Magma and Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks are formed by crystallization from a liquid, or magma. They include two types

Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma cools and crystallizes on the
surface of the Earth

Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks wherein the magma crystallizes at depth in the
Earth.

Magma is a mixture of liquid rock, crystals, and gas. Characterized by a wide range of chemical
compositions, with high temperature, and properties of a liquid.
Magmas are less dense than surrounding rocks, and will therefore move upward. If magma
makes it to the surface it will erupt and later crystallize to form an extrusive or volcanic rock. If
it crystallizes before it reaches the surface it will form an igneous rock at depth called
aplutonic or intrusive igneous rock.
Types of Magma
Chemical composition of magma is controlled by the abundance of elements in the Earth. Si, Al,
Fe, Ca, Mg, K, Na, H, and O make up 99.9%. Since oxygen is so abundant, chemical analyses
are usually given in terms of oxides. SiO2 is the most abundant oxide.
1. Mafic or Basaltic-- SiO2 45-55 wt%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na
2. Intermediate or Andesitic-- SiO2 55-65 wt%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
3. Felsic or Rhyolitic-- SiO2 65-75%, low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na.

Gases - At depth in the Earth nearly all magmas contain gas. Gas gives magmas their explosive
character, because the gas expands as pressure is reduced.
Mostly H2O with some CO2
Minor amounts of Sulfur, Cl , and F

Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas.

Temperature of Magmas

Mafic/Basaltic - 1000-1200oC
Intermediate/Andesitic - 800-1000oC

Felsic/Rhyolitic - 650-800oC.

Viscosity of Magmas

Viscosity is the resistance to flow (opposite of fluidity). Depends on composition,

temperature, & gas content.
Higher SiO2 content magmas have higher viscosity than lower SiO2 content magmas

Lower Temperature magmas have higher viscosity than higher temperature magmas.

Summary Table
Magma Type
Mafic or
Basaltic

Solidified
Volcanic
Rock
Basalt

Intermediate
Andesite
or Andesitic
Felsic or
Rhyolitic

Rhyolite

Solidified
Plutonic
Rock

Chemical
Composition

Temperature

Viscosity

Gas Content

Gabbro

45-55 SiO2 %,
high in Fe, Mg, 1000 - 1200 oC Low
Ca, low in K, Na

Diorite

55-65 SiO2 %,
intermediate in
800 - 1000 oC
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na,
K

Intermediate Intermediate

Granite

65-75 SiO2 %,
low in Fe, Mg, 650 - 800 oC
Ca, high in K, Na

High

Low

High

Origin of Magma
As we have seen the only part of the earth that is liquid is the outer core. But the core is not
likely to be the source of magmas because it does not have the right chemical composition. The
outer core is mostly Iron, but magmas are silicate liquids. Thus magmas DO NOT COME
FROM THE MOLTEN OUTER CORE OF THE EARTH. Thus, since the rest of the earth
is solid, in order for magmas to form, some part of the earth must get hot enough to melt the
rocks present. We know that temperature increases with depth in the earth along thegeothermal
gradient. The earth is hot inside due to heat left over from the original accretion process, due to
heat released by sinking of materials to form the core, and due to heat released by the decay of
radioactive elements in the earth. Under normal conditions, the geothermal gradient is not high
enough to melt rocks, and thus with the exception of the outer core, most of the Earth is solid.
Thus, magmas form only under special circumstances. To understand this we must first look at
how rocks and mineral melt.
As pressure increases in the Earth, the melting temperature changes as well. For pure minerals,
there are two general cases.

For a pure dry (no H2O or

CO2present) mineral, the melting
temperate increases with
increasing pressure.

For a mineral with H2O or

CO2present, the melting
temperature first decreases with
increasing pressure

Since rocks mixtures of minerals, they behave somewhat differently. Unlike minerals, rocks do
not melt at a single temperature, but instead melt over a range of temperatures. Thus, it is
possible to have partial melts from which the liquid portion might be extracted to form magma.
The two general cases are:

Melting of dry rocks is similar to

melting of dry minerals, melting
temperatures increase with
increasing pressure, except there is a
range of temperature over which
there exists a partial melt. The
degree of partial melting can range
from 0 to 100%

Melting of rocks containing water or

carbon dioxide is similar to melting
of wet minerals, melting
temperatures initially decrease with
increasing pressure, except there is a
range of temperature over which
there exists a partial melt.

