Losses from Precipitation

EVAPORATION

Course Learning Outcome 1

CLO 1
On completion of this chapter, students will be able to
evaluate water cycle for a catchment by estimation of
precipitation and the losses using measurement,
empirical and analytical methods.

Program Outcome 1
PO 1
To acquire and apply engineering fundamentals
to complex civil engineering problems
(Engineering knowledge).

Lesson Outcomes
On completion of this chapter ,you will be able to:

identify factors influencing evaporation

measure the rate of evaporation using various measurement
techniques
estimate the rate of evaporation using
empirical equations
analytical methods
suggest strategies to reduce evaporation from water resources

Losses from Precipitation

Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Infiltration
Depression storage

EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through
the transfer of heat energy.
Evaporation is particularly significant over large bodies of water
such as lakes, reservoirs and the ocean.
Knowledge on evaporation is useful for:
Planning and design of many water resources projects
Capacity of reservoirs for water supply & irrigation
Allowance for evaporation should be made to avoid serious errors.

Factors Affecting Evaporation

1. Vapour pressures at water surface and atmosphere
2. Air & water temperatures

3. Atmospheric pressure
4. Wind speed
5. Quality of water
6. Size of the water body

Factors Affecting Evaporation

1. Vapor Pressures at Water Surface & Atmosphere

Water Vapour Pressure (ea):
Pressure exerted by water vapour at air temperature.
Saturated Vapour Pressure (ew):
Pressure exerted by water vapour at water surface temperature.

The rate of evaporation (E) is proportional to the difference

between the saturated vapour pressure at water temperature (ew) and
the water vapour pressure in the air (ea).
E C (ew ea )

E = in mm/day ; ew and ea = in mm Hg ; C = constant

Evaporation: ew > ea
Condensation: ew < ea

Factors Affecting Evaporation

2. Air & Water Temperature

water E (high correlation)

atm E (low correlation)

E
water

3. Atmospheric Pressure
Patm (e.g. at high altitudes) E

atm

Factors Affecting Evaporation

4. Size of the Water Body

Deep water bodies have more heat storage than shallow
ones.
A deep lake may store radiation energy received in summer
and release it in winter causing less evaporation in summer
and more evaporation in winter compared to a shallow lake
exposed to a similar situation

Factors Affecting Evaporation

5. Wind Speed
Help in removing the evaporated water vapor close to the
surface of the water bodies and consequently create greater
scope for further evaporation.

Vwind E
However, if the wind velocity is large enough to remove all
the evaporated water vapour (critical speed), any further
increase in wind velocity does not influence the evaporation.
Vwind E retains

E
Critical velocity

Vwind

Factors Affecting Evaporation

6. Quality of Water - Soluble Salts

Soluble salts in water E
Specific gravity

Under the same conditions, evaporation from sea water is

about 2-3% less than that from fresh water.

Estimation of Evaporation
The amount of water evaporated from a water surface can be
estimated by the following methods:
Measurement
Empirical equations
Analytical methods
Meteorological data such as humidity, wind movement, air &
water temperature and precipitation are also noted along with
evaporation measurements.

Measurement

Measurement of Evaporation

Evaporation is estimated by using evaporimeters.

Evaporimeters are water-containing pans which
are exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of
water by evaporation measured in them at regular
intervals.
Some common types of evaporimeters are:
Class A Evaporation Pan
Colorado Sunken Pan
US Geological Survey Floating Pan

Measurement

Class A Evaporation Pan

It is a standard pan of 12.1-cm diameter and 25.5-m depth used by the US

Weather Bureau.

The depth of water is maintained between 18 -20 cm.

The pan is normally made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet or anti-corrosive

metal (where corrosion is a problem).

The pan is placed on a wooden platform of 15 cm height above the ground to

allow free circulation of air below the pan.

Evaporation measurements are made by measuring the drop in depth of water

with a hook gauge in a stilling well.

