UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
MSc in ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
ENGR 6007: AIR POLLUTION

Potential Effects and Mitigations

for Air Pollution in Trinidad
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
CEMENT, QUARRYING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

NAME: FELISHA MOHAN

ID #: 812000567
YEAR: 1
SEMESTER: 2

Table of Contents
Indoor Air Pollution .................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
TABLE 1.1 POTENTIAL SOURCE OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CORRESPONDING COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Cement, Quarrying and Construction Industry ......................................................................................................................................... 10
CEMENT INDUSTRIES IN TRINIDAD ............................................................................................................................................ 10
QUARRYING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN TRINIDAD .............................................................................................. 12
A CLOSED CIRCUIT WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TO RECOVER ALL WASTEWATER ............................................. 13
DUST BOSS, HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM (TCL, HSSE, 2008). ...................................................................................................... 14
DUST SCREENS (TCL, HSSE, 2008) ................................................................................................................................................. 15
GUZZLER, VACUUM TRUCK (TCL, HSSE, 2008) ......................................................................................................................... 16
SETTLING PONDS FOR SUSPENDED PARTICLES (TCL, HSSE, 2008) ..................................................................................... 17
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Indoor Air Pollution

The potential causes of indoor air pollutants in Trinidad are derived from natural sources, combustion or burning and man-made
sources. People are exposed to a high level of economic development especially in urban areas and spend most of their time indoors
(WHO, 2008). Most of the air contaminants are trapped inside the homes and schools in these urban areas giving rise to poor indoor
air quality (WHO, 2008). Indoor air pollution in Trinidad can be mainly caused by solid fuel, chemicals and new substances
(formaldehyde, insecticides) and also second hand tobacco smoking (WHO, 2008). In the rural areas of Trinidad, it consists of mostly
agricultural areas where Indoor Air Pollution is affected by dust and organic particles. For urban areas, where the environment is not
ventilated, mites and fungal contaminants would exist in the closed indoor environments (WHO, 2008).
In urban areas (Port of Spain, Chaguanas, San Fernando, industrial areas such as Point Lisas), people spend most of their time
indoors where their primary exposure to air pollution comes from air inside homes and schools. The contaminants accumulate indoors
after a while from second hand smoke, spraying of insecticides, accumulation of pollutants in carpets and poor air quality (Burning of
the Beetham) (WHO, 2008).
The potential of outdoor air pollutants affecting indoor air quality in Trinidad are open fires; combustion of unsafe fuels, coal,
tyres, garbage and kerosene. Volatile organic compounds release glues, resins, polishing materials, perfumes, spray propellants and
cleaning agents (WHO, 2008). The effects of formaldehyde which is mostly used in household products and can cause irritation of the
eyes, nose and airways. Once the outdoor air environment is poor, the indoor environment would reflect the outdoor air quality

(WHO, 2008). The potential causes of Indoor Air Pollution are mainly industrial or agricultural activities, treatment of industrial
effluents and domestic residues, traffic, solid waste management, chemical incidents and spills (WHO, 2008).
TABLE 1.1 POTENTIAL SOURCE OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CORRESPONDING COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS

Sources

Combustion Products

Gas stoves and appliances

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Gas and propane engines

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Tobacco smoke

Nitrogen compounds (NOX)

Candles and incense

Particulate matter (PM)

Mosquito coils

Particulate matter (PM)

(WHO, 2008)

In Trinidad, traffic is a major issue. The outdoor air pollution results from the combustion of the fossil fuels by the industrial
plants in Petrotrin and vehicles. These sources release carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons and other pollutants (WHO, 2008).
Potential health effects of IAP are irritation of mucous membranes (eyes, nose, throat), cough, wheeze, chest tightness,
increased allergies due to open airways, increase respiratory illnesses ( common cold, pneumonia, otitis media, traceobronchitis,