Three ways to Generate Magmas

From the above we can conclude that in order to generate a magma in the solid part of the earth
either the geothermal gradient must be raised in some way or the melting temperature of the
rocks must be lowered in some way.
The geothermal gradient can be raised by upwelling of hot material from below either by uprise
solid material (decompression melting) or by intrusion of magma (heat transfer). Lowering the
melting temperature can be achieved by adding water or Carbon Dioxide (flux melting).
Decompression Melting Under normal conditions the
temperature in the Earth,
shown by the geothermal
gradient, is lower than the
beginning of melting of the
mantle. Thus in order for
the mantle to melt there has
to be a mechanism to raise
the geothermal gradient.
Once such mechanism is
convection, wherein hot
mantle material rises to
lower pressure or depth,
carrying its heat with it.
If the raised geothermal gradient becomes higher than the initial melting temperature at any
pressure, then a partial melt will form. Liquid from this partial melt can be separated from the
remaining crystals because, in general, liquids have a lower density than solids. Basaltic
magmas appear to originate in this way.
Upwelling mantle appears to occur beneath oceanic ridges, at hot spots, and beneath continental
rift valleys. Thus, generation of magma in these three environments is likely caused by
decompression melting.

Transfer of Heat- When magmas that were generated by some other mechanism intrude into
cold crust, they bring with them heat. Upon solidification they lose this heat and transfer it to
the surrounding crust. Repeated intrusions can transfer enough heat to increase the local
geothermal gradient and cause melting of the surrounding rock to generate new magmas.

Transfer of heat by this mechanism may be responsible for generating some magmas in
continental rift valleys, hot spots, and subduction related environments.
Flux Melting - As we saw above, if water or carbon dioxide are added to rock, the melting
temperature is lowered. If the addition of water or carbon dioxide takes place deep in the earth
where the temperature is already high, the lowering of melting temperature could cause the rock
to partially melt to generate magma. One place where water could be introduced is at
subduction zones. Here, water present in the pore spaces of the subducting sea floor or water
present in minerals like hornblende, biotite, or clay minerals would be released by the rising
temperature and then move in to the overlying mantle. Introduction of this water in the mantle
would then lower the melting temperature of the mantle to generate partial melts, which could
then separate from the solid mantle and rise toward the surface.

Chemical Variability of Magmas

The chemical composition of magma can vary depending on the rock that initially melts (the
source rock), and process that occur during partial melting and transport.
Initial Composition of Magma
The initial composition of the magma is dictated by the composition of the source rock and the

degree of partial melting. In general, melting of a mantle source (garnet peridotite) results in
mafic/basaltic magmas. Melting of crustal sources yields more siliceous magmas.
In general more siliceous magmas form by low degrees of partial melting. As the degree of
partial melting increases, less siliceous compositions can be generated. So, melting a mafic
source thus yields a felsic or intermediate magma. Melting of ultramafic (peridotite source)
yields a basaltic magma.
Magmatic Differentiation
But, processes that operate during transportation toward the surface or during storage in the
crust can alter the chemical composition of the magma. These processes are referred to
asmagmatic differentiation and include assimilation, mixing, and fractional crystallization.
Assimilation - As magma passes through cooler rock on its way to the surface it may partially
melt the surrounding rock and incorporate this melt into the magma. Because small amounts of
partial melting result in siliceous liquid compositions, addition of this melt to the magma will
make it more siliceous.
Mixing - If two magmas with different compositions happen to come in contact with one
another, they could mix together. The mixed magma will have a composition somewhere
between that of the original two magma compositions. Evidence for mixing is often preserved
in the resulting rocks.
Fractional Crystallization - When magma crystallizes it does so over a range of temperature.
Each mineral begins to crystallize at a different temperature, and if these minerals are somehow
removed from the liquid, the liquid composition will change. The processes is called magmatic
differentiation by Fractional Crystallization.
Because mafic minerals like olivine and pyroxene crystallize first, the process results in
removing Mg, Fe, and Ca, and enriching the liquid in silica. Thus crystal fractionation can
change a mafic magma into a felsic magma.
Crystals can be removed by a variety of processes. If the crystals are more dense than the liquid,
they may sink. If they are less dense than the liquid they will float. If liquid is squeezed out by
pressure, then crystals will be left behind. Removal of crystals can thus change the composition
of the liquid portion of the magma. Let me illustrate this using a very simple case.
Imagine a liquid containing 5 molecules of MgO and 5 molecules of SiO2. Initially the
composition of this magma is expressed as 50% SiO2 and 50% MgO. i.e.