Measurement

Principles of Evaporation Pan

The pan is installed in the field

The pan is filled with a known quantity of water
Record the surface area of pan and the water depth
The water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period
of time (usually 24 hrs)
After 24 hrs, the remaining quantity of water is measured
The amount of evaporation per unit time is calculated
(i.e. the difference between the two measured water
depths for a given period of time)

Measurement

Day 1

Day 2

Measurement

Add water when the

water depth in the
pan drops too much

Take water out of the

pan when the water
depth rises too much

Measurement

Colorado Sunken Pan

The Colorado Sunken Pan is 920 mm2 and 460 mm deep, made up of
galvanized iron sheet and buried into the ground within 100 mm of
the top.
Radiation and aerodynamic characteristics are similar to
those of a lake
Difficult to detect leak, tall grass and dust might disturb
measurement, expansive to install

Measurement

US Geological Survey Floating Pan

Square pan (900 mm side and 450 mm depth) or circular pan is

set afloat in a lake.

The water level in the pan is kept at the same level as the lake
leaving a rim of 75 mm.
Simulate the radiation and aerodynamic characteristics of
large body of water
High cost of installation and maintenance
Difficult to perform measurements

Measurement

Limitations of Evaporation Pans

Evaporation pans are not exact models of large reservoirs and
therefore have the following drawbacks:
The heat-storing capacity differs from that of the lake.
The height of the rim in a pan affects the wind action over the
surface and it casts a shadow over the water surface.
Heat transfer characteristics of the pan material is different from
that of the lake.
Therefore, the evaporation observed from a pan has to be corrected by
pan coefficient to get the evaporation from a lake under similar
climatic and exposure conditions.
Lake evaporation
Cp
Pan evaporation

Types of pan

Average Cp

Range

Class A Pan

0.70

0.60-0.80

Colorado Sunken Pan

0.78

0.75-0.86

USGS Floating Pan

0.80

0.70-0.82

Measurement

Other Errors in Pan Evaporation that cannot be

corrected:

Films of dust
Oil from sprays
Screen covers placed over the pans to keep
out birds can cause errors in observation
Birds/Ducks bathing in pans

Methods of Evaporation Estimation

Empirical Equations:
Daltons Formula
Meyers Formula
Rohwers Formula

Analytical Methods:
Water-Budget Method
Energy-Budget Method
Mass Transfer Method

Relevant Parameters

Latent Heat of Evaporation (Lv):

Amount of energy needed for liquid water to change phase to
vapour.
[J/kg]
Lv = (2.501 x 106) - 2370Ta
Lv = 2501 2.37Ta
[kJ/kg]
Note: Ta = air temperature in C

Water Vapour Pressure (ea):

Actual vapour pressure exerted by water vapour at air temperature.

Saturated Vapour Pressure (ew):

Vapour pressure exerted by water vapour at water surface
temperature.
Contains maximum moisture.
How to find ew?
1.
Refer to Table 3.3 in textbook (pg. 72), or
2.
Use this equation,
17.27 Tw

ew 611 exp
237.3 Tw
17.27 Tw

ew 4.584 exp
237.3 Tw
Note: Tw = Water temperature in C

[Pa or N/m2]
[mm of Hg]

Table 3.3 (Pg72): ew and A

Saturated vapour pressure of water (ew )

Water sueface
temperature (oC)

Saturated vapour pressure ew

(mm of Hg)

Slope, A
(mm/oC)

4.58

0.30

5.0

6.54

0.45

7.5

7.78

0.54

10.0

9.21

0.60

12.5

10.87

0.71

15.0

12.79

0.80

17.5

15.00

0.95

20.0

17.54

1.05

22.5

20.44

1.24

25.0

23.76

1.40

27.5

27.54

1.61

30.0

31.82

1.85

32.5

36.68

2.07

35.0

42.81

2.35

37.5

48.36

2.62

40.0

55.32

2.95

45.0

71.20

3.66

A = Slope of ew vs. temperature

Relative Humidity ( ):
The ratio of the actual water vapour pressure of the air, ea
to that at saturated, ew.
Unit %

ea
100
ew

ea

.ew
100

Empirical Formulae for

Evaporation Estimation
Daltons Formula
Meyers Formula (1915)
Rohwers Formula (1931)

Daltons Formula

EL = K f(u) (ew- ea)

EL =
ew =
ea =
f(u) =
K=

Lake evaporation (mm/day)

Saturated vapour pressure (mm of Hg)
Water vapour pressure (mm of Hg)
Wind speed correction function
Daltons coefficient

Meyers Formula (1915)

u9
EL K M (ew ea )1
16
EL
KM

= Lake evaporation for 1-m2 area (mm/day)

= Meyers coefficient accounting for different waters
0.36 for large deep waters
0.50 for small, shallow waters

ew
ea
u9

= Saturated vapour pressure (mm Hg)