exacerbation of asthma). Long term exposure to the indoor air pollutants causes long term effects for decrease in lung growth,
impaired pulmonary function, increased lung disease and asthma attacks (WHO, 2008).
Carbon monoxide is a main potential cause of IAP where combustion is incomplete. Carbon monoxide in Trinidad is released
from gas, kerosene, fires, furnaces and stacks from industries, vents, vehicular exhaust and tobacco smoke (WHO, 2008). These
incomplete combustion in gases cause high concentrations of CO in indoor air. Carbon monoxide can affect haemoglobin which
decrease the oxygen carrying capacity. Multiple organ systems in the human body can be affected by high levels of carbon monoxide,
mainly the metabolic rates, central nervous system (CNS) and the cardiovascular system. Since the gas is odorless and colourless, it
has deadly effects that is not recognized until the symptoms and illness are too late to be recognized (WHO, 2008). Carbon monoxide
can affect unborn babies, infants and people with anemia and heart disease. Indoor air pollution with carbon monoxide gas causes
fatigue, increase chest pain for people with chronic heart disease, headaches, dizziness and weakness in healthy people (WHO, 2008).
At very high levels, it causes loss of consciousness and death (Carbon monoxide poisoning).
To mitigate carbon monoxide effects for IAP, ensure all fuel burning appliances are in good working condition, check heating
systems, chimneys and vents regularly, never burn charcoal indoors, never leave car running in a closed garage and use CO detectors
in business areas and large buildings (WHO, 2008). For urban areas, air quality test for carbon monoxide must be done every day and
all air-conditioned and ventilation system must be cleaned often to prevent dirty vents and unintentional carbon monoxide related
deaths.

Tobacco smoking is another main cause of indoor air pollution at homes and schools. Second hand smoking increases the risk
of respiratory tract illness, asthma, middle ear effusions, prenatal complications, low birth weight, fire related injuries, sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS), cancers (leukemia and others) (WHO, 2008).
Pesticides at homes and schools affect IAP when the high concentrations are near the floor and persistence of insecticides in
carpets and soft toys (WHO, 2008). This poses a risk to young children creating a chronic toxic environment indoors. The effects are
carcinogenesis, endocrine disruption and neurodevelopmental effects. To prevent indoor air pollution, different classes of pesticides
are used to replace toxic and very harmful pesticides. These classes of pesticides commonly used in Trinidad for controlling insects
indoors are insect repellents (DEET), citronella candles, insect sprays and mosquito coils (WHO, 2008). This affects human health by
acute poisoning and allergic and other symptoms such as headache, nausea vomiting, cough, rhinitis, bronchitis, asthma and allergies.
Long exposures to mosquito coil smoke can cause asthma and wheezing which has a high rate in Trinidad.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) affect indoor air pollution because it is highly toxic. VOC sources are found in household
products such as paints, varnishes, wax, cosmetics, degreasing products, aerosol sprays, cleansers, disinfectants, air fresheners and
fuels (WHO, 2008). The possible effects of VOCs are mainly to human health. At high levels of exposure for a long period of time, it
affects the human health. For acute effects, irritation of eyes and respiratory tract, headache, dizziness, loss of coordination, nausea,
visual disorders and allergic reactions (asthma). Chronic effects are damage to liver, kidney, blood system and central nervous system
and cancer in humans (WHO, 2008).

The possible mitigations of VOCs effects on IAP can be to use household products according to manufacturers directions,
allow a lot of fresh air to enter indoors, dispose of the containers safely and never mix the products unless directed by the label.
Indoor air quality in Trinidad can be disrupted by biological pollutants such as animal dander, dust mites, moulds, infectious
agents and pollen (WHO, 2008). It is caused from water damaged surfaces and materials, humidifiers and stagnant water, water
vapour from cooking and showering, air conditioned systems, mattresses, upholstered furniture and carpets and dirt. These dust mites,
fungi and bacteria require an environment with moisture to multiply and grow (WHO, 2008). The permeation of rain or groundwater
into a building and condensation on cold interior surfaces such as air condition systems and water coolers encouraged the proliferation
of microbes. Shower bathrooms with insufficient air exchange causes moisture problems. Dust mites are present mattresses, furniture
and carpets. Moulds present indoors affects humans by causing infections, allergic reactions and toxic effects. The toxic effects are
activated by inhalation of the mycotoxins. In order to prevent these effects, mattress and pillows should be encased, bedding should be
washed in hot water, frequent vacuuming and damp mopping, decreasing clutter and removing carpets.
For animals allergens, the affect some people by causing allergic reactions, dust mites and asthma morbidity. To prevent indoor
air pollution caused by animals; all animals should be removed from indoor, environment and pets should be cleaned, ventilation
should be at an adequate quantity and dust and moisture should be controlled Moulds which are a frequently undetected environmental
problem and occur in mostly damp areas. Moulds can affect human health by causing conjunctival and airway irritation, headaches,

