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Science
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Science[nb1]isasystematicenterprisethatbuildsandorganizesknowledge
intheformoftestableexplanationsandpredictionsaboutthe
universe.[nb2][2]:58[3]
Contemporaryscienceistypicallysubdividedintothenaturalsciences,
whichstudythematerialworldthesocialsciences,whichstudypeopleand
societiesandtheformalsciences,suchasmathematics.Theformal
sciencesareoftenexcludedastheydonotdependonempirical
observations.[4]Disciplineswhichusesciencelikeengineeringand
medicinemayalsobeconsideredtobeappliedsciences.[5]

Thescaleoftheuniversemappedto
thebranchesofscienceandthe

DuringtheMiddleAgesintheMiddleEast,foundationsforthescientific
hierarchyofscience. [1]
[6][7][8]
methodwerelaidbyAlhazeninhisBookofOptics.
Fromclassical
antiquitythroughthe19thcentury,scienceasatypeofknowledgewas
morecloselylinkedtophilosophythanitisnowand,infact,intheWesternworld,theterm"naturalphilosophy"
encompassedfieldsofstudythataretodayassociatedwithscience,suchasastronomy,medicine,and
physics.[9][nb3]WhiletheclassificationofthematerialworldbytheancientIndiansandGreeksintoair,earth,fire
andwaterwasmorephilosophical,medievalMiddleEasternscientistsusedpractical,experimentalobservationto
classifymaterials.[10]
Inthe17thand18thcenturies,scientistsincreasinglysoughttoformulateknowledgeintermsoflawsofnature.
Overthecourseofthe19thcentury,theword"science"becameincreasinglyassociatedwiththescientificmethod
itself,asadisciplinedwaytostudythenaturalworld.Itwasinthe19thcenturythatscientificdisciplinessuchas
biology,chemistry,andphysicsreachedtheirmodernshapes.Thesametimeperiodalsoincludedtheoriginofthe
terms"scientist"and"scientificcommunity,"thefoundingofscientificinstitutions,andincreasingsignificanceof
theinteractionswithsocietyandotheraspectsofculture.[11][12]

Contents
1 History
1.1 Antiquity
1.2 Medievalscience
1.3 Renaissance,andearlymodernscience
1.4 AgeofEnlightenment
1.5 19thcentury
1.6 20thcenturyandbeyond
1.7 Thescientificmethod
1.8 Mathematicsandformalsciences
2 Scientificcommunity
2.1 Branchesandfields
2.2 Institutions
2.3 Literature
3 Scienceandsociety
3.1 Womeninscience
3.2 Sciencepolicy
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3.2 Sciencepolicy
3.3 Mediaperspectives
3.4 Politicalusage
3.5 Scienceandthepublic
4 Philosophyofscience
4.1 Certaintyandscience
4.2 Fringescience,pseudoscienceandjunkscience
5 Scientificpractice
5.1 Basicandappliedresearch
5.2 Researchinpractice
5.3 Practicalimpactsofscientificresearch
6 Seealso
7 Notes
8 References
9 Sources
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks
11.1 Publications
11.2 Resources

History
Scienceinabroadsenseexistedbeforethemodernera,andinmanyhistorical
civilizations.[nb4]Modernscienceisdistinctinitsapproachandsuccessfulin
itsresults:'modernscience'nowdefineswhatscienceisinthestrictestsense
oftheterm.[13]
Scienceinitsoriginalsenseisawordforatypeofknowledge,ratherthana
specializedwordforthepursuitofsuchknowledge.Inparticularitisoneof
thetypesofknowledgewhichpeoplecancommunicatetoeachotherand
share.Forexample,knowledgeabouttheworkingofnaturalthingswas
gatheredlongbeforerecordedhistoryandledtothedevelopmentofcomplex
abstractthinking.Thisisshownbytheconstructionofcomplexcalendars,
techniquesformakingpoisonousplantsedible,andbuildingssuchasthe
pyramids.Howevernoconsistentconscientiousdistinctionwasmadebetween
knowledgeofsuchthingswhicharetrueineverycommunityandothertypes
ofcommunalknowledge,suchasmythologiesandlegalsystems.

Ananimationshowingthe
movementofthecontinentsfrom
theseparationofPangaeauntilthe
presentday

Antiquity
Beforetheinventionordiscoveryoftheconceptof"nature"(AncientGreekphusis),bythePreSocratic
philosophers,thesamewordstendtobeusedtodescribethenatural"way"inwhichaplantgrows,[14]andthe
"way"inwhich,forexample,onetribeworshipsaparticulargod.Forthisreasonitisclaimedthesemenwerethe
firstphilosophersinthestrictsense,andalsothefirstpeopletoclearlydistinguish"nature"and"convention".[15]
Sciencewasthereforedistinguishedastheknowledgeofnature,andthethingswhicharetrueforevery
community,andthenameofthespecializedpursuitofsuchknowledgewasphilosophytherealmofthefirst
philosopherphysicists.Theyweremainlyspeculatorsortheorists,particularlyinterestedinastronomy.Incontrast,
tryingtouseknowledgeofnaturetoimitatenature(artificeortechnology,Greektechn)wasseenbyclassical
scientistsasamoreappropriateinterestforlowerclassartisans.[16]Aclearcutdistinctionbetweenformal(eon)
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andempiricalscience(doxa)wasmadebypreSocraticphilosopher
Parmenides(fl.latesixthorearlyfifthcenturyBCE).Althoughhiswork
periphyseosisapoem,itmaybeviewedasanepistemologicalessay,an
essayonmethodinnaturalscience.Parmenides'mayrefertoa
formalsystem,acalculuswhichcandescribenaturemorepreciselythan
naturallanguages.'Physis'maybeidenticalto.[17]
Amajorturningpointinthehistoryof
earlyphilosophicalsciencewasthe
controversialbutsuccessfulattemptby
Maize,knowninsomeEnglishspeaking
Socratestoapplyphilosophytothestudy
countriesascorn,isalargegrainplant
ofhumanthings,includinghuman
domesticatedbyindigenouspeoplesin
nature,thenatureofpolitical
Mesoamericainprehistorictimes
communities,andhumanknowledge
itself.Hecriticizedtheoldertypeof
studyofphysicsastoopurelyspeculative,andlackinginselfcriticism.Hewas
particularlyconcernedthatsomeoftheearlyphysiciststreatednatureasifitcould
beassumedthatithadnointelligentorder,explainingthingsmerelyintermsof
motionandmatter.Thestudyofhumanthingshadbeentherealmofmythology
andtradition,andSocrateswasexecuted.[19]Aristotlelatercreatedaless
Aristotle,384BC322BC
controversialsystematicprogrammeofSocraticphilosophy,whichwas
oneoftheearlyfiguresin
teleological,andhumancentred.Herejectedmanyoftheconclusionsofearlier
thedevelopmentofthe
scientists.Forexample,inhisphysicsthesungoesaroundtheearth,andmany
scientificmethod[18]
thingshaveitaspartoftheirnaturethattheyareforhumans.Eachthinghasa
formalcauseandfinalcauseandaroleintherationalcosmicorder.Motionand
changeisdescribedastheactualizationofpotentialsalreadyinthings,accordingtowhattypesofthingstheyare.
WhiletheSocraticsinsistedthatphilosophyshouldbeusedtoconsiderthepracticalquestionofthebestwayto
liveforahumanbeing(astudyAristotledividedintoethicsandpoliticalphilosophy),theydidnotargueforany
othertypesofappliedscience.
Aristotlemaintainedthesharpdistinctionbetweenscienceandthepracticalknowledgeofartisans,treating
theoreticalspeculationasthehighesttypeofhumanactivity,practicalthinkingaboutgoodlivingassomethingless
lofty,andtheknowledgeofartisansassomethingonlysuitableforthelowerclasses.Incontrasttomodernscience,
Aristotle'sinfluentialemphasiswasuponthe"theoretical"stepsofdeducinguniversalrulesfromrawdata,anddid
nottreatthegatheringofexperienceandrawdataaspartofscienceitself.[nb5]

