"i#d
! Louis Breguet (1880-1955), aviation pioneer"
!
!
!

Gyroplane (1905), ew vertically in 1907"

Breguet Type 1 (1909), xed-wing aircraft"
Formed Compagnie des messageries
ariennes (1919), predecessor of Air France!

! Breguet Aviation manufactured numerous

military and commericial aircraft until after
World War II; teamed with BAC in SEPECAT"
! Merged with Dassault in 1971"
Breguet Atlantique!

Breguet 14!

SEPECAT Jaguar!

Breguet 890 Mercure!

47!

Louis Breguet,
1880-1955!

Breguet Range Equation

for Jet Aircraft"

Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned"

dr
dr dt
r!
V
V
" L% V
=
= =
=!
= !$ '
# D & cT mg
dm dm dt m! ( !cT T )
cT D

" L% V
dr = ! $ '
dm
# D & cT mg
Range traveled"
R

Wf

# L & # V & dm
Range = R = ! dr = " ! % ( %
$ D ' $ cT g (' m
0
W
i

48!

Maximum Range of a
Jet Aircraft Flying at
Constant Altitude"

B-727!

At constant altitude"

Vcruise ( t ) =

2W ( t )

C L ! h fixed S

Wf

" C %" 1 %
2 dm
Range = ! ) $ L ' $
'
C D & # cT g & C L ( S m1 2
Wi #
" CL % " 2 % 2
=$
mi1 2 ! m f 1 2
'
$
'
# C D & # cT g & ( S

Range is maximized when "

(* ' = minimum
! C $
## L && = maximum and )
*+ h = maximum
" CD %

Breguet Range Equation

for Jet Aircraft"

49!

MD-83!

For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise!

%
mf
" L%"V
R = ! $ ' $ cruise ' ln ( m ) m
i
# D & # cT g &
% "m %
" L%"V
= $ ' $ cruise ' ln $ i '
# D & # cT g & # m f &

!
C L $ ! 1 $ ! mi $
R = # Vcruise
ln
C D &% #" cT g &% #" m f &%
"

!!
!!
!!
!!

Vcruise as fast as possible"

Respect Mcrit"
$ as small as possible"
h as high as possible"
50!

Maximize Jet Aircraft Range

Using Optimal Cruise-Climb"
!R
"
!C L

! Vcruise

CL

!C L

CD

$
C
! &Vcruise L
C Do + # C L2
&%
=
!C L

'
)
)(
=0

Vcruise = 2W C L ! S
Assume 2W ( t ) ! ( h ) S = constant

i.e., airplane climbs at constant TAS as fuel is burned

51!

Maximize Jet Aircraft Range

Using Optimal Cruise-Climb"

1/2
2
! #$Vcruise C L C Do + " C L2 %&
2W ! #$C L C Do + " C L %&
=
=0
!C L
!C L
'S

Optimal values: (see Supplemental Material)

C LMR =

C Do
3!

C DMR = C Do +

: Lift Coefficient for Maximum Range

C Do
3

4
CD
3 o

Vcruise!climb = 2W ( t ) C LMR " ( h ) S = a ( h ) M cruise-climb

a ( h ) : Speed of sound; M cruise-climb : Mach number

52!

Step-Climb Approximates Optimal

Cruise-Climb"
!! Cruise-climb usually violates air trafc control rules"
!! Constant-altitude cruise does not"
!! Compromise: Step climb from one allowed altitude
to the next as fuel is burned"

53!

Next Time:!
Gliding, Climbing, and
Turning Flight!
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics !
Aerodynamic Coefcients, 130-141, 147-155!

54!

$upplemental Ma%ria#l

55!

Lift-Drag Polar for a

Typical Bizjet"
! L/D equals slope of line drawn from the origin"

! Single maximum for a given polar"

! Two solutions for lower L/D (high and low airspeed)"
! Available L/D decreases with Mach number"

! Intercept for L/Dmax depends only on % and zero-lift drag"

Note different scales

for lift and drag!