Now let's imagine I remove 1 MgO molecule by putting it into a crystal and removing the
crystal from the magma. Now what are the percentages of each molecule in the liquid?

If we continue the process one more time by removing one more MgO molecule

Thus, composition of liquid can be changed.

Bowen's Reaction Series
Bowen found by experiment that the order in which minerals crystallize from a basaltic magma
depends on temperature. As a basaltic magma is cooled Olivine and Ca-rich plagioclase
crystallize first. Upon further cooling, Olivine reacts with the liquid to produce pyroxene and
Ca-rich plagioclase react with the liquid to produce less Ca-rich plagioclase. But, if the olivine
and Ca-rich plagioclase are removed from the liquid by crystal fractionation, then the remaining
liquid will be more SiO2 rich. If the process continues, an original basaltic magma can change
to first an andesite magma then a rhyolite magma with falling temperature

Igneous Environments and Igneous Rocks

The environment in which magma completely solidifies to form a rock determines:

1. The type of rock
2. The appearance of the rock as seen in its texture
3. The type of rock body.
In general there are two environments to consider:
The intrusive or plutonic environment is below the surface of the earth. This environment is
characterized by higher temperatures which result in slow cooling of the magma. Intrusive or
plutonic igneous rocks form here.
Where magma erupts on the surface of the earth, temperatures are lower and cooling of the
magma takes place much more rapidly. This is the extrusive or volcanic environment and
results in extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks.
Extrusive Environments
When magmas reach the surface of the Earth they erupt from a vent called a volcano. They may
erupt explosively or non-explosively.

Non-explosive eruptions are favored by low gas content and low viscosity magmas
(basaltic to andesitic magmas and sometimes rhyolitic magma).
o

Usually begin with fire fountains due to release of dissolved gases

Produce lava flows on surface

Produce Pillow lavas if erupted beneath water

Explosive eruptions are favored by high gas content and high viscosity (andesitic to
rhyolitic magmas).
o

Expansion of gas bubbles is resisted by high viscosity of magma - results in

building of pressure

High pressure in gas bubbles causes the bubbles to burst when reaching the low
pressure at the Earth's surface.

Bursting of bubbles fragments the magma into pyroclasts and tephra (ash).

Cloud of gas and tephra rises above volcano to produce an eruption column that
can rise up to 45 km into the atmosphere.

Tephra that falls from the eruption column

produces a tephra fall deposit.

If eruption column collapses a pyroclastic

flow may occur, wherein gas and tephra rush
down the flanks of the volcano at high speed.
This is the most dangerous type of volcanic
eruption. The deposits that are produced are
called ignimbrites.

Intrusive Environments
Magma that cools at depth form bodies of rocks called intrusive bodies or plutonic bodies called
plutons, from Greek god of the underworld - Pluto. When magma intrudes it usually affects the
surrounding rock and is also affected by the surrounding rock. It may metamorphose the
surrounding rocks or cause hydrothermal alteration. The magma itself may also cool rapidly
near the contact with the surrounding rock and thus show a chilled margin next to the contact.
It may also incorporate pieces of the surrounding
rocks without melting them. These incorporated
pieces are called xenoliths (foreign rocks).
Magma intrudes by injection into fractures in the rock
and expanding the fractures. The may also move by a
process called stoping, wherein bocks are loosened by
magma at the top of the magma body with these
blocks then sinking through the magma to accumulate
on the floor of the magma body.