Medievalscience
DuringlateantiquityandtheearlyMiddleAges,theAristotelianapproachtoinquiriesonnaturalphenomenawas
used.Someancientknowledgewaslost,orinsomecaseskeptinobscurity,duringthefalloftheRomanEmpire
andperiodicpoliticalstruggles.However,thegeneralfieldsofscience,or"naturalphilosophy"asitwascalled,
andmuchofthegeneralknowledgefromtheancientworldremainedpreservedthoughtheworksoftheearlyLatin
encyclopedistslikeIsidoreofSeville.Also,intheByzantineempire,manyGreeksciencetextswerepreservedin
SyriactranslationsdonebygroupssuchasNestoriansandMonophysites.[22]Manyoftheseweretranslatedlater
onintoArabicundertheCaliphate,duringwhichmanytypesofclassicallearningwerepreservedandinsome
casesimprovedupon.[22][nb7]TheHouseofWisdomwasestablishedinAbbasideraBaghdad,Iraq.[23]Itis
consideredtohavebeenamajorintellectualcenter,duringtheIslamicGoldenAge,whereMuslimscholarssuchas
alKindiandIbnSahlinBaghdad,andIbnalHaythaminCairo,flourishedfromtheninthtothethirteenth
centuries,untiltheMongolsackofBaghdad.IbnalHaytham,knownlatertotheWestasAlhazen,furtheredthe
Aristotelianviewpoint,[24]byemphasizingexperimentaldata.[nb8][25]Inthelatermedievalperiod,asdemandfor
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IbnalHaytham(Alhazen),
9651039Iraq.TheMuslim
scholarwhoisconsideredby
sometobethefatherof
modernscientific
methodologyduetohis
emphasisonexperimental
dataandreproducibilityof
itsresults. [21][nb6]

ScienceWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

translationsgrew,forexamplefromthe
ToledoSchoolofTranslators,Western
Europeansbegancollectingtextswritten
notonlyinLatin,butalsoLatintranslations
fromGreek,Arabic,andHebrew.Thetexts
ofAristotle,Ptolemy,[nb9]andEuclid,
preservedintheHousesofWisdom,were
soughtamongstCatholicscholars.In
Europe,Alhazen'sDeAspectibusdirectly
influencedRogerBacon(13thcentury)in
England,whoarguedformoreexperimental
science,asdemonstratedbyAlhazen.By
thelateMiddleAges,asynthesisof
CatholicismandAristotelianismknownas
ScholasticismwasflourishinginWestern
Europe,whichhadbecomeanew
geographiccenterofscience,butallaspects
ofscholasticismwerecriticizedinthe15th
and16thcenturies.

Renaissance,andearlymodern
science

Galen(129c.216)notedtheoptic
chiasmisXshaped.(Engravingfrom
Vesalius,1543)

Depotentiisanimesensitive,Gregor
Reisch(1504)Margarita
philosophica.Medievalscience
mootedaventricleofthebrainasthe
locationforourcommonsense, [20]
wheretheformsfromoursensory
systemscommingled.

Medievalsciencecarriedonthe
viewsoftheHellenistcivilizationof
Socrates,Plato,andAristotle,as
shownbyAlhazen'slostworkA
BookinwhichIhaveSummarized
theScienceofOpticsfromtheTwo
BooksofEuclidandPtolemy,to
whichIhaveaddedtheNotionsof
theFirstDiscoursewhichis
MissingfromPtolemy'sBookfrom
IbnAbiUsaibia'scatalog,ascited
in(Smith2001).:91(vol.1),p.xv
Alhazenconclusivelydisproved
Ptolemy'stheoryofvision.
Frontpageofthe1572LatinOpticae
Thesaurus(opticstreasury),which
includedAlhazen'sBookofOptics,
showingpropagationoflight,
rainbows,parabolicmirrors,distorted
imagescausedbyrefractioninwater,
andperspective.

Drer'suseofoptics(1525)

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ButAlhacenretainedAristotle'sontologyRogerBacon,Witelo,andJohnPeckhameachbuiltupascholastic
ontologyuponAlhazen'sBookofOptics,acausalchainbeginningwithsensation,perception,andfinally
apperceptionoftheindividualanduniversalformsofAristotle.[26]Thismodelofvisionbecameknownas
Perspectivism,whichwasexploitedandstudiedbytheartistsoftheRenaissance.
A.MarkSmithpointsouttheperspectivisttheoryofvision"isremarkablyeconomical,reasonable,andcoherent",
whichpivotsonthreeofAristotle'sfourcauses,formal,material,andfinal.[27]AlthoughAlhacenknewthata
sceneimagedthroughanapertureisinverted,hearguedthatvisionisaboutperception.Thiswasoverturnedby
Kepler,[28]:p.102whomodelledtheeyewithawaterfilledglasssphere,withanapertureinfrontofittomodelthe
entrancepupil.Hefoundthatallthelightfromasinglepointofthescenewasimagedatasinglepointattheback
oftheglasssphere.Theopticalchainendsontheretinaatthebackoftheeyeandtheimageisinverted.[nb10]
CopernicusformulatedaheliocentricmodelofthesolarsystemunlikethegeocentricmodelofPtolemy's
Almagest.
Galileomadeinnovativeuseofexperimentandmathematics.Howeverhis
persecutionbeganafterPopeUrbanVIIIblessedGalileotowriteaboutthe
Copernicansystem.GalileohadusedargumentsfromthePopeandput
theminthevoiceofthesimpletoninthework"DialogueConcerningthe
TwoChiefWorldSystems"whichcausedgreatoffensetohim.[30]

GalileoGalilei,fatherofmodern
science. [29]

InNorthernEurope,thenewtechnologyoftheprintingpresswaswidely
usedtopublishmanyargumentsincludingsomethatdisagreedwithchurch
dogma.RenDescartesandFrancisBaconpublishedphilosophical
argumentsinfavorofanewtypeofnonAristotelianscience.Descartes
arguedthatmathematicscouldbeusedinordertostudynature,asGalileo
haddone,andBaconemphasizedtheimportanceofexperimentover
contemplation.BaconquestionedtheAristotelianconceptsofformalcause
andfinalcause,andpromotedtheideathatscienceshouldstudythelawsof
"simple"natures,suchasheat,ratherthanassumingthatthereisany
specificnature,or"formalcause",ofeachcomplextypeofthing.Thisnew
modernsciencebegantoseeitselfasdescribing"lawsofnature".This
updatedapproachtostudiesinnaturewasseenasmechanistic.Baconalso
arguedthatscienceshouldaimforthefirsttimeatpracticalinventionsfor

theimprovementofallhumanlife.

AgeofEnlightenment
Inthe17thand18thcenturies,theprojectofmodernity,ashadbeenpromotedbyBaconandDescartes,ledto
rapidscientificadvanceandthesuccessfuldevelopmentofanewtypeofnaturalscience,mathematical,
methodicallyexperimental,anddeliberatelyinnovative.NewtonandLeibnizsucceededindevelopinganew
physics,nowreferredtoasNewtonianphysics,whichcouldbeconfirmedbyexperimentandexplainedusing
mathematics.LeibnizalsoincorporatedtermsfromAristotelianphysics,butnowbeingusedinanewnon
teleologicalway,forexample"energy"and"potential"(modernversionsofAristotelian"energeiaandpotentia").
InthestyleofBacon,heassumedthatdifferenttypesofthingsallworkaccordingtothesamegenerallawsof
nature,withnospecialformalorfinalcausesforeachtypeofthing.Itisduringthisperiodthattheword"science"
graduallybecamemorecommonlyusedtorefertoatypeofpursuitofatypeofknowledge,especiallyknowledge
ofnaturecomingcloseinmeaningtotheoldterm"naturalphilosophy".

19thcentury
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BothJohnHerschelandWilliamWhewellsystematizedmethodology:thelatter
coinedthetermscientist.WhenCharlesDarwinpublishedOntheOriginof
Speciesheestablisheddescentwithmodificationastheprevailingevolutionary
explanationofbiologicalcomplexity.Histheoryofnaturalselectionprovideda
naturalexplanationofhowspeciesoriginated,butthisonlygainedwide
acceptanceacenturylater.JohnDaltondevelopedtheideaofatoms.Thelawsof
thermodynamicsandtheelectromagnetictheorywerealsoestablishedinthe19th
century,whichraisednewquestionswhichcouldnoteasilybeansweredusing
Newton'sframework.Thephenomenathatwouldallowthedeconstructionofthe
atomwerediscoveredinthelastdecadeofthe19thcentury:thediscoveryofX
raysinspiredthediscoveryofradioactivity.Inthenextyearcamethediscovery
ofthefirstsubatomicparticle,theelectron.

20thcenturyandbeyond
Einstein'sTheoryofRelativityandthe
developmentofquantummechanicsledtothe
replacementofNewtonianphysicswithanew
physicswhichcontainstwoparts,thatdescribe
differenttypesofeventsinnature.