56!

Back Side of
the Power
Curve"

Achievable Airspeeds
in Propeller-Driven
Cruising Flight"

Power = constant#

Pavail = TavailV

PavailV
4 #W 2
+
=0
V !
C Do "S C Do ( "S )2
4

Solutions for V cannot be put in quadratic form; solution is

more difcult, e.g., Ferrari


s method#

aV 4 + ( 0 )V 3 + ( 0 )V 2 + dV + e = 0
!

Best bet: roots in MATLAB#

57!

P-51 Mustang
Minimum-Thrust
Example"
Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)

Wing Area = 235 ft 2 (21.83 m 2 )

Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)
C Do = 0.0163

! = 0.0576

W / S = 39.3 lb / ft 2 (1555.7 N / m 2 )

Airspeed for minimum thrust!

VMT

2 "W % (
2
76.49
0.947
=
=
=
m/s
$ '
(1555.7)
#
&
S
0.0163
!
C Do
!
!

Altitude, m
0
2,500
5,000
10,000

Air Density,
kg/m^3
1.23
0.96
0.74
0.41

VMT, m/s
69.11
78.20
89.15
118.87

58!

P-51 Mustang
Maximum L/D
Example"
( C D )L / D

max

( C L )L / D

max

Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)

( L / D )max =

Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m 2 )

Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)

C Do = 0.0163

C Do

W / S = 1555.7 N / m 2

Altitude, m
0
2,500
5,000
10,000

= C LMT = 0.531

1
= 16.31
2 ! C Do

VL / Dmax = VMT =

! = 0.0576

76.49
m/s
!

Air Density,
kg/m^3
1.23
0.96
0.74
0.41

VMT, m/s
69.11
78.20
89.15
118.87

59!

Breguet Range Equation

for Propeller-Driven
Aircraft"

Breguet 890 Mercure!

= 2C Do = 0.0326

Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned"

"L% 1
V
V
V
dr r!
= =
=!
=!
= !$ '
# D & cPW
cPTV
cP DV
dw w! (!cP P )
!

Range traveled"

Range = R =

Wf

# L &# 1 & dw
dr
=
"
!
! % (% (
0
Wi $ D ' $ cP ' w
R

60!

Breguet Range Equation

for Propeller-Driven
Aircraft"
!

Breguet Atlantique!

For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise!

" L %" 1 %
Wf
R = ! $ '$ ' ln ( w ) W
i
# D & # cP &
" C %" 1 % " W
= $ L '$ ' ln $$ i
# C D & # cP & # W f
!

%
''
&

Range is maximized when "

! CL $
# & = maximum = L D
" CD %

( )

max

61!

P-51 Mustang
Maximum Range
(Internal Tanks only)"
W = C Ltrim qS
C Ltrim =

# 2 e" h &
1
2
W
S
=
W
S
=
( )
( ) % 2 ( (W S )
q
!V 2
$ !0V '

!C $ ! 1 $ !W
R = # L & # & ln ## i
" C D %max " cP % " W f

$
&&
%
! 1 $ ! 3, 465 + 600 $
= (16.31) #
& ln #
&
" 0.0017 % " 3, 465 %

= 1,530 km ((825 nm )

62!

Maximize Jet Aircraft Range

Using Optimal Cruise-Climb"

1/2
2
! #$Vcruise C L C Do + " C L2 %&
2w ! #$C L C Do + " C L %&
=
=0
!C L
!C L
'S

2w
= Constant; let C L1/2 = x, C L = x 2
!S
" $
x
&
"x & C Do + # x 4
%

(
(

' C D + # x 4 * x ( 4 # x 3 ) C D * 3# x 4
o
o
)=
=
2
2
4
)(
C Do + # x
C Do + # x 4

Optimal values:
C LMR =

C Do
3!

: C DMR = C Do +

C Do
3

4
CD
3 o

63!