SIDDHARTH INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
NARAYANAVANAM ROAD, PUTTUR-517583

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

LABORATORY MANUAL
DEPARTMENT
OF

PREPARED BY

VERIFIED BY

V.NARASIMHA RAO
RAJU

M.JANARDHANA

Assistant Professor
Department

Professor
Head of the

Preface
This laboratory manual is prepared by the department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering for Electronic Circuit Analysis & Design ( 13A04305) Lab. This lab manual can be
used as instructional book for students, staff and instructors to assist in performing and
understanding the experiments.

Acknowledgement
We would like to express our profound gratitude and deep regards to the support offered
by the chairman Shri. K.Ashok Raju. We also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of
gratitude to our principal Dr. K.Chandra Sekhar Reddy M.E,Ph.D. for his valuable
information and guidance, which helped us in completing this task through various stages. We
extend our hearty thanks to our head of the department Prof. M.Janardhana Raju. M.E,Ph.D
for his constant encouragement and constructive comments.

Course objective:

This Lab provides the students to get an electrical model for various semiconductor devices.

Students can find and plot V_I characteristics of all semiconductor devices.

Student learns the practical applications of the devices.

They can learn and implement the concept of the feedback and frequency response of the small
signal amplifier

Learning Outcome:
Students able to learn electrical model for various semiconductor devices and learns the
practical applications of the semiconductor devices

Laboratory syllabi
PART A: Electronic workshop practice
1. Identification, specifications, testing of R,L,C components (colour codes), potentiometers, coils,
gang condensers, relays , bread boards.
2. Identification, specifications and testing of active devices, diodes, BJTs, JFETs, LEDs,
LCDs.SCR, UJT.
3. Soldering practice- simple circuits using active and passive components.
4. Study and operation of ammeters, voltmeters, transformers, analog and digital multimeters,
function generator, regulated power supply and CRO.
PART B: List of experiments ( for laboratory examination- minimum of ten experiments)
1. P-N junction diode characteristics
a) Germanium diode(forward and reverse bias)
b) Silicon diode (forward bias only)
2. Zener diode characteristics
a) V-I Characteristics
b) Zener diode acts as voltage regulator
3. Rectifiers (without and with C-filter)
a) Half wave rectifier
b) Full wave rectifier
4. BJT Characteristics (CE configuration)
a) Input characteristics
b) Output characteristics
5. FET characteristics (CS configuration)
a) Drain characteristics
b) Transfer characteristics
6. SCR characteristics
7. UJT Characteristics
8. Transistor biasing
9. CRO Operation and its measurements
10. BJT CE amplifier
11. Emitter follower- CC amplifier
12. FET CS amplifier

INDEX
S.N
o
1

Name of the Experiment

Date

Marks

Signature of
the staf

P-N junction diode characteristics

Zener diode characteristics

Rectifiers (without and with C-filter)

BJT Characteristics (CE configuration)

FET characteristics (CS configuration)

SCR characteristics

UJT Characteristics

Transistor biasing

CRO Operation and its measurements

10

BJT CE amplifier

11

Emitter follower- CC amplifier

12

FET CS amplifier
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS

13

Bridge rectifier

14

Input and output characteristics of CB

configuration

15

Measurement of h-parameters from CB

&CE Configurations

1. FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTION

DIODE

AIM:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode.
2. To find cut-in Voltage for P-N Junction diode.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased Conditions for P-N
Junction diode.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.No

Apparatus

Type

Range

PN junction

Resistance

4.7Kohm

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

Ammeter

(0-30) mA,(0-50)A

1
1

Voltmeter

(0-30)V

Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:

THEORY:

IN4001

Quantity
1

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest Semiconductor Devices around, and which has the
characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not
behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V )
relationship and therefore we cannot described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohms
law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it
can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width
of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from
the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or
decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through the
diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and
narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the
electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One
of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage)
characteristics.