difficulty in concentrating, hypersensitivity reactions such as asthma, rhinitis, systematic infections and acute exposure associated with
pulmonary haemorrhage in children.
Indoor air pollution in buildings can be a major concern due to the materials used in construction and the toxic releases into the
air. These building in Trinidad include homes, schools and business buildings. These pollutants would have an effect on health and
performance of people at school and workplace. The effects can result in lack of ventilation, increases risk of exposure caused by
heating and faulty air conditioning, sick building syndrome and illness linked to airborne contaminants in the building. The sick
building syndrome may cause discomfort not related to illness, time spent inside the building, causes are unknown sources, most
complaints are revealed by students or employees are leaving the building or evolved area. The possible causes of sick building
syndrome are due to inadequate building design, occupant activities, remodeled buildings which differ from the original building
design, chemical and biological contaminants inadequate ventilation and maintenance. The possible mitigations are removal of the
pollutant source, increase the ventilation system in the building, use air cleaning devices such as filters, education and communicate
with the people in the building.
Radon is a radioactive gas which is released from soils and rocks (Adler, 2000). The radon gas from the soil and geological area
around enters the house which acts as a vacuum sucking the radon gas inside. In Trinidad, it is present and causes the increase risk of
lung cancer and alteration of DNA once the build up inside a house reaches dangerous levels. Radon can be dangerous for people at
home and children at schools (Adler, 2000). The mitigation system for radon involves a gas permeable layer, plastic sheeting, sealing

and caulking, vent pipe and junction box (WHO, 2008). The gas permeable layer, 4 inches of clean gravel is placed under the flooring
system which allows the soil gas underneath the house or school to move freely (WHO, 2008). A plastic sheeting is placed on top the
gravel layer and under the flooring slab in order to prevent soil gas from entering the home. In the concrete foundation floor, all the
openings are sealed to reduce gas entry into the buildings (WHO, 2008). A vent pipe made up of PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipe is
installed from the gas permeable layer through the house or school building straight through the roof to vent all the radon and soil gas
safely above the building (WHO, 2008).
Asbestos is a fibrous material (Adler, 2000). It is very resistant and indestructible and mainly used for building materials and
manufactured products. Asbestos is used for insulation and fire retardation in many buildings in Trinidad. They are found in asbestos
cement, floor, roof tiles, water pipes and other materials (Adler, 2000). Once the asbestos materials are damaged, levels of asbestos
increases. The asbestos has many health effects such as no acute toxicity, asbestosis due to occupational exposure and its main risk is
cancer especially to children at a young age into adulthood (lung cancer) after long term exposures. When the asbestos material are
deteriorating, fibers are released either during destruction or renovation of the buildings with asbestos materials (Adler, 2000). These
microfibers are inhaled and it is the major route and cause for cancers such as lung cancer in Trinidad.
General mitigations to reduce indoor air pollution in homes are improve stoves, use clean fuels (kerosene, gas), use venting
stoves for cooking and heating, do regular maintenance for heating, cooking and cooling systems, use nonvolatile and nontoxic
materials for buildings and maintain dry homes and schools (Adler, 2000).. The ventilation system must be included in the building

design to remove pollutants utilizing the outdoor air. Air filters and ionizers are used to remove airborne particles for sickness and
diseases. The gas adsorbing material are used to remove gaseous contaminants for the air in the indoor environments. These
mitigations are used to prevent an illness and avoid indoor air quality problems (Adler, 2000).