Combustionandchemical
reactionswerestudiedby
MichaelFaradayandreported
inhislecturesbeforetheRoyal
Institution:TheChemical
HistoryofaCandle,1861

Inthefirsthalfofthecenturythedevelopment
ofartificialfertilizermadepossibleglobal
humanpopulationgrowth.Atthesametime,the
structureoftheatomanditsnucleuswas
elucidated,leadingtothereleaseof"atomic
energy"(nuclearpower).Inaddition,the
extensiveuseofscientificinnovation,stimulated
bythewarsofthiscentury,ledtoantibioticsand
increasedlifeexpectancy,revolutionsin
transportation(automobilesandaircraft),andthe
developmentofICBMs,aspacerace,anda
nucleararmsraceallgivingawidespread
publicappreciationoftheimportanceofmodern

CharlesDarwinin1854,by
thenworkingtowards
publicationofOntheOrigin
ofSpecies

AsimulatedeventintheCMS
detectoroftheLargeHadron
Collider,featuringapossible
appearanceoftheHiggsboson

science.
Widespreaduseofintegratedcircuitsinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury,combinedwithcommunications
satellites,ledtoarevolutionininformationtechnology,andtheriseoftheglobalinternetandmobilecomputing,
includingsmartphones.
Morerecently,ithasbeenarguedthattheultimatepurposeofscienceistomakesenseofhumanbeingsandour
natureforexampleinhisbookConsilience,EOWilsonsaid"Thehumanconditionisthemostimportantfrontier
ofthenaturalsciences."[2]:334

Thescientificmethod
Thescientificmethodseekstoexplaintheeventsofnatureinareproducibleway.[nb11]Anexplanatorythought
experimentorhypothesisisputforward,asexplanation,usingprinciplessuchasparsimony(alsoknownas
"Occam'sRazor")andaregenerallyexpectedtoseekconsiliencefittingwellwithotheracceptedfactsrelatedto
thephenomena.[2]Thisnewexplanationisusedtomakefalsifiablepredictionsthataretestablebyexperimentor
observation.Thepredictionsaretobepostedbeforeaconfirmingexperimentorobservationissought,asproof
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thatnotamperinghasoccurred.Disproofofapredictionisevidenceofprogress.[nb12][nb13]Thisisdonepartly
throughobservationofnaturalphenomena,butalsothroughexperimentation,thattriestosimulatenaturalevents
undercontrolledconditions,asappropriatetothediscipline(intheobservationalsciences,suchasastronomyor
geology,apredictedobservationmighttaketheplaceofacontrolledexperiment).Experimentationisespecially
importantinsciencetohelpestablishcausalrelationships(toavoidthecorrelationfallacy).
Whenahypothesisprovesunsatisfactory,itiseithermodifiedor
discarded.[31]Ifthehypothesissurvivedtesting,itmaybecomeadopted
intotheframeworkofascientifictheory.Thisisalogicallyreasoned,self
consistentmodelorframeworkfordescribingthebehaviorofcertain
naturalphenomena.Atheorytypicallydescribesthebehaviorofmuch
broadersetsofphenomenathanahypothesiscommonly,alargenumberof
hypothesescanbelogicallyboundtogetherbyasingletheory.Thusa
theoryisahypothesisexplainingvariousotherhypotheses.Inthatvein,
theoriesareformulatedaccordingtomostofthesamescientificprinciples
ashypotheses.Inadditiontotestinghypotheses,scientistsmayalso
generateamodelbasedonobservedphenomena.Thisisanattemptto
describeordepictthephenomenonintermsofalogical,physicalor
mathematicalrepresentationandtogeneratenewhypothesesthatcanbe
tested.[32]
Whileperformingexperimentstotesthypotheses,scientistsmayhavea
preferenceforoneoutcomeoveranother,andsoitisimportanttoensure
IsaacNewton,shownhereina1689
thatscienceasawholecaneliminatethisbias.[33][34]Thiscanbeachieved
portrait,madeseminalcontributions
bycarefulexperimentaldesign,transparency,andathoroughpeerreview
toclassicalmechanics,gravity,and
processoftheexperimentalresultsaswellasanyconclusions.[35][36]After
optics.Newtonsharescreditwith
theresultsofanexperimentareannouncedorpublished,itisnormal
GottfriedLeibnizforthe
practiceforindependentresearcherstodoublecheckhowtheresearchwas
developmentofcalculus.
performed,andtofollowupbyperformingsimilarexperimentsto
determinehowdependabletheresultsmightbe.[37]Takeninitsentirety,the
scientificmethodallowsforhighlycreativeproblemsolvingwhileminimizinganyeffectsofsubjectivebiasonthe
partofitsusers(namelytheconfirmationbias).[38]

Mathematicsandformalsciences
Mathematicsisessentialtothesciences.Oneimportantfunctionofmathematicsinscienceistheroleitplaysin
theexpressionofscientificmodels.Observingandcollectingmeasurements,aswellashypothesizingand
predicting,oftenrequireextensiveuseofmathematics.Arithmetic,algebra,geometry,trigonometryandcalculus,
forexample,areallessentialtophysics.Virtuallyeverybranchofmathematicshasapplicationsinscience,
including"pure"areassuchasnumbertheoryandtopology.
Statisticalmethods,whicharemathematicaltechniquesforsummarizingandanalyzingdata,allowscientiststo
assessthelevelofreliabilityandtherangeofvariationinexperimentalresults.Statisticalanalysisplaysa
fundamentalroleinmanyareasofboththenaturalsciencesandsocialsciences.
Computationalscienceappliescomputingpowertosimulaterealworldsituations,enablingabetterunderstanding
ofscientificproblemsthanformalmathematicsalonecanachieve.AccordingtotheSocietyforIndustrialand
AppliedMathematics,computationisnowasimportantastheoryandexperimentinadvancingscientific
knowledge.[39]
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Whethermathematicsitselfisproperlyclassifiedassciencehasbeenamatterofsomedebate.Somethinkerssee
mathematiciansasscientists,regardingphysicalexperimentsasinessentialormathematicalproofsasequivalentto
experiments.Othersdonotseemathematicsasascience,sinceitdoesnotrequireanexperimentaltestofits
theoriesandhypotheses.Mathematicaltheoremsandformulasareobtainedbylogicalderivationswhichpresume
axiomaticsystems,ratherthanthecombinationofempiricalobservationandlogicalreasoningthathascometobe
knownasthescientificmethod.Ingeneral,mathematicsisclassifiedasformalscience,whilenaturalandsocial
sciencesareclassifiedasempiricalsciences.[40]

Scientificcommunity
Thescientificcommunityisthegroupofallinteractingscientists.Itincludesmanysubcommunitiesworkingon
particularscientificfields,andwithinparticularinstitutionsinterdisciplinaryandcrossinstitutionalactivitiesare
alsosignificant.

Branchesandfields

Thesomatosensorysystemislocated
throughoutourbodiesbutis
integratedinthebrain.

Scientificfieldsarecommonlydividedintotwomajorgroups:natural
sciences,whichstudynaturalphenomena(includingbiologicallife),and
socialsciences,whichstudyhumanbehaviorandsocieties.These
groupingsareempiricalsciences,whichmeanstheknowledgemustbe
basedonobservablephenomenaandcapableofbeingtestedforitsvalidity
byotherresearchersworkingunderthesameconditions.[41]Therearealso
relateddisciplinesthataregroupedintointerdisciplinaryappliedsciences,
suchasengineeringandmedicine.Withinthesecategoriesarespecialized
scientificfieldsthatcanincludepartsofotherscientificdisciplinesbut
oftenpossesstheirownnomenclatureandexpertise.[42]

Mathematics,whichisclassifiedasaformalscience,[43][44]hasboth
similaritiesanddifferenceswiththeempiricalsciences(thenaturalandsocialsciences).Itissimilartoempirical
sciencesinthatitinvolvesanobjective,carefulandsystematicstudyofanareaofknowledgeitisdifferent
becauseofitsmethodofverifyingitsknowledge,usingaprioriratherthanempiricalmethods.[45]Theformal
sciences,whichalsoincludestatisticsandlogic,arevitaltotheempiricalsciences.Majoradvancesinformal
sciencehaveoftenledtomajoradvancesintheempiricalsciences.Theformalsciencesareessentialinthe
formationofhypotheses,theories,andlaws,[46]bothindiscoveringanddescribinghowthingswork(natural
sciences)andhowpeoplethinkandact(socialsciences).
Apartfromitsbroadmeaning,theword"Science"sometimesmayspecificallyrefertofundamentalsciences
(mathsandnaturalsciences)alone.Scienceschoolsorfacultieswithinmanyinstitutionsareseparatefromthose
formedicineorengineering,whichisanappliedscience.