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIASED CONDITION:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias i.e. Anode is connected to
power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the

Positive of the

power supply as shown in the

circuit diagram.
2. Use a Regulated power supply (RPS) of range (0-30) V and a series resistance of 1k for
realizing the circuit.
3. By varying the RPS voltages for various values of forward voltage (Vf) note down the
corresponding values of forward current (If) .
REVERSE BIASED CONDITION:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in reverse bias i.e. Anode is connected to
power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the

Negative of the

Power supply as shown in the

circuit diagram.
2. Use a Regulated power supply (RPS) of range (0-30) V and a series resistance of 1k for
realizing the circuit.
3. By varying the RPS voltages for various values of reverse voltage (Vr) note down the
corresponding values of reverse current(Ir) .
4. Plot the graph for forward bias and reverse bias conditions.
5. Calculate the Forward bias, reverse bias static and dynamic resistances and cut-in voltage.

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE

S.No
Forward voltage ( VF)
Forward current ( IF )
1.
(Volts)
(mA)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
S.N13. Reverse voltage ( VR )
Reverse current ( IR) (A)
o 1.14.
(Volts)
2.15.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

BIAS:

CALCULATIONS FROM GRAPH:

FORWARD BIASED CONDITION:
Static forward Resistance (Rdc) = VF/IF =
Dynamic forward Resistance (rac) = VF/IF=
REVERSE BIASED CONDITION:
Static Reverse Resistance (Rdc) =VR/IR =
Dynamic Reverse Resistance (rac) = VR/IR=

RESULT:

PRE LAB QUESTIONS:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

What is the need for doping?

How depletion region is formed in the PN junction?
What is an ideal diode? How does it differ from a real diode?
What is the effect of temperature in the diode reverse characteristics?
What is cut-in or knee voltage? Specify its value in case of Ge or Si?
What is the capacitance formed at forward biasing?
What is the relationship between depletion width and the concentration of
impurities?
8. Comment on diode operation under zero biasing condition?

2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND ZENER AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

AIM:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere characteristics of Zener diode.
2. To find Zener break down voltage in reverse biased condition.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No

Apparatus

1
2

Zener Diode
Resistance

Type

Range

IZ6.2

Quantity

1Kohm

1
1

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

Ammeter

(0-30)mA,(0-50)A

Voltmeter

(0-30)V

Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
REVERSE BIAS:

THEORY:

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but as
soon as a reverse voltage applied across the Zener Diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the
diodes breakdown voltage is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.
The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value
(which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse saturation current remains
fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. The voltage point at which the voltage across the
zener diode becomes stable is called the zener voltage for zener diodes this voltage can range from
less than one volt to hundreds of volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( Vz ) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This
zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
REVERSE BIASED CONDITION:

1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of the power
supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply as in circuit.
2. For various values of reverse voltage (Vr) note down the corresponding values of reverse
current (Ir).
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

REVERSE BIAS:
Reverse voltage Vf (volts)

Reverse current If
(mA)

RESULT:

PRE LAB QUESTIONS:

1. How breakdown occurs in zener diode.
2. Can we use Zener diode for rectification purpose.
3. What happens when the Zener diodes are connected in series.
4. What type of biasing must be used when a Zener diode is used as a regulator.
5. Give the applications of zener diode.

Date:

3 (a) . HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITH OUT FILTER

AIM:
1. To plot Output waveform of the Half Wave Rectifier.
2. To find ripple factor for Half Wave Rectifier using the formulae.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.No

Apparatus

Type

Range

IN4001

Quantity

Diode

Resistance

470

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

CRO

Transformer

6-0-6 V

Capacitor

47F

Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Theory:
The operation of a half wave rectifier is pretty simple. From the theory part, you
should know that a pn junction diode conducts current only in 1 direction. In other words, a
pn junction diode conducts current only when it is forward biased. The same principle is
made use of in a half wave rectifier to convert AC to DC. The input we give here is an
alternating current. This input voltage is stepped down using a transformer. The reduced
voltage is fed to the diode D and load resistance RL. During the positive half cycles of the
input wave, the diode D will be forward biased and during the negative half cycles of
input wave, the diode D will be reverse biased. We take the output across load resistor
RL. Since the diode passes current only during one half cycle of the input wave, we get an
output as shown in diagram. The output is positive and significant during the positive half
cycles of input wave. At the same time output is zero or insignificant during negative half
cycles of input wave. This is called half wave rectification.