In relatively shallow environments intrusions are usually tabular bodies like dikes and sills or

domed roof bodies called laccoliths.

Dikes are small (<20 m wide)

shallow intrusions that show a
discordant relationship to the
rocks in which they intrude.
Discordant means that they cut
across preexisting structures.
They may occur as isolated bodies
or may occur as swarms of dikes
emanating from a large intrusive
body at depth.

Sills are also small (<50 m thick)

shallow intrusions that show a
concordant relationship with the
rocks that they intrude. Sills
usually are fed by dikes, but these
may not be exposed in the field.

Laccoliths are somewhat large

intrusions that result in uplift and
folding of the preexisting rocks
above the intrusion. They are also
concordant types of intrusions.

Deeper in the earth intrusion of magma can form bulbous bodies called plutons and the
coalescence of many plutons can form much larger bodies called batholiths.

Plutons are large intrusive bodies, of any shape that intrude in replace rocks in an
irregular fashion.

Stocks are smaller bodies that are likely fed from deeper level batholiths. Stocks may

have been feeders for volcanic eruptions, but because large amounts of erosion are
required to expose a stock or batholith, the associated volcanic rocks are rarely exposed.

If multiple intrusive events

occur in the same part of the
crust, the body that forms is
called abatholith. Several large
batholiths occur in the western
U.S. - The Sierra Nevada
Batholith, the Coast Range
Batholith, and the Idaho
Batholith, for example (See
figure 6.10d in your text).

During a magmatic event there is usually a close relationship between intrusive activity and
extrusive activity, but one cannot directly observe the intrusive activity. Only after erosion of
the extrusive rocks and other rock above the intrusions has exposed the intrusions do they
become visible at the earth's surface (see figure 6.10a in your text).
The rate of cooling of magma depends largely on the environment in which the magma cools.
Rapid cooling takes place on the Earth's surface where there is a large temperature contrast
between the atmosphere/ground surface and the magma. Cooling time for material erupted into
air and water can be as short as several seconds. For lava flows cooling times are on the order
of days to weeks. Shallow intrusions cool in months to years and large deep intrusions may
take millions of years to cool.

Because cooling of the magma takes place at a different rate, the crystals
that form and their interrelationship (texture) exhibit different
properties.

Fast cooling on the surface results in many small crystals or

quenching to a glass. Gives rise to aphanitic texture (crystals
cannot be distinguished with the naked eye),
or obsidian (volcanic glass).

Slow cooling at depth in the earth results in fewer much larger crystals,
gives rise to phaneritic texture.

Porphyritic texture develops when slow cooling is followed

by rapid cooling. Phenocrysts = larger
crystals, matrix orgroundmass = smaller crystals.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of texture and chemical composition, usually as
reflected in the minerals that from due to crystallization. You will explore the classification of
igneous rocks in the laboratory portion of this course.
Extrusive/Volcanic Rocks
Basalts, Andesites, and Rhyolites are all types of volcanic rock distinguished on the basis of
their mineral assemblage and chemical compostion (see figure 6.13 in your text). These rocks
tend to be fine grained to glassy or porphyritic. Depending on conditions present during
eruption and cooling, any of these rock types may form one of the following types of volcanic
rocks.

Obsidian - dark colored volcanic glass showing concoidal fracture and few to no
crystals. Usually rhyolitic .

Pumice - light colored and light weight rock consisting of mostly holes (vesicles) that
were once occupied by gas, Usually rhyolitic or andesitic.

Vesicular rock - rock filled with holes (like Swiss cheese) or vesicles that were once
occupied by gas. Usually basaltic and andesitic.

If vesicles in a vesicular basalt are later filled by precipitation of calcite or quartz, the
fillings are termed amygdules and the basalt is termed an amygdularl basalt.
Pyroclasts = hot, broken fragments. Result from explosively ripping apart of magma.
Loose assemblages of pyroclasts called tephra. Depending on size, tephra can be
classified as bombs. lapilli, or ash.