Institutions
Learnedsocietiesforthecommunicationandpromotionofscientificthoughtandexperimentationhaveexisted
sincetheRenaissanceperiod.[47]TheoldestsurvivinginstitutionistheItalianAccademiadeiLinceiwhichwas
establishedin1603.[48]TherespectiveNationalAcademiesofSciencearedistinguishedinstitutionsthatexistina
numberofcountries,beginningwiththeBritishRoyalSocietyin1660[49]andtheFrenchAcadmiedesSciencesin
1666.[50]

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Internationalscientificorganizations,suchastheInternationalCouncilforScience,havesincebeenformedto
promotecooperationbetweenthescientificcommunitiesofdifferentnations.Manygovernmentshavededicated
agenciestosupportscientificresearch.Prominentscientificorganizationsinclude,theNationalScience
FoundationintheU.S.,theNationalScientificandTechnicalResearchCouncilinArgentina,theacademiesof
scienceofmanynations,CSIROinAustralia,CentrenationaldelarecherchescientifiqueinFrance,MaxPlanck
SocietyandDeutscheForschungsgemeinschaftinGermany,andinSpain,CSIC.

Literature
Anenormousrangeofscientificliteratureispublished.[51]Scientificjournalscommunicateanddocumentthe
resultsofresearchcarriedoutinuniversitiesandvariousotherresearchinstitutions,servingasanarchivalrecord
ofscience.Thefirstscientificjournals,JournaldesSavansfollowedbythePhilosophicalTransactions,began
publicationin1665.Sincethattimethetotalnumberofactiveperiodicalshassteadilyincreased.In1981,one
estimateforthenumberofscientificandtechnicaljournalsinpublicationwas11,500.[52]TheUnitedStates
NationalLibraryofMedicinecurrentlyindexes5,516journalsthatcontainarticlesontopicsrelatedtothelife
sciences.Althoughthejournalsarein39languages,91percentoftheindexedarticlesarepublishedinEnglish.[53]
Mostscientificjournalscoverasinglescientificfieldandpublishtheresearchwithinthatfieldtheresearchis
normallyexpressedintheformofascientificpaper.Sciencehasbecomesopervasiveinmodernsocietiesthatitis
generallyconsiderednecessarytocommunicatetheachievements,news,andambitionsofscientiststoawider
populace.
SciencemagazinessuchasNewScientist,Science&Vie,andScientificAmericancatertotheneedsofamuch
widerreadershipandprovideanontechnicalsummaryofpopularareasofresearch,includingnotablediscoveries
andadvancesincertainfieldsofresearch.Sciencebooksengagetheinterestofmanymorepeople.Tangentially,
thesciencefictiongenre,primarilyfantasticinnature,engagesthepublicimaginationandtransmitstheideas,if
notthemethods,ofscience.
RecenteffortstointensifyordeveloplinksbetweenscienceandnonscientificdisciplinessuchasLiteratureor,
morespecifically,Poetry,includetheCreativeWritingScienceresourcedevelopedthroughtheRoyalLiterary
Fund.[54]

Scienceandsociety
Womeninscience
Sciencehastraditionallybeenamaledominatedfield,withsomenotableexceptions.[nb14]Womenhistorically
facedconsiderablediscriminationinscience,muchastheydidinotherareasofmaledominatedsocieties,suchas
frequentlybeingpassedoverforjobopportunitiesanddeniedcreditfortheirwork.[nb15]Forexample,Christine
Ladd(18471930)wasabletoenteraPh.D.programas'C.Ladd'Christine"Kitty"Laddcompletedthe
requirementsin1882,butwasawardedherdegreeonlyin1926,afteracareerwhichspannedthealgebraoflogic
(seetruthtable),colorvision,andpsychology.HerworkprecedednotableresearcherslikeLudwigWittgenstein
andCharlesSandersPeirce.Theachievementsofwomeninsciencehavebeenattributedtotheirdefianceoftheir
traditionalroleaslaborerswithinthedomesticsphere.[56]
Inthelate20thcentury,activerecruitmentofwomenandeliminationofinstitutionaldiscriminationonthebasisof
sexgreatlyincreasedthenumberofwomenscientists,butlargegenderdisparitiesremaininsomefieldsoverhalf
ofnewbiologistsarefemale,while80%ofPhDsinphysicsaregiventomen.Feministsclaimthisistheresultof
cultureratherthananinnatedifferencebetweenthesexes,andsomeexperimentshaveshownthatparents
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challengeandexplainmoretoboysthangirls,askingthemtoreflectmore
deeplyandlogically.[57]Intheearlypartofthe21stcentury,inAmerica,
womenearned50.3%bachelor'sdegrees,45.6%master'sdegrees,and
40.7%ofPhDsinscienceandengineeringfieldswithwomenearningmore
thanhalfofthedegreesinthreefields:Psychology(about70%),Social
Sciences(about50%),andBiology(about5060%).However,whenit
comestothePhysicalSciences,Geosciences,Math,Engineering,and
ComputerSciencewomenearnedlessthanhalfthedegrees.[58]However,
lifestylechoicealsoplaysamajorroleinfemaleengagementinscience
womenwithyoungchildrenare28%lesslikelytotaketenuretrack
positionsduetoworklifebalanceissues,[59]andfemalegraduatestudents'
interestincareersinresearchdeclinesdramaticallyoverthecourseof
graduateschool,whereasthatoftheirmalecolleaguesremains
unchanged.[60]

Sciencepolicy
Sciencepolicyisanareaofpublicpolicyconcernedwiththepoliciesthat
affecttheconductofthescientificenterprise,includingresearchfunding,
ofteninpursuanceofothernationalpolicygoalssuchastechnological
innovationtopromotecommercialproductdevelopment,weapons
development,healthcareandenvironmentalmonitoring.Sciencepolicy
alsoreferstotheactofapplyingscientificknowledgeandconsensustothe
developmentofpublicpolicies.Sciencepolicythusdealswiththeentire
domainofissuesthatinvolvethenaturalsciences.Inaccordancewith
publicpolicybeingconcernedaboutthewellbeingofitscitizens,science
policy'sgoalistoconsiderhowscienceandtechnologycanbestservethe
public.

MarieCuriewasthefirstpersontobe
awardedtwoNobelPrizes,Physicsin
1903andChemistryin1911[55]

PresidentClintonmeetsthe1998

Statepolicyhasinfluencedthefundingofpublicworksandsciencefor
U.S.NobelPrizewinnersinthe
thousandsofyears,datingatleastfromthetimeoftheMohists,who
WhiteHouse
inspiredthestudyoflogicduringtheperiodoftheHundredSchoolsof
Thought,andthestudyofdefensivefortificationsduringtheWarringStates
periodinChina.InGreatBritain,governmentalapprovaloftheRoyalSocietyinthe17thcenturyrecognizeda
scientificcommunitywhichexiststothisday.Theprofessionalizationofscience,beguninthe19thcentury,was
partlyenabledbythecreationofscientificorganizationssuchastheNationalAcademyofSciences,theKaiser
WilhelmInstitute,andStatefundingofuniversitiesoftheirrespectivenations.Publicpolicycandirectlyaffectthe
fundingofcapitalequipment,intellectualinfrastructureforindustrialresearch,byprovidingtaxincentivestothose
organizationsthatfundresearch.VannevarBush,directoroftheOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopmentfor
theUnitedStatesgovernment,theforerunneroftheNationalScienceFoundation,wroteinJuly1945that"Science
isaproperconcernofgovernment".[61]
Scienceandtechnologyresearchisoftenfundedthroughacompetitiveprocess,inwhichpotentialresearch
projectsareevaluatedandonlythemostpromisingreceivefunding.Suchprocesses,whicharerunbygovernment,
corporationsorfoundations,allocatescarcefunds.Totalresearchfundinginmostdevelopedcountriesisbetween
1.5%and3%ofGDP.[62]IntheOECD,aroundtwothirdsofresearchanddevelopmentinscientificandtechnical
fieldsiscarriedoutbyindustry,and20%and10%respectivelybyuniversitiesandgovernment.Thegovernment
fundingproportionincertainindustriesishigher,anditdominatesresearchinsocialscienceandhumanities.
Similarly,withsomeexceptions(e.g.biotechnology)governmentprovidesthebulkofthefundsforbasicscientific
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research.Incommercialresearchanddevelopment,allbutthemostresearchorientedcorporationsfocusmore
heavilyonneartermcommercialisationpossibilitiesratherthan"bluesky"ideasortechnologies(suchasnuclear
fusion).