Model waveform:
WITH FILTER:

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply AC main voltage to the primary of the transformer. Feed the rectified Output voltage to the
CRO and observe the Waveform.
3. Now connect the capacitor in parallel with load resistor and note down the amplitude and time
period of the waveform.
4. Plot the input, output waveforms on a graph sheet.
5. Calculate the ripple factor.
Tabular column:
Ripple Factor
S.No

RL

Vac

Vdc

Vac/Vdc
(with filter)

Ripple Factor
Vac/Vdc
(without filter)

1.
2.
3.
4.
RESULT:

PRELAB QUESTIONS:
1. Define rectifier.
2. Why rectifiers used with a filter at their output.
3. What is ripple factor
4. What is the voltage regulation of the rectifier.
5. What is the ideal value of regulation.
6. What are the advantages of bridge rectifier.

3(b). FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITH OUT FILTER

AIM:
1. To plot Output waveform of the Full Wave Rectifier.
2. To find ripple factor for Full Wave Rectifier using the formulae.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.No
1

Apparatus
Diode

Type
IN4001

Range

Quantity
2

Resistance

470

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

CRO

Transformer

6-0-6 V

Capacitor

47F

Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OUTPUT WAVEFORM WITH FILTER

Theory:

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance
(RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the transformer is
positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C, diode D2
conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same direction for
both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms
combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a bi-phase circuit.
Tabular column:

Ripple Factor
S.No

RL

Vac

Vdc

Vac/Vdc
(with filter)

Ripple Factor
Vac/Vdc
(without filter)

1.
2.
3.
4.
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply AC main voltage to the primary of the transformer. Feed the rectified Output voltage to the
CRO and observe the Waveform.
3. Now connect the capacitor in parallel with load resistor and note down the amplitude and time
period of the waveform.
4. Plot the input, output without filter and with filter waveform on a graph sheet.
5. Calculate the ripple factor.
RESULT:

PRELAB QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of capacitor filter.
2. What are the applications of rectifiers.
3. What is the regulation for a (i) Half - wave circuit (ii) Full-wave circuit
4. What is PIV? State it value in case of (i) half wave (ii) Full wave (iii) Bridge rectifier.
5. What is the need for rectification.

4. INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF

TRANSISTOR IN CE CONFIGURATION
AIM:
To study the input and output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor in COMMON
EMITTER configuration.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No

Apparatus

Type

Range

BC107

Quantity

1.

Transistor

2.

Resistance

1K

3.

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

4.

Ammeter

(0-30)mA,(0-50)A

5.

Voltmeter

(0-30)V

6.

Bread board , connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

INPUT CHARACTRISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTRISTICS:

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the transistor in CE configuration as per circuit diagram
2. Keep output voltage VCE at constant voltage by varying VCC.
3. Varying VBE gradually, note down both base current IB and VBE.
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for various values of VCE

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. By varying VBE keep the base current IB constant.
3. Varying VCC gradually, note down the readings of collector-current (IC) and collectoremitter voltage (VCE).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for different values of Ib
5. Plot the input characteristics by taking VBE on Y-axis and IB on X-axis at Constant VCE.
6. Plot the output characteristics by taking VCE on x-axis and IC on y-axis by taking IB as a
constant parameter.
RESULT:

PRE LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Why NPN transistors are preferable for amplification purpose than PNP transistors.
2. Explain the switching action of a transistor?
3. At what region of the output characteristics, a transistor can act as an amplifier?
4. What happens when we change the biasing condition of the transistors?
5. Why the output is phase shifted by 180 only in CE configuration.

5. FET CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:
1. To study Drain Characteristics of a FET.
2. To study Transfer Characteristics of a FET.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.N
1.
o
2.
3.

Apparatus
JFET Transistor
Resistance
Ammeter

Type
BFW10

Range
1K
(0-20)mA,(0-500)A

Quantity
1
2
1

4.
5.
6.

