A Free Flow Flat Plate Solar Still (Boutebila 1991)

Loughborough University
Institutional Repository
A free ow at plate solar

still
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by the/an author.
Additional Information:
A Master's Thesis submitted in partial fullment of the requirements for
the award of Master of Philosophy of the Loughborough University of

Technology.
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Publisher:
https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/10424
c Hichem Boutebila

Please cite the published version.
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conditions.
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.
.
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A FREE FLOW FLAT PLATE SOLAR STILL

by
HICHEM BOUTEBILA
A Master's Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the award of
Master of Philosophy
of the Loughborough University of Technology
February 1987
Supervisor: MR Leeson
Department of Mechanical Engienering
by Hichem Boutebila
...
~:
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,~~.""'.f~J ... . . . .
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., """';''-'' ,:,\.Jbrory
1io,~.=J~1].___.{
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,
2J.
(u f'1LYLf. n lI,. r r:rr s Lp:' S 1 S it re
iK~H fEt.tlp:, r LI! nb HI red RTf' r
iAAl:lHf hlT'o-HTPC
.
~
i:L
rdt
STr s tf:' E"S
I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Mr M R Leeson, whose

guidance and encouragement made it possible for me to complete this
work.
My gratitude is also expressed to my Director of Research, Mr T H
Davies, for his assistance during the research.
I
am grateful to Mr Brian Mace whose help in designing and
constructing the solar still- was invaluable, and to Mrs Janet Smith
who typed this thesis.

My grateful thanks go to the staff and students of the Department of
Mechanical Engineering and to all my friends whose help and
encouragement were valuable to my work.
I am indebted to the Algerian Government for providing me with the
opportunity to carry out this research and for providing the finance.
ii
Solar distillation (desalination) of salt water is suitable for

supplying water for drinking and agricultural purposes to small
=mmunities where the supply of fresh water is inadequate or of poor
quality and where solar radiation is abundant. Historical reviews and
theoretical developments of solar distillation,
including the
physical and technical results of the various designs and

=nfigurations, are reported.
This research is confined mainly to one type of solar still, an
inclined free flow flat plate solar still.
To study the effect of
significant parameters, a mathematical two dimensional flow analysis

was carried out based on =ntinuity,
for liquid and vapour flow.
momentum and energy equations
It is presented together with an
i terative =mputational pr=edure.
A dimensional set of equations is
developed and solved by the Runge-Kutta method.
It is slx:>wn that the
Significant parameters of the =mbined two phase flow are the film
thiclmess, the liquid flow rate, the =llector length and inclination
and the solar radiation.
A small scale free flow flat plate solar still was designed and
=nstructed, and experimental studies conducted under laboratory and
direct solar =nditions to investigate features which would seem to
affect the still performance such as solar radiation, wind velOCity,
ambient air temperature, liquid flow rate and angle of inclination.
Finally the theoretical and experimental results are combined
together to form a basis for the design of a long, large solar still
for further study.
iii
TABLE OF a