Mediaperspectives
Themassmediafaceanumberofpressuresthatcanpreventthemfromaccuratelydepictingcompetingscientific
claimsintermsoftheircredibilitywithinthescientificcommunityasawhole.Determininghowmuchweightto
givedifferentsidesinascientificdebatemayrequireconsiderableexpertiseregardingthematter.[63]Few
journalistshaverealscientificknowledge,andevenbeatreporterswhoknowagreatdealaboutcertainscientific
issuesmaybeignorantaboutotherscientificissuesthattheyaresuddenlyaskedtocover.[64][65]

Politicalusage
Manyissuesdamagetherelationshipofsciencetothemediaandtheuseofscienceandscientificargumentsby
politicians.Asaverybroadgeneralisation,manypoliticiansseekcertaintiesandfactswhilstscientiststypically
offerprobabilitiesandcaveats.However,politicians'abilitytobeheardinthemassmediafrequentlydistortsthe
scientificunderstandingbythepublic.ExamplesintheUnitedKingdomincludethecontroversyovertheMMR
inoculation,andthe1988forcedresignationofaGovernmentMinister,EdwinaCurrieforrevealingthehigh
probabilitythatbatteryfarmedeggswerecontaminatedwithSalmonella.[66]
JohnHorgan,ChrisMooney,andresearchersfromtheUSandCanadahavedescribedScientificCertainty
ArgumentationMethods(SCAMs),whereanorganizationorthinktankmakesittheironlygoaltocastdoubton
supportedsciencebecauseitconflictswithpoliticalagendas.[67][68][69][70]HankCampbellandmicrobiologistAlex
Berezowhavedescribed"feelgoodfallacies"usedinpolitics,wherepoliticiansframetheirpositionsinawaythat
makespeoplefeelgoodaboutsupportingcertainpoliciesevenwhenscientificevidenceshowsthereisnoneedto
worryorthereisnoneedfordramaticchangeoncurrentprograms.[71]

Scienceandthepublic
Variousactivitiesaredevelopedtoapproximatethegeneralpublicandscience/scientists,suchasinscience
outreach,publicawarenessofscience,sciencecommunication,sciencefestivals,citizenscience,science
journalism,publicscience,popularscience,etc.seeScienceandthepublicforrelatedconcepts.Scienceis
representedbythe'S'inSTEMfields.

Philosophyofscience
Workingscientistsusuallytakeforgrantedasetofbasicassumptionsthatareneededtojustifythescientific
method:(1)thatthereisanobjectiverealitysharedbyallrationalobservers(2)thatthisobjectiverealityis
governedbynaturallaws(3)thattheselawscanbediscoveredbymeansofsystematicobservationand
experimentation.[13]Philosophyofscienceseeksadeepunderstandingofwhattheseunderlyingassumptionsmean
andwhethertheyarevalid.
Thebeliefthatscientifictheoriesshouldanddorepresentmetaphysicalrealityisknownasrealism.Itcanbe
contrastedwithantirealism,theviewthatthesuccessofsciencedoesnotdependonitbeingaccurateabout
unobservableentitiessuchaselectrons.Oneformofantirealismisidealism,thebeliefthatthemindor
consciousnessisthemostbasicessence,andthateachmindgeneratesitsownreality.[nb16]Inanidealisticworld
view,whatistrueforonemindneednotbetrueforotherminds.
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TheSandReckonerisaworkbyArchimedesin
whichhesetsouttodetermineanupperboundforthe
numberofgrainsofsandthatfitintotheuniverse.In
ordertodothis,hehadtoestimatethesizeofthe
universeaccordingtothecontemporarymodel,and
inventawaytoanalyzeextremelylargenumbers.

Therearedifferentschoolsofthoughtinphilosophyof
science.Themostpopularpositionisempiricism,[nb17]which
holdsthatknowledgeiscreatedbyaprocessinvolving
observationandthatscientifictheoriesaretheresultof
generalizationsfromsuchobservations.[72]Empiricism
generallyencompassesinductivism,apositionthattriesto
explainthewaygeneraltheoriescanbejustifiedbythefinite
numberofobservationshumanscanmakeandhencethe
finiteamountofempiricalevidenceavailabletoconfirm
scientifictheories.Thisisnecessarybecausethenumberof
predictionsthosetheoriesmakeisinfinite,whichmeansthat
theycannotbeknownfromthefiniteamountofevidence
usingdeductivelogiconly.Manyversionsofempiricism
exist,withthepredominantonesbeingbayesianism[73]and
thehypotheticodeductivemethod.[74]:p236

Empiricismhasstoodincontrasttorationalism,theposition
originallyassociatedwithDescartes,whichholdsthat
knowledgeiscreatedbythehumanintellect,notby
[74]:p20
observation.
Criticalrationalismisacontrasting20thcenturyapproachtoscience,firstdefinedbyAustrian
BritishphilosopherKarlPopper.Popperrejectedthewaythatempiricismdescribestheconnectionbetweentheory
andobservation.Heclaimedthattheoriesarenotgeneratedbyobservation,butthatobservationismadeinthe
lightoftheoriesandthattheonlywayatheorycanbeaffectedbyobservationiswhenitcomesinconflictwith
it.[74]:pp637Popperproposedreplacingverifiabilitywithfalsifiabilityasthelandmarkofscientifictheories,and
replacinginductionwithfalsificationastheempiricalmethod.[74]:p68Popperfurtherclaimedthatthereisactually
onlyoneuniversalmethod,notspecifictoscience:thenegativemethodofcriticism,trialanderror.[75]Itcoversall
productsofthehumanmind,includingscience,mathematics,philosophy,andart.[76]
Anotherapproach,instrumentalism,colloquiallytermed"shutupandcalculate",emphasizestheutilityoftheories
asinstrumentsforexplainingandpredictingphenomena.[77]Itviewsscientifictheoriesasblackboxeswithonly
theirinput(initialconditions)andoutput(predictions)beingrelevant.Consequences,theoreticalentitiesand
logicalstructureareclaimedtobesomethingthatshouldsimplybeignoredandthatscientistsshouldn'tmakea
fussabout(seeinterpretationsofquantummechanics).Closetoinstrumentalismisconstructiveempiricism,
accordingtowhichthemaincriterionforthesuccessofascientifictheoryiswhetherwhatitsaysaboutobservable
entitiesistrue.
PaulKFeyerabendadvancedtheideaofepistemologicalanarchism,whichholdsthattherearenousefuland
exceptionfreemethodologicalrulesgoverningtheprogressofscienceorthegrowthofknowledge,andthatthe
ideathatsciencecanorshouldoperateaccordingtouniversalandfixedrulesisunrealistic,perniciousand
detrimentaltoscienceitself.[78]Feyerabendadvocatestreatingscienceasanideologyalongsideotherssuchas
religion,magicandmythology,andconsidersthedominanceofscienceinsocietyauthoritarianandunjustified.He
alsocontended(alongwithImreLakatos)thatthedemarcationproblemofdistinguishingsciencefrom
pseudoscienceonobjectivegroundsisnotpossibleandthusfataltothenotionofsciencerunningaccordingto
fixed,universalrules.[78]Feyerabendalsostatedthatsciencedoesnothaveevidenceforitsphilosophicalprecepts,
particularlythenotionofUniformityofLawandtheUniformityofProcessacrosstimeandspace.[79]
Finally,anotherapproachoftencitedindebatesofscientificskepticismagainstcontroversialmovementslike
"scientificcreationism",ismethodologicalnaturalism.Itsmainpointisthatadifferencebetweennaturaland
supernaturalexplanationsshouldbemade,andthatscienceshouldberestrictedmethodologicallytonatural
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explanations.[nb18]Thattherestrictionismerelymethodological(ratherthanontological)meansthatscience
shouldnotconsidersupernaturalexplanationsitself,butshouldnotclaimthemtobewrongeither.Instead,
supernaturalexplanationsshouldbeleftamatterofpersonalbeliefoutsidethescopeofscience.Methodological
naturalismmaintainsthatpropersciencerequiresstrictadherencetoempiricalstudyandindependentverification
asaprocessforproperlydevelopingandevaluatingexplanationsforobservablephenomena.[80]Theabsenceof
thesestandards,argumentsfromauthority,biasedobservationalstudiesandothercommonfallaciesarefrequently
citedbysupportersofmethodologicalnaturalismascharacteristicofthenonsciencetheycriticize.