Voltmeter
Bread board & connecting Wires
Regulated Power Supply

(0-1)V,(0-30)V

(0-30)V

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMNS :
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Vgs=
VDS (V)
ID(mA)

Vgs=
VDS(V)
ID(mA)

Vgs=
VDS(V)
ID(mA)

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
VDS =
Vgs (V)

VDS =
ID(mA)

Vgs(V)

ID(mA)

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Determine the drain characteristics of FET by keeping VGS = 0v.
3. Plot its characteristics with respect to VDS versus ID

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Determine the transfer characteristics of FET for constant value of VDS.
2. Plot its characteristics with respect to VGS versus ID
3. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at constant VGS.
4. Plot the Transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at constant VDS.

CALCULATIONS:
Trans conductance (gm) =ID/ VDS =

Drain resistance (rd) = VDS/ ID=

RESULT:

PRELAB QUESTIONS:
1. Why FET is called as a unipolar transistor?
2. What are the advantages of FET over BJT?
3. State why FET is voltage controlled device?
4. What is the difference between MOSFET and FET?

6. SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To draw the V-I Characteristics of SCR.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.N
1.
o
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Apparatus
SCR
RPS
RESISTORS
Ammeter
Voltmeter
breadboard & connecting wires

Type
TYN616

Range
(0-30)V
10K,1K
(0-50mA)
(0-10)V

Quantity
1
1
1,1
1
1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type silicon. It consists of
3 junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in reverse direction and
three terminals called anode A, cathode K , and a gate G. The operation of SCR can be studied when the
gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode.When gate is open, no voltage is
applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the junction J2 no current flows through R2 and hence SCR is
at cutt off. When anode voltage is increased J2 tends to breakdown. When the gate positive,with respect
to cathode J3 junction is forward biased and J2 is reverse biased .Electrons from N-type material move
across junction J3 towards gate while holes from P-type material moves across junction J3 towards
cathode. So gate current starts flowing, anode current increaase is in extremely small current junction J2
break down and SCR conducts heavily. When gate is open thee breakover voltage is determined on the
minimum forward voltage at which SCR conducts heavily.Now most of the supply voltage appears
across the load resistance.The holfing current is the maximum anode current gate being open , when
break over occurs.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of voltmeter
and ammeter.Keep the gate voltage at standard value.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK .
TABULAR COLUMN:
VAK(V)

IAK(A)

Result:

Viva questions:
1. Why it is called silicon controlled rectifier?
2. Applications of SCR?
3. How can we switch off SCR ?

7. UJT CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To observe the characteristics of UJT and to calculate the Intrinsic Stand-Off Ratio ().

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.N
1.
o
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Apparatus
UJT
RPS
RESISTORS
Ammeter
Voltmeter
breadboard & connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Type
2N2646

Range
(0-30)V
100,1K
(0-50mA)
(0-10)V

Quantity
1
1
1,1
1
1

THEORY:

A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one junction. The
UJT Unijunction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The
base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its
ends. The emitter is of ptype and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the
emitter is open-circuit is called interbase resistance.The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is
a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material has
been diffused somewhere along its length. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.

Symbol of UJT

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the
length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the
voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the
base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the
base region) causes (conductivity modulation) which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base
between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter
junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative

resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator
circuits.When the emitter voltage reaches Vp, the current startsto increase and the emitter voltage starts
to decrease.This is represented by negative slope of the characteristics which is reffered to as the
negative resistance region,beyond the valleypoint ,RB1 reaches minimum value and this region,VEB
propotional to IE.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram.
2. Output voltage is fixed at a constant level and by varying input voltage corresponding emitter
current values are noted down.
3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages.
4. All the readings are tabulated and Intrinsic Stand-Off ratio is calculated using
= (Vp-VBE) / VBB
5. A graph is plotted between VEE and IE for different values of VBE.