Cement, Quarrying and Construction Industry

CEMENT INDUSTRIES IN TRINIDAD
Cement, quarrying and construction industry in Trinidad are major harm and issue to the environment. It have the potential to
cause air pollution in Trinidad. Cement is a fine, gray or white powder which is mostly made up of Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) and a
byproduct of final cement product (Bhalki, 2013). These are stored as waste in pen pits and landfills. Cement industry is a major
source of particulate matter, SOx, NOx and CO2 emissions and cement dust (Bhalki, 2013). The cement dust also contains heavy
metals such as chromium, nickel, cobalt, lead and mercury pollutants (Bhalki, 2013). These pollutants are hazardous to the biotic
environment and create a negative impact on the vegetation, ecosystem, human and animal health (Bhalki, 2013).
The potential causes of air pollution from the cement industry is the cement dust during production, gaseous and particulate
pollutants which enhance levels of toxic metals.
The potential effects of the cement industry is mostly health and environmental effects (Bhalki, 2013). Cement dust exposure
for a short period of time may not have any serious problems whereas long term exposure can cause serious irreversible damage to
plants and animals (Bhalki, 2013). Dust particles dissolving onto the leaf tissues may cause the stomata in the leaves to become
clogged, reduction of growth and chlorophyll, interruption of metabolism, absorption of light and diffusion of gases from the leaves.
The formation of the starch in the plants would be reduced which would prevent fruits and plant growth. Cement dust can cause
respiratory problems, gastrointestinal diseases, chronic impairment of lung function and chronic respiratory illnesses. The gaseous and
particulate pollutants cause a great hazard for all the living organisms (Bhalki, 2013).
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The particulate matter affects the air pollution in Trinidad Cement Industries by causing smoke, dust from the industrial
processes, construction industry and plant pollen. The particulate pollution can cause acute changes in lung function, respiratory
illness and aggravates chronic conditions such as asthma and bronchitis (Deborah, 1996). The increase in toxic pollutants enhance the
toxic heavy metal levels which causes reduction in growth, photosynthesis ability of leaves and overall productivity of plants (Bhalki,
2013).
Gaseous pollutants may contribute to the air pollution in Trinidad. The potential causes of gaseous air pollution from the
cement industry in Trinidad originate from cement kilns (NOx); combustion of sulphur bearing compounds such as coal, oil,
petroleum coke, procession pyrite and sulphur raw materials (SO2) and heating calcium carbonate (CO2). The cement industry is the
second largest carbon dioxide emitting industry in the world (Bhalki, 2013).
The potential health effects of the cement dust and gaseous pollutants affect mainly the respiratory system, gastro intestinal
system, stomach, allergic reaction (interference with breathing), chronic bronchitis, Emphysema, lung cancer, tuberculosis, cough and
wheezing (Bhalki, 2013).

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QUARRYING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN TRINIDAD

Quarrying in Trinidad is done by engineering activities, extraction and processing of sand and gravel. The potential cause of air
pollution in Trinidad Quarrying industry is dust. The dust occur from fugitive dust from excavation from haul road, blasting and from
drilling, crushing and screening (point source). The factors that affect dust generation on site are moisture, rock quality, ambient air
quality, air currents and prevailing winds (Norton and Groat, 2002).
Mitigations for quarrying dust which contributes to air pollution in Trinidad is an implementation of a dust control plan, good
housekeeping practices rather than control systems (TCL, HSSE, 2008).. The housekeeping techniques include water trucks, sweepers
and chemical application on haul roads (TCL, HSSE, 2008). On site, vehicles need to control their speed, construction of wind breaks.
Also in the cement plants, the use of dry or wet control systems need to be implemented. The dry mitigation techniques include
conveyors, vacuum systems and bag houses (TCL, HSSE, 2008). These systems and techniques remove dust before the air stream
outlet is releases into the atmosphere. At the dust generating sites, a wet suppression system with pressurized water sprays could be
used to reduce dust in the environment (TCL, HSSE, 2008). For the quarrying facility in Mayo Quarry; a closed circuit water
management system is utilized to recover all wastewater and reused to prevent pollution (TCL, HSSE, 2008).

12

A CLOSED CIRCUIT WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TO RECOVER ALL WASTEWATER

(TCL, HSSE, 2008).

13

For cement industries in Trinidad, TCL (Trinidad Cement Limited), they implemented initiatives to mitigate dust. They use a
high pressure system (Dust Boss), dust screens, GUZZLER (vacuum truck), settling ponds and electrostatic precipitator. The Dust
Boss is the high pressure system which creates an ultrafine mist of water used to attract dust particles (TCL, HSSE, 2008).
DUST BOSS, HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM (TCL, HSSE, 2008).

These particles forms agglomeration which them falls to the ground or back onto the stockpile (TCL, HSSE, 2008). The dust
screens traps dust and prevent it from escaping to the outside or external environment (TCL, HSSE, 2008).

14

DUST SCREENS (TCL, HSSE, 2008)

The GUZZLER is a vacuum truck which cleans spilled material and it is recycled back into the manufacturing process (TCL,
HSSE, 2008). This truck reduces particulate emissions which arrived from conventional cleaning methods (TCL, HSSE, 2008).

15

GUZZLER, VACUUM TRUCK (TCL, HSSE, 2008)

The settling ponds collect the water run-off, allows suspended particles to settle before it exits the compound (reduction of Total
Suspended Solids, TSS in effluent) (TCL, HSSE, 2008).

16

SETTLING PONDS FOR SUSPENDED PARTICLES (TCL, HSSE, 2008)

17

REFERENCES

18