Certaintyandscience
Ascientifictheoryisempirical,[nb17][81]andisalwaysopentofalsificationifnew
evidenceispresented.Thatis,notheoryiseverconsideredstrictlycertainas
scienceacceptstheconceptoffallibilism.[nb19]ThephilosopherofscienceKarl
Poppersharplydistinguishestruthfromcertainty.Hewritesthatscientific
knowledge"consistsinthesearchfortruth",butit"isnotthesearchfor
certainty...Allhumanknowledgeisfallibleandthereforeuncertain."[82]:p4
Newscientificknowledgerarelyresultsinvastchangesinourunderstanding.
AccordingtopsychologistKeithStanovich,itmaybethemedia'soveruseof
wordslike"breakthrough"thatleadsthepublictoimaginethatscienceis
constantlyprovingeverythingitthoughtwastruetobefalse.[83]:119138While
therearesuchfamouscasesasthetheoryofrelativitythatrequiredacomplete
reconceptualization,theseareextremeexceptions.Knowledgeinscienceis
gainedbyagradualsynthesisofinformationfromdifferentexperiments,by
variousresearchers,acrossdifferentbranchesofscienceitismorelikeaclimb
thanaleap.[83]:123Theoriesvaryintheextenttowhichtheyhavebeentestedand
verified,aswellastheiracceptanceinthescientificcommunity.[nb20]For
TheDNAdoublehelixisa
example,heliocentrictheory,thetheoryofevolution,relativitytheory,andgerm
moleculethatencodesthe
theorystillbearthename"theory"eventhough,inpractice,theyareconsidered
geneticinstructionsusedinthe
[84]
factual. PhilosopherBarryStroudaddsthat,althoughthebestdefinitionfor
developmentandfunctioning
"knowledge"iscontested,beingskepticalandentertainingthepossibilitythatone
ofallknownlivingorganisms
isincorrectiscompatiblewithbeingcorrect.Ironicallythen,thescientist
andmanyviruses.
adheringtoproperscientificapproacheswilldoubtthemselvesevenoncethey
possessthetruth.[85]ThefallibilistC.S.Peircearguedthatinquiryisthestruggle
toresolveactualdoubtandthatmerelyquarrelsome,verbal,orhyperbolicdoubtisfruitless[86]butalsothatthe
inquirershouldtrytoattaingenuinedoubtratherthanrestinguncriticallyoncommonsense.[87]Heheldthatthe
successfulsciencestrust,nottoanysinglechainofinference(nostrongerthanitsweakestlink),buttothecableof
multipleandvariousargumentsintimatelyconnected.[88]
Stanovichalsoassertsthatscienceavoidssearchingfora"magicbullet"itavoidsthesinglecausefallacy.This
meansascientistwouldnotaskmerely"Whatisthecauseof...",butrather"Whatarethemostsignificantcauses
of...".Thisisespeciallythecaseinthemoremacroscopicfieldsofscience(e.g.psychology,
cosmology).[83]:141147Ofcourse,researchoftenanalyzesfewfactorsatonce,butthesearealwaysaddedtothe
longlistoffactorsthataremostimportanttoconsider.[83]:141147Forexample:knowingthedetailsofonlya
person'sgenetics,ortheirhistoryandupbringing,orthecurrentsituationmaynotexplainabehavior,butadeep
understandingofallthesevariablescombinedcanbeverypredictive.

Fringescience,pseudoscienceandjunkscience
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Anareaofstudyorspeculationthatmasqueradesasscienceinanattempttoclaimalegitimacythatitwouldnot
otherwisebeabletoachieveissometimesreferredtoaspseudoscience,fringescience,orjunkscience.[nb21]
PhysicistRichardFeynmancoinedtheterm"cargocultscience"forcasesinwhichresearchersbelievetheyare
doingsciencebecausetheiractivitieshavetheoutwardappearanceofsciencebutactuallylackthe"kindofutter
honesty"thatallowstheirresultstoberigorouslyevaluated.[89]Varioustypesofcommercialadvertising,ranging
fromhypetofraud,mayfallintothesecategories.
Therealsocanbeanelementofpoliticalorideologicalbiasonallsidesofscientificdebates.Sometimes,research
maybecharacterizedas"badscience",researchthatmaybewellintendedbutisactuallyincorrect,obsolete,
incomplete,oroversimplifiedexpositionsofscientificideas.Theterm"scientificmisconduct"referstosituations
suchaswhereresearchershaveintentionallymisrepresentedtheirpublisheddataorhavepurposelygivencreditfor
adiscoverytothewrongperson.[90]

Scientificpractice
AlthoughencyclopediassuchasPliny(fl.77AD)NaturalHistoryoffered
purportedfact,theyprovedunreliable.Askepticalpointofview,demandinga
methodofproof,wasthepracticalpositiontakentodealwithunreliable
knowledge.Asearlyas1000yearsago,scholarssuchasAlhazen(Doubts
ConcerningPtolemy),RogerBacon,Witelo,JohnPecham,FrancisBacon(1605),
andC.S.Peirce(18391914)providedthecommunitytoaddressthesepointsof
uncertainty.Inparticular,fallaciousreasoningcanbeexposed,suchas'affirming
theconsequent'.
"Ifamanwillbeginwithcertainties,heshallendindoubtsbutifhe
willbecontenttobeginwithdoubts,heshallendin
certainties."FrancisBacon(1605)TheAdvancementofLearning,
Book1,v,8
Themethodsofinquiryintoaproblemhavebeenknownforthousandsofyears,[91]
andextendbeyondtheorytopractice.Theuseofmeasurements,forexample,isa
practicalapproachtosettledisputesinthecommunity.
JohnZimanpointsoutthatintersubjectivepatternrecognitionisfundamentaltothe
creationofallscientificknowledge.[92]:p44Zimanshowshowscientistscanidentify
patternstoeachotheracrosscenturies:Zimanreferstothisabilityas'perceptual
consensibility'.[93]:p46Zimanthenmakesconsensibility,leadingtoconsensus,the
touchstoneofreliableknowledge.[93]:p104

Astronomybecamemuch
moreaccurateafterTycho
Brahedevisedhisscientific
instrumentsformeasuring
anglesbetweentwocelestial
bodies,beforetheinvention
ofthetelescope.Brahe's
observationswerethebasis
forKepler'slaws.

Basicandappliedresearch
Althoughsomescientificresearchisappliedresearchintospecificproblems,agreatdealofourunderstanding
comesfromthecuriositydrivenundertakingofbasicresearch.Thisleadstooptionsfortechnologicaladvancethat
werenotplannedorsometimesevenimaginable.ThispointwasmadebyMichaelFaradaywhen,allegedlyin
responsetothequestion"whatistheuseofbasicresearch?"heresponded"Sir,whatistheuseofanewborn
child?".[94]Forexample,researchintotheeffectsofredlightonthehumaneye'srodcellsdidnotseemtohaveany
practicalpurposeeventually,thediscoverythatournightvisionisnottroubledbyredlightwouldleadsearchand
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rescueteams(amongothers)toadoptredlightinthecockpitsofjetsand
helicopters.[83]:106110Inanutshell:Basicresearchisthesearchfor
knowledge.Appliedresearchisthesearchforsolutionstopractical
problemsusingthisknowledge.Finally,evenbasicresearchcantake
unexpectedturns,andthereissomesenseinwhichthescientificmethodis
builttoharnessluck.

Researchinpractice
Duetotheincreasingcomplexityofinformationandspecializationof
Anthropogenicpollutionhasaneffect
scientists,mostofthecuttingedgeresearchtodayisdonebywellfunded
ontheEarth'senvironmentand
groupsofscientists,ratherthanindividuals.[95]D.K.Simontonnotesthat
climate
duetothebreadthofverypreciseandfarreachingtoolsalreadyusedby
researcherstodayandtheamountofresearchgeneratedsofar,creationof
newdisciplinesorrevolutionswithinadisciplinemaynolongerbepossibleasitisunlikelythatsome
phenomenonthatmeritsitsowndisciplinehasbeenoverlooked.Hybridizingofdisciplinesandfinessing
knowledgeis,inhisview,thefutureofscience.[95]

Practicalimpactsofscientificresearch
Discoveriesinfundamentalsciencecanbeworldchanging.Forexample:

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Research

Impact

Staticelectricityandmagnetism(1600)
Electriccurrent(18thcentury)

Allelectricappliances,dynamo's,electricpowerstations,
modernelectronics,includingelectriclighting,television,
electricheating,magnetictape,loudspeaker,plusthecompass
andlightningrod.

Diffraction(1665)

Optics,hencefiberopticcable(1840s),modernintercontinental
communications,andcableTVandinternet

Germtheory(1700)

Hygiene,leadingtodecreasedtransmissionofinfectious
diseasesantibodies,leadingtotechniquesfordiseasediagnosis
andtargetedanticancertherapies.

Vaccination(1798)

Leadingtotheeliminationofmostinfectiousdiseasesfrom
developedcountriesandtheworldwideeradicationofsmallpox.

Photovoltaiceffect(1839)

Solarcells(1883),hencesolarpower,solarpoweredwatches,
calculatorsandotherdevices.