= Water vapour pressure (mm Hg)
= Monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at 9 m above ground
1/ 7

h
uh un
n

uh = wind velocity at a height h above the ground (h < 500 m)

un = wind velocity at n meter above ground

Example
A reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares (large waters, KM
= 0.36 ) had the following average values of parameters during a
week:

Water temperature = 20oC (Tw = 20oC)

Relative humidity 40% ( = 0.4)
Wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground = 16 km/h (u1 = 16 km/h)
Estimate:
(a)

the average daily evaporation per unit m2 of the lake

(b)

the volume of water evaporated from the lake during that one
week.

Solution
17.27Tw

ew 4.584 exp
237.3 Tw
17.27 20
4.584 exp

237
.
3

20

17.54 mm of Hg

ea
0.4 (Relativehumidity)
ew
ea 0.4 ew 0.4 17.54
7.02 mm of Hg
1/ 7

h
uh un
n

u
EL K M (ew ea )1 9
16
21.9
0.3617.54 7.021

16

8.97 mm/day

(b) Evaporated volume in 7 days

7

8.97
250 104
1000

157,000 m3

1/ 7

9
u9 u1
1

(a) By Meyers formula:

16.0(9)1/ 7 21.9 km/h

Empirical Equations

Rohwers Formula (1931)

EL= 0.771 (1.465-0.000732pa) (0.44+0.0733u0.6) (ew- ea)
EL = Lake evaporation 1-m2 area (mm/day)
Pa = Mean barometric reading (mm Hg)
ew = Saturated vapour pressure (mm Hg)
ea = Water vapour pressure (mm Hg)
u0.6 = Wind velocity in km/h at 0.6 m above ground
1/ 7

uh 0.6

0.6
un

uh = wind velocity at a height h above the ground (h < 500 m)

un = wind velocity at n meter above ground

Empirical Formulae for

Evaporation Estimation
Daltons Formula
Meyers Formula (1915)
Rohwers Formula (1931)

Analytical Methods for

Evaporation Estimation

Water-Budget Method
Energy-Budget Method
Mass Transfer Method

Water-Budget Method

This method is the simplest, but least reliable.

The method is an application of the principle of
continuity (conservation of mass).
Accuracy increases with time.
P

EL

TL
Vos

Vis

Vog

Vig
CROSS SECTION OF A LAKE

Ground Surface

Ground

Water-Budget Method
P

EL

TL

Vos

Vis

Vog

Vig

Ground Surface

Ground

CROSS SECTION OF A LAKE

Daily Precipitation (P),

Daily Lake Evaporation (EL),
Daily Transpiration Loss (TL),
Daily Surface Inflow into the Lake (Vis),
Daily Surface Outflow from the Lake (Vos),
Daily Groundwater Inflow into the Lake (Vig),
Daily Groundwater Outflow from the Lake (Vog),
Increase in lake storage in a day (S)

Water-Budget Method

The continuity equation can then be written as,

P + Vis + Vig = Vos + Vog + EL + S + TL

It can also be arranged as,

EL = P + (Vis - Vos) + (Vig - Vog) TL - S

Vig,Vog and TL are difficult to define and can only be roughly

estimated.
In view of the various uncertainties in the estimated values and
the possibilities of errors in measured variables, the waterbudget method CANNOT give very accurate results.

Energy-Budget Method

The method is an application of the principle of

conservation of energy, which include
consideration on the incoming energy, outgoing
energy and energy stored in the water body over a
known time of interval.
Results are satisfactory, with errors of the order
of 5% when applied to periods less than a week.

Hn

Hn = Ha + H e + Hg + Hs + Hi

Hb

Hc

rHc

Ha

Hn = Hc rHc - Hb= Hc (1r) - Hb

He

Hs
Hi

Energy-Budget Method

Hg
CROSS SECTION OF A LAKE

Hn = Net heat energy received by the water surface

Hc = Solar radiation
Hb = Back radiation (long wave) from water body
r = Reflection coefficient (albedo)
Ha = Sensible heat transfer from water surface to air = He
He = Heat energy used up in evaporation = Lv EL
Hs = Heat stored in water body
Hg = Heat flux into the ground
Hi = Net heat conducted out of the system by water flow (advected energy)
***All the energy terms are in calories/mm2/day ***