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
VBB=1V

VBB=2V

VEB(V)

IE(mA)

VEB(V)

Result:

8. TRANSISTOR BIASING

AIM:

1. Design of amplifier using collector to base bias

2. To Measure the voltage gain of a CE amplifier
3. To draw the frequency response curve of the CE amplifier

DESIGN:
Assume VCC=12V,IC=5ma, =75
RC is calculated by applying KVL to collector to emitter
VCC-(IC+IB)RC-VCE=0
RC=(VCC-VCE)/(IB+IC)=1.18 K1.2 K
RB is calculated by applying KVL to collector to base

IE(mA)

VCC-(IC+IB)RC- IB RB-VBE=0
RB=(VCC-(IC+IB)RC-VBE)/ IB=79.5 K100 K

APPARATUS:
S.N
o
1.

Apparatus

Type

BJT Transistor

BC547

2.

Resistance

3.

Regulated Power Supply

4.

Function generator and CRO

5.

Capacitors

6.

Bread board

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Range

1K,1.2 K,100 K,
(0-30)V

Quanti
ty
1
1,1,1
1
1,1

10 F/ 25V, 100 F/ 25 V

THEORY:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is
common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is forward biased.
The collector current is controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is
applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal. A very
small change in base current produces a much larger change in collector current. When +VE halfcycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the collector
current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more VE. Thus when input cycle varies through a -VE
half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current to increases
thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram
2. Set Vcc 12v and adjust Vce to 6v to operate the transistor in active region.
3. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using Function Generator
4. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) Tabulate the readings in the tabular form.
5. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV peak-to-peak
and the frequency is varied from 10Hz to 1MHz Using function generator
6. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by Using The expression
Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)
The band width of the amplifier is calculated from the graph
Using the expression,
Bandwidth, BW=f2-f1
Where f1 lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier, and
Where f2 upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier
TABULAR COLUMN:
S.N

FREQUENCY(

INPUT

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

GAIN(Av)=V

dB(20log

RESULT:

9. CRO OPERATION AND ITS MEASUREMENTS

AIM: To observe sine wave, square wave and triangular waveforms on the C.R.O. and
to measure amplitude and frequency of the waveforms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

CRO
Function generator and probes

Theory:
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by
displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra
function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule with a 1cm grid enables us to take
measurements of voltage and time from the screen. The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a
beam of electrons striking the phosphor Coating of the screen making it emits light, usually green or
blue. This is similar to the Way a television picture is produced. Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube
with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to
accelerate them so they move rapidly down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron
gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right. The electrons

are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the oscilloscope its full
name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO. A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen,
allowing us to easily compare the input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well worth paying
the modest extra cost to have this facility.

Fig: Internal Blocks of CRO

Setting up an oscilloscope:
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to
set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are
set wrongly.
There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls. So,
the following instructions may be adapted for this instrument.
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no input signal connected.

Fig: absence of input signal

Terms used in CRO in association with signal:

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in
Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an

volts.

oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.

Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms)
and microseconds (s) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1s = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Voltage: voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y-Amplifier (Volts/
div) control . usually peak to peak voltage is measured because it can be read correctly even if the
position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak to peak voltage.
Voltage= distance in cm * volts/cm
Time period: time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the time base
(time/cm) control. The time period is the time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of
cycles per second, frequency= 1/time period.
Time=distance in cm * time / cm
Procedure:
1. Connect function generator output at the input of C.R.O. at channel 1 or at channel 2
2. Select proper channel i.e. if signal is connected to channel 1 select CH1 and if signal is
connected to channel 2 select CH2
3. Adjust Time /Div knob to get sufficient time period displacement of the wave on the
CRO screen.
4. With fine tuning of time/Div make the waveform steady on screen as shown in
following fig

Fig: steady waveform

5. Use triggering controls if waveform is not stable
6. Keep volt/div knob such that waveform is visible on the screen without clipping

7. Measure P-P reading along y-axis. This reading multiplied with volt/div gives peak to
peak amplitude of the ac i/p wave.
8. Measure horizontal division of one complete cycle. This division multiplied by time/div
gives time period of the i/p wave.
9. Calculate frequency using formula f = 1/T.
10. Note down your readings in the observation table

Result: Hence the amplitude and frequency of the waveform are calculated from the CRO and its
waveforms are drawn in the graphs.

10.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON EMITTER

AMPLIFIER

AIM:
To design the frequency response of Common Emitter Amplifier and calculate the band width.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.N
o
7.