ThestrangeorbitofMercury(1859)andotherresearch SatellitebasedtechnologysuchasGPS(1973),satnavand
leadingtospecial(1905)andgeneralrelativity(1916) satellitecommunications[nb22]

Radiowaves(1887)

Radiohadbecomeusedininnumerablewaysbeyonditsbetter
knownareasoftelephony,andbroadcasttelevision(1927)and
radio(1906)entertainment.Otherusesincludedemergency
services,radar(navigationandweatherprediction),medicine,
astronomy,wirelesscommunications,andnetworking.Radio
wavesalsoledresearcherstoadjacentfrequenciessuchas
microwaves,usedworldwideforheatingandcookingfood.

Radioactivity(1896)andantimatter(1932)

Cancertreatment(1896),Radiometricdating(1905),nuclear
reactors(1942)andweapons(1945),PETscans(1961),and
medicalresearch(viaisotopiclabeling)

Xrays(1896)

Medicalimaging,includingcomputedtomography

Crystallographyandquantummechanics(1900)

Semiconductordevices(1906),hencemoderncomputingand
telecommunicationsincludingtheintegrationwithwireless
devices:themobilephone[nb22]

Plastics(1907)

Startingwithbakelite,manytypesofartificialpolymersfor
numerousapplicationsinindustryanddailylife

Antibiotics(1880's,1928)

Salvarsan,Penicilline,doxycyclineetc.

Nuclearmagneticresonance(1930's)

Nuclearmagneticresonancespectroscopy(1946),magnetic
resonanceimaging(1971),functionalmagneticresonance
imaging(1990's).

Seealso
Antiquariansciencebooks
Criticismofscience
Indexofbranchesofscience
Normativescience
Outlineofscience
Pathologicalscience

Pathologicalscience
Protoscience
Sciencewars
Sociologyofscientificknowledge

Notes
1.FromLatinscientia,meaning"knowledge"."science".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.RetrievedSeptember20,2014.
2."...modernscienceisadiscoveryaswellasaninvention.Itwasadiscoverythatnaturegenerallyactsregularlyenough
tobedescribedbylawsandevenbymathematicsandrequiredinventiontodevisethetechniques,abstractions,apparatus,
andorganizationforexhibitingtheregularitiesandsecuringtheirlawlikedescriptions."Heilbron2003,p.vii
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"science".MerriamWebsterOnlineDictionary.MerriamWebster,Inc.RetrievedOctober16,2011."3a:
knowledgeorasystemofknowledgecoveringgeneraltruthsortheoperationofgenerallawsespeciallyas
obtainedandtestedthroughscientificmethodb:suchknowledgeorsuchasystemofknowledgeconcernedwith
thephysicalworldanditsphenomena."
3.IsaacNewton'sPhilosophiaeNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica(1687),forexample,istranslated"MathematicalPrinciples
ofNaturalPhilosophy",andreflectsthethencurrentuseofthewords"naturalphilosophy",akinto"systematicstudyof
nature"
4."Thehistorian...requiresaverybroaddefinitionof"science"onethat...willhelpustounderstandthemodern
scientificenterprise.Weneedtobebroadandinclusive,ratherthannarrowandexclusive...andweshouldexpectthatthe
fartherbackwego[intime]thebroaderwewillneedtobe."DavidPingree(1992),"HellenophiliaversustheHistory
ofScience"Isis8355463,ascitedin(Lindberg2007,p.3),ThebeginningsofWesternscience:theEuropeanScientific
traditioninphilosophical,religious,andinstitutionalcontext,Seconded.Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPressISBN9780
226482057
SeeEdwardGrant(1997)"Whendidmodernsciencebegin?"(http://www.jstor.org/stable/41212592?Search=yes&r
esultItemClick=true&searchText=when&searchText=did&searchText=science&searchText=begin&searchUri=%2F
action%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dwhen%2Bdid%2Bscience%2Bbegin%26amp%3Bfilter%3D&seq=2#page
_scan_tab_contents)TheAmericanScholarpp.105113inJSTOR:
Historyofscience#Earlycultures
Historyofscience#AncientNearEast,Mesopotamia
Historyofscience#AncientNearEast,Egypt
HistoryofScienceinChina
Historyofscience#India
5."...[A]manknowsathingscientificallywhenhepossessesaconvictionarrivedatinacertainway,andwhenthefirst
principlesonwhichthatconvictionrestsareknowntohimwithcertaintyforunlessheismorecertainofhisfirst
principlesthanoftheconclusiondrawnfromthemhewillonlypossesstheknowledgeinquestionaccidentally."
Aristotle,NicomacheanEthics6(H.Rackham,ed.)Aristot.Nic.Eth.1139b(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?d
oc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b)
6.TraceyTokuhamaEspinosa(2010).Mind,Brain,andEducationScience:AComprehensiveGuidetotheNewBrain
BasedTeaching.W.W.Norton&Company.p.39.ISBN9780393706079."Alhazen(orAlHaytham9651039
C.E.)wasperhapsoneofthegreatestphysicistsofalltimesandaproductoftheIslamicGoldenAgeorIslamic
Renaissance(7th13thcenturies).Hemadesignificantcontributionstoanatomy,astronomy,engineering,mathematics,
medicine,ophthalmology,philosophy,physics,psychology,andvisualperceptionandisprimarilyattributedasthe
inventorofthescientificmethod,forwhichauthorBradleySteffens(2006)describeshimasthe"firstscientist"."
7.AlhacenhadaccesstotheopticsbooksofEuclidandPtolemy,asisshownbythetitleofhislostworkABookinwhichI
haveSummarizedtheScienceofOpticsfromtheTwoBooksofEuclidandPtolemy,towhichIhaveaddedtheNotionsof
theFirstDiscoursewhichisMissingfromPtolemy'sBookFromIbnAbiUsaibia'scatalog,ascitedin(Smith
2001):91(vol.1),p.xv
8."[IbnalHaytham]followedPtolemy'sbridgebuilding...intoagrandsynthesisoflightandvision.Partofhiseffort
consistedindevisingrangesofexperiments,ofakindprobedbeforebutnowundertakenonlargerscale."Cohen2010,
p.59
9.Thetranslator,GerardofCremona(c.111487),inspiredbyhisloveoftheAlmagest,cametoToledo,whereheknewhe
couldfindtheAlmagestinArabic.TherehefoundArabicbooksofeverydescription,andlearnedArabicinorderto
translatethesebooksintoLatin,beingawareof'thepovertyoftheLatins'.AscitedbyCharlesBurnett(2001)"The
CoherenceoftheArabicLatinTranslationPrograminToledointheTwelfthCentury",pp.250,255,&257,Sciencein
Context14(1/2),249288(2001).DOI:10.1017/0269889701000096
10.Kepler,Johannes(1604)AdVitellionemparalipomena,quibusastronomiaeparsopticaetraditur(SupplementstoWitelo,
inwhichtheopticalpartofastronomyistreated)ascitedinSmith,A.Mark(2004)"WhatisthehistoryofMedieval
OpticsReallyAbout?"ProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety148(2Jun.2004),pp.180194p.192via
JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/1558283?seq=13#page_scan_tab_contents)
Thefulltitletranslationisfromp.60ofJamesR.Voelkel(2001)JohannesKeplerandtheNewAstronomyOxford
UniversityPress.KeplerwasdriventothisexperimentafterobservingthepartialsolareclipseatGraz,July10,
1600.HeusedTychoBrahe'smethodofobservation,whichwastoprojecttheimageofthesunonapieceofpaper
throughapinholeaperture,insteadoflookingdirectlyatthesun.HedisagreedwithBrahe'sconclusionthattotal
eclipsesofthesunwereimpossible,becausetherewerehistoricalaccountsoftotaleclipses.Insteadhededuced
thatthesizeoftheaperturecontrolsthesharpnessoftheprojectedimage(thelargertheaperture,themoreaccurate
theimagethisfactisnowfundamentalforopticalsystemdesign).Voelkel,p.61,notesthatKepler's
experimentsproducedthefirstcorrectaccountofvisionandtheeye,becauseherealizedhecouldnotaccurately
writeaboutastronomicalobservationbyignoringtheeye.