Energy-Budget Method
Hn = Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi
Negligible if the time periods are short

Ha
T T
6.1104 pa w a
LEL
ew ea

Bowens ratio, to correct the measurement

pa = Atmospheric pressure (mm of mercury) = 760 mm Hg

ew= Saturated vapour pressure (mm of mercury)
ea = Actual vapour pressure (mm of mercury)
Tw = Temperature of water surface (C)
Ta = Temperature of air (C)

Energy-Budget Method

Typical values of Bowens ratio, :

Area
Tropical Oceans
Tropical Wet Jungles
Temperate Forests
Grassland
Semi-arid areas
Deserts

0.1
0.1 - 0.3
0.4 - 0.8
0.4 - 0.8
2-6
10

Energy-Budget Method

The final equation after simplifications,

EL

H n H g H s Hi

w Lv 1

= Bowens ratio
w = density of water (1000 kg/m3)
Lv = latent heat of evaporation
Lv = (2.501 x 106) 2370 Ta
Lv = 2501 2.37 Ta
Ta = air temperature in C

[J/kg]
[kJ/kg]

Energy-Budget Method

Example
Calculate the daily evaporation rate (in mm/day) from an open
surface, if the net radiation is 200 W/m2, relative humidity of
40%, water surface temperature is 30 oC and the air temperature
is 25 oC. Assume no other sensible heats or ground heat flux.
Daily evaporation rate = ??? mm/day
Hn = 200 W/m2
= 40%
Tw = 30 oC
Ta = 25 oC
Hs = Hg = 0 W/m2

Mass Transfer (Aerodynamic) Method

Mass-transfer method is based on theories of turbulent mass

transfer in boundary layers to calculate the mass water vapor
transferred from the surface to the surrounding atmosphere
It estimates evaporation from modeling mass & momentum
transport of water vapour from evaporating surface by
convection.
Convection - the circulatory motion that occurs in a fluid at a nonuniform
temperature owing to the variation of its density and the action of gravity

The equation is developed by EL = f(u) (ew- ea)

Mass Transfer (Aerodynamic) Method

0.622k au
EL
(ew ea )
2
pa w ln Z / Z o
2

k = Von Karman constant (= 0.4)

pa = atmospheric pressure (100 kPa)
a = density of air (refer to table of water properties)
w = density of water (1000 kg/m3)
u = wind speed at Z level
Z = height at which wind speed is measured
Zo = roughness height

Mass Transfer (Aerodynamic) Method

Example
Calculate the evaporation rate from an open surface with air
temperature 20oC, water surface temperature 25oC, relative
humidity 40%, atmospheric pressure 100 kPa and wind speed
3 m/s, all measured at height 2 m above the water surface.
Assume a roughness height of 0.03 cm.
Daily evaporation rate = ??? mm/day
Tw = 25 oC
= 40%
2
0.622k au
Pa = 100 kPa
EL
u2 = 3 m/s
p
ln
Z
/
Z
a
w
o
k = 0.4
Z=2m
Za = 0.03 cm = 0.0003 m

(ew ea )

Summary of Methods of Evaporation Estimation

Measurement using evaporimeter:

Class A Evaporation Pan
Colorado Sunken Pan
US Geological Survey Floating Pan

Empirical Equations:
Daltons Formula
Meyers Formula
Rohwers Formula

Analytical Methods:
Water-Budget Method
Energy-Budget Method
Mass Transfer Method

Reduction of Evaporation from

Water Resources

Under certain circumstances, some countries (e.g. arid

countries) tend to control the amount of water loss from
the evaporation process.
Why do we need to reduce evaporation?
Economic concerns
Conservation of water
BUT, total prevention of evaporation is impossible.

Water Conservation through the

Reduction of Evaporation
Reduction of Surface Area
Construction of reservoirs with minimum ratio of area to
storage
Storing water below ground
Storing water in one large reservoir instead of several
small reservoirs
Selecting proper reservoir sites

Water Conservation through

the Reduction of Evaporation
Mechanical Covers
Roofs applied over the small reservoir
Examples: permanent, temporary, floating rafts, floating
particles, etc)

Chemical Films
Application of thin chemical film (e.g. cetyl alcohol) on water
surface to reduce evaporation.
Characteristics of the films: strong, flexible, close back if
punctured, pervious to O2 and CO2, colourless, odourless,
nontoxic etc