Apparatus

Type

BJT Transistor

BC107

8.

Resistance

9.

Variable Resistance

10. Regulated Power Supply

Range

1K,3.3 K,4.7 K, 470

0-100 K
(0-30)V

11. Function generator and CRO

12. Capacitors
13. Bread board

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

10 F/ 25V, 100 F/ 25 V

Quanti
ty
1
1,3,1,1,
1
1

THEORY:
The CE amplifier provides high gain & wide frequency response. The emitter lead is common to
both input and output circuits and is grounded. The emitter base circuit is forward biased. The collector
current is controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base
terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal. A very small change in
base current produces a much larger change in collector current. Frequency response of an amplifier is
defined as the variation of gain with respective frequency. The gain of the amplifier increases as the
frequency increases from zero till it becomes maximum at lower cutoff frequency and remains constant
till higher cutoff frequency and then it falls again as the frequency increases.
At low frequencies the reactance of coupling capacitor Cc is quite high and hence very small part
of signal will pass through from one stage to the next stage. At high frequencies the reactance of inter
electrode capacitance is very small and behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect on
next stage and service to reduce the voltage gain due to these reasons the voltage gain drops at high
frequencies. At mid frequencies the effect of coupling capacitors is negligible and acts like short circuit,
where as inter electrode capacitors acts like open circuit. So, the circuit becomes resistive at mid
frequencies and the voltage gain remains constant during this range.
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram
2. Set Vcc 10v and adjust Vce to 5v to operate the transistor in active region.
3. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using Function Generator
4. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) Tabulate the readings in the tabular form.
5. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV peak-to-peak
and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz Using function generator

6. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by Using The expression
Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)
7. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis On Semi-log graph.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.N

FREQUENCY(

INPUT

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

GAIN(Av)=V

dB(20log

RESULT:

PRELAB QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of single-stage amplifiers?
2. Why gain falls at HF and LF?
3. Explain the function of emitter bypass capacitor, Ce?
4. How the band width will effect as more number of stages are cascaded?
5. Define frequency response?
6. What is the phase difference between input and output waveforms of a CE amplifier?
7. What is Early effect?

11.
AIM:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF EMITTER FOLLOWER

To design the frequency response of Emitter follower Amplifier and calculate the band width.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.N
o
1.

Apparatus

Type

BJT Transistor

BC107

2.

Resistance

3.

Variable Resistance

4.

Regulated Power Supply

5.

Function generator and CRO

6.

Capacitors

7.

Bread board

Range

1K,3.3 K,4.7 K, 470

0-100 K
(0-30)V

Quanti
ty
1
1,3,1,1,
1
1

10 F/ 25V, 100 F/ 25 V

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
In common-collector amplifier the input is given at the base and the output is taken at the emitter.
In this amplifier, there is no phase inversion between input and output. The input impedance of the CC
amplifier is very high and output impedance is low. The voltage gain is less than unity. Here the collector
is at ac ground and the capacitors used must have a negligible reactance at the frequency of operation.
This amplifier is used for impedance matching and as a buffer amplifier. This circuit is also known as
emitter follower. The most common use of the emitter follower is as a circuit, which performs the
function of impedance transformation over a wide range of frequencies.
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram

2. Set Vcc 10v and adjust Vce to 5v to operate the transistor in active region.

3. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using Function Generator
4. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) Tabulate the readings in the tabular form.
5. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at 20mV peak-to-peak
and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz Using function generator

6. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by Using The expression
Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)

7. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis On Semi-log graph.
8. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the Expression,

Model graph:

Bandwidth BW=f2-f1
Where f1 is lower cut-off frequency of CC amplifier
f2 is upper cut-off frequency of CC amplifier

OBSERVATIONS:
S.N

FREQUENCY(

INPUT

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

GAIN(Av)=V

dB(20log

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is maximum voltage gain of CC amplifier
2. Why gain falls at low and high frequencies?

12.
AIM:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON SOURCE FET

AMPLIFIER

To design and get the frequency response of common source amplifier.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.No

Apparatus

Type

Range

Quantity

1.

FET Transistor

2N4392

2.