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writeaboutastronomicalobservationbyignoringtheeye.
11.diFrancia1976,p.13:"Theamazingpointisthatforthefirsttimesincethediscoveryofmathematics,amethodhas
beenintroduced,theresultsofwhichhaveanintersubjectivevalue!"(Author'spunctuation)
12.diFrancia1976,pp.45:"Onelearnsinalaboratoryonelearnshowtomakeexperimentsonlybyexperimenting,and
onelearnshowtoworkwithhishandsonlybyusingthem.Thefirstandfundamentalformofexperimentationinphysics
istoteachyoungpeopletoworkwiththeirhands.Thentheyshouldbetakenintoalaboratoryandtaughttoworkwith
measuringinstrumentseachstudentcarryingoutrealexperimentsinphysics.Thisformofteachingisindispensable
andcannotbereadinabook."
13.Fara2009,p.204:"Whatevertheirdiscipline,scientistsclaimedtoshareacommonscientificmethodthat...
distinguishedthemfromnonscientists."
14.Womeninsciencehaveincluded:
Hypatia(c.350415CE),oftheLibraryofAlexandria.
TrotulaofSalerno,aphysicianc.1060CE.
CarolineHerscheloneofthefirstprofessionalastronomersofthe18thand19thcenturies.
ChristineLaddFranklin,adoctoralstudentofC.S.Peirce,whopublishedWittgenstein'sproposition5.101inher
dissertation,40yearsbeforeWittgenstein'spublicationofTractatusLogicoPhilosophicus.
HenriettaLeavitt,aprofessionalhumancomputerandastronomer,whofirstpublishedthesignificantrelationship
betweentheluminosityofCepheidvariablestarsandtheirdistancefromEarth.ThisallowedHubbletomakethe
discoveryoftheexpandinguniverse,whichledtotheBigBangtheory.
EmmyNoether,whoprovedtheconservationofenergyandotherconstantsofmotionin1915.
MarieCurie,whomadediscoveriesrelatingtoradioactivityalongwithherhusband,andforwhomCuriumis
named.
RosalindFranklin,whoworkedwithxraydiffraction.
15.NinaByers,Contributionsof20thCenturyWomentoPhysics(http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/)whichprovidesdetailson83
femalephysicistsofthe20thcentury.By1976,morewomenwerephysicists,andthe83whoweredetailedwerejoined
byotherwomeninnoticeablylargernumbers.
16.Thisrealizationisthetopicofintersubjectiveverifiability,asrecounted,forexample,byMaxBorn(1949,1965)Natural
PhilosophyofCauseandChance(https://archive.org/stream/naturalphilosoph032159mbp/naturalphilosoph032159mbp_dj
vu.txt),whopointsoutthatallknowledge,includingnaturalorsocialscience,isalsosubjective.p.162:"Thusitdawned
uponmethatfundamentallyeverythingissubjective,everythingwithoutexception.Thatwasashock."
17.Inhisinvestigationofthelawoffallingbodies,Galileo(1638)servesasexampleforscientificinvestigation:TwoNew
Sciences"Apieceofwoodenmouldingorscantling,about12cubitslong,halfacubitwide,andthreefingerbreadths
thick,wastakenonitsedgewascutachannelalittlemorethanonefingerinbreadthhavingmadethisgroovevery
straight,smooth,andpolished,andhavinglineditwithparchment,alsoassmoothandpolishedaspossible,werolled
alongitahard,smooth,andveryroundbronzeball.Havingplacedthisboardinaslopingposition,byliftingoneend
someoneortwocubitsabovetheother,werolledtheball,asIwasjustsaying,alongthechannel,noting,inamanner
presentlytobedescribed,thetimerequiredtomakethedescent.We...nowrolledtheballonlyonequarterthelengthof
thechannelandhavingmeasuredthetimeofitsdescent,wefounditpreciselyonehalfoftheformer.Nextwetriedother
distances,comparingthetimeforthewholelengthwiththatforthehalf,orwiththatfortwothirds,orthreefourths,or
indeedforanyfractioninsuchexperiments,repeatedmany,many,times."Galileosolvedtheproblemoftime
measurementbyweighingajetofwatercollectedduringthedescentofthebronzeball,asstatedinhisTwoNew
Sciences.
18.GodfreySmith2003,p.151creditsWillardVanOrmanQuine(1969)"EpistemologyNaturalized"OntologicalRelativity
andOtherEssaysNewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,aswellasJohnDewey,withthebasicideasofnaturalism
NaturalizedEpistemology,butGodfreySmithdivergesfromQuine'sposition:accordingtoGodfreySmith,"Anaturalist
canthinkthatsciencecancontributetoanswerstophilosophicalquestions,withoutthinkingthatphilosophicalquestions
canbereplacedbysciencequestions.".
19."Noamountofexperimentationcaneverprovemerightasingleexperimentcanprovemewrong."AlbertEinstein,
notedbyAliceCalaprice(ed.2005)TheNewQuotableEinsteinPrincetonUniversityPressandHebrewUniversityof
Jerusalem,ISBN0691120749p.291.Calapricedenotesthisnotasanexactquotation,butasaparaphraseofa
translationofA.Einstein's"InductionandDeduction".CollectedPapersofAlbertEinstein7Document28.Volume7is
TheBerlinYears:Writings,19181921.A.EinsteinM.Janssen,R.Schulmann,etal.,eds.
20.Fleck,Ludwik(1979).Trenn,ThaddeusJ.Merton,RobertK,eds.GenesisandDevelopmentofaScientificFact.
Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN0226253252.Claimsthatbeforeaspecificfact"existed",ithadtobe
createdaspartofasocialagreementwithinacommunity.StevenShapin(1980)"Aviewofscientificthought"Science
ccvii(Mar7,1980)106566states"[ToFleck,]factsareinvented,notdiscovered.Moreover,theappearanceofscientific
factsasdiscoveredthingsisitselfasocialconstruction:amadething."
21."Pseudoscientificpretendingtobescientific,falselyrepresentedasbeingscientific",fromtheOxfordAmerican
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21."Pseudoscientificpretendingtobescientific,falselyrepresentedasbeingscientific",fromtheOxfordAmerican
Dictionary,publishedbytheOxfordEnglishDictionaryHansson,SvenOve(1996)."DefiningPseudoscience",
PhilosophiaNaturalis,33:169176,ascitedin"ScienceandPseudoscience"(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudosci
ence/#NonSciPosSci)(2008)inStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.TheStanfordarticlestates:"Manywriterson
pseudosciencehaveemphasizedthatpseudoscienceisnonscienceposingasscience.Theforemostmodernclassiconthe
subject(Gardner1957)bearsthetitleFadsandFallaciesintheNameofScience.AccordingtoBrianBaigrie(1988,438),
"[w]hatisobjectionableaboutthesebeliefsisthattheymasqueradeasgenuinelyscientificones."Theseandmanyother
authorsassumethattobepseudoscientific,anactivityorateachinghastosatisfythefollowingtwocriteria(Hansson
1996):(1)itisnotscientific,and(2)itsmajorproponentstrytocreatetheimpressionthatitisscientific".
Forexample,Hewittetal.ConceptualPhysicalScienceAddisonWesley3edition(July18,2003)ISBN0321
051734,Bennettetal.TheCosmicPerspective3eAddisonWesley3edition(July25,2003)ISBN080538738
2Seealso,e.g.,GauchHGJr.ScientificMethodinPractice(2003).
A2006NationalScienceFoundationreportonScienceandengineeringindicatorsquotedMichaelShermer's
(1997)definitionofpseudoscience:'"claimspresentedsothattheyappear[tobe]scientificeventhoughtheylack
supportingevidenceandplausibility"(p.33).Incontrast,scienceis"asetofmethodsdesignedtodescribeand
interpretobservedandinferredphenomena,pastorpresent,andaimedatbuildingatestablebodyofknowledge
opentorejectionorconfirmation"(p.17)'.ShermerM.(1997).WhyPeopleBelieveWeirdThings:Pseudoscience,
Superstition,andOtherConfusionsofOurTime.NewYork:W.H.FreemanandCompany.ISBN0716730901.
ascitedbyNationalScienceBoard.NationalScienceFoundation,DivisionofScienceResourcesStatistics(2006).
"ScienceandTechnology:PublicAttitudesandUnderstanding".Scienceandengineeringindicators2006.
"Apretendedorspuriousscienceacollectionofrelatedbeliefsabouttheworldmistakenlyregardedasbeing
basedonscientificmethodorashavingthestatusthatscientifictruthsnowhave,"fromtheOxfordEnglish
Dictionary,secondedition1989.
22.EvictingEinstein(http://science.nasa.gov/sciencenews/scienceatnasa/2004/26mar_einstein),March26,2004,NASA.
"Both[relativityandquantummechanics]areextremelysuccessful.TheGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS),forinstance,
wouldn'tbepossiblewithoutthetheoryofrelativity.Computers,telecommunications,andtheInternet,meanwhile,are
spinoffsofquantummechanics."

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W.W.Norton.p.317.ISBN9780393072983.
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philosophy.OxfordOxfordshire:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0199264791.OCLC173262485.
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Feynman.Cambridge,Mass.:PerseusBooks.ISBN0465013120.
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