Rock formed by accumulation and cementation of tephra called a pyroclastic rock or

tuff. Welding, compactioncause tephra (loose material) to be converted in pyroclastic
rock.

Intrusive/Plutonic Igneous Rocks

Shallow intrusions like dikes and sills are usually fine grained and sometimes porphritic
because cooling rates are similar to those of extrusive rocks. Classification is similar to the
classification for volcanic/extrusive rocks. Coarse grained rocks, formed at deeper levels in the
earth include gabbros, diorites, and granites. Note that these are chemically equivalent to
basalts, andesites, and rhyolites, but may have different minerals or different proportions of
mineral because their crystallization history is not interrupted as it might be for extrusive rocks
(see figure 6.13 in your text).
Pegmatites are very coarse grained igneous rocks consisting mostly of quartz and feldspar as
well as some more exotic minerals like tourmaline, lepidolite, muscovite. These usually form
dikes related to granitic plutons.
Distribution of Igneous Activity

Igneous activity is currently taking place as it has in the past in various tectonic settings. These
include diverging and converging plate boundaries, hot spots, and rift valleys.
Divergent Plate Boundaries
At oceanic ridges, igneous activity involves eruption of basaltic lava flows that form pillow
lavas at the oceanic ridges and intrusion of dikes and plutons beneath the ridges. The lava
flows and dikes are basaltic and the plutons mainly gabbros. These processes form the bulk of
the oceanic crust as a result of sea floor spreading. Magmas are generated by decompression
melting as hot solid asthenosphere rises and partially melts.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Subduction at convergent plate boundaries introduces water into the mantle above the
subduction and causes flux melting of the mantle to produce basaltic magmas. These rise
toward the surface differentiating by assimilation and crystal fractionation to produce andesitic
and rhyolitic magmas. The magmas that reach the surface build island arcs and continental
margin volcanic arcs built of basalt, andesite, and rhyolite lava flows and pyroclastic material.
The magmas that intrude beneath these arcs can cause crustal melting and form plutons and
batholiths of diorite and granite
Hot Spots
As discussed previously, hot spots are places are places where hot mantle ascends toward the
surface as plumes of hot rock. Decompression melting in these rising plumes results in the
production of magmas which erupt to form a volcano on the surface or sea floor, eventually
building a volcanic island. As the overriding plate moves over the hot spot, the volcano moves
off of the hot spot and a new volcano forms over the hot spot. This produces a hot spot track
consisting of lines of extinct volcanoes leading to the active volcano at the hot spot. A hot spot
located beneath a continent can result in heat transfer melting of the continental crust to produce
large rhyolitic volcanic centers and plutonic granitic plutons below. A good example of a
continental hot spot is at Yellowstone in the western U.S. Occasionally a hot spot is coincident
with an oceanic ridge. In such a case, the hot spot produces larger volumes of magma than
normally occur at ridge and thus build a volcanic island on the ridge. Such is the case for
Iceland which sits atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Rift Valleys
Rising mantle beneath a continent can result in extensional fractures in the continental crust to
form a rift valley. As the mantle rises it undergoes partial melting by decompression, resulting
in the production of basaltic magmas which may erupt as flood basalts on the surface. Melts
that get trapped in the crust can release heat resulting in melting of the crust to form rhyolitic
magmas that can also erupt at the surface in the rift valley. An excellent example of a
continental rift valley is the East African Rift.
Large Igneous Provinces
In the past, large volumes of mostly basaltic magma have erupted on the sea floor to form large
volcanic plateaus, such as the Ontong Java Plateau in the eastern Pacific. Such large volume

eruptions can have affects on the oceans because they change the shape of ocean floor and cause
a rise in sea level, that sometimes floods the continents. The plateaus form obstructions which
can drastically change ocean currents. These changes in the ocean along with massive amounts
of gas released by the magmas can alter climate and have drastic effects on life on the planet.