Resistance

1K,1M,

1,3,1,1

3.

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

4.

Capacitors

10 F/ 25V, 100 F/ 25 V

2,1

5.

Voltmeter

(0-1)V,(0-30)V

6.

Bread board and connecting wires

7.

Function generator and CRO

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The FET is a type of transistor commonly used for weak signal amplification. The device can
amplify analog or digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET current
flows along a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel, there is an electrode
called source. At the other end of the channel there is an electrode called the drain. Frequency response
of an amplifier is defined as the variation of gain with respective frequency. The gain of the amplifier
increases as the frequency increases from zero till it becomes maximum at lower cut-off frequency and
remains constant till higher cut-off frequency and then it falls again as the frequency increases.
At low frequencies the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite high and hence very Small
part of signal will pass through from one stage to the next stage. At high frequencies the reactance of
inter electrode capacitance is very small and behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect
on next stage and service to reduce the voltage gain due to these reasons the voltage gain drops at high
frequencies.

At mid frequencies the effect of coupling capacitors is negligible and acts like short circuit,
where as inter electrode capacitors acts like open circuit. So, the circuit becomes resistive at mid
frequencies and the voltage gain remains constant during this range
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set Vdd 10v and adjust the Vds to 5v.
3. A signal of 2 KHz frequency and 20mV peak-to-peak is applied at the input of amplifier.
4. Output is taken at drain and gain is calculated by using the expression, Av=V0/Vi
5. Voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression, Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)
6. Plot Av vs. Frequency, The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.N

FREQUENCY(

INPUT

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

GAIN(Av)=V

RESULT:
PRELAB QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between FET and BJT?
2. FET is unipolar or bipolar?
3. Draw the symbol of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. FET is voltage controlled or current controlled?

BRIDGE RECTIFER
AIM: To calculate the ripple factor of a bridge rectifier, with and without filters.

dB(20log

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.No

Apparatus

Type

Range

IN4001

Quantity

Diode

Resistance

470

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

CRO

1
1

Transformer

6-0-6 V

Capacitor

47F

Bread board and connecting wires

THEORY:
The bridge rectifier is also a full-wave rectifier in which four p-n diodes are connected in the
form of a bridge fashion. The Bridge rectifier has high efficiency when compared to half-wave rectifier.
During every half cycle of the input, only two diodes will be conducting while other two diodes are in
reverse bias.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Model waveforms:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the ac main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary side to the bridge rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
4. Measure both the ac and dc voltages at the output of the Bridge rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula.
Tabular column:
Ripple Factor
S.No

RL

Vac

Vdc

Vac/Vdc
(with filter)

1.
2.
3.
4.

RESULT:

Ripple Factor
Vac/Vdc
(without filter)

INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR IN CB

CONFIGURATION
AIM: To draw the input and output characteristics and to determine the hybrid parameters of a given
transistor in COMMON BASE configuration.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
S.No

Apparatus

Type

Range

BC107

Quantity

1.

Transistor

2.

Resistance

1K

3.

Regulated Power Supply

(0-30)V

4.

Ammeter

(0-100)mA

5.

Voltmeter

(0-10)V

6.

Bread board and connecting wires

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCB is kept constant at 0V and for
different values of VEB note down the values of IE.
3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V, 4V.All the readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE is kept constant at 10m A and for different
values of VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 20 mA, 40 mA, and 60 mA, all the readings are
tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VCB and Ic for constant IE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

RESULT:

PRE LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What are the applications of CB configuration?
2. Draw different transistor symbols.
3. BJT is a current controlled device. Justify.
4. What happens when we change the biasing condition of the transistors.
5. In which case CB configuration is using.

MEASUREMENT OF h PARAMETERS OF TRANSISTOR IN CB, CE

CONFIGURATIONS

AIM:
To calculate the H-parameters of transistor in CE configuration.
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
1. Find the values and all the characteristics from CB, and CE configuration experiments.
2. Plot the graphs as shown in model graphs.
3. Calculate the Input Impedance, Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain, Forward Transfer Current Gain
and Output conductance.
Calculations:

hie=
hoe=
hre=
hfe=
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

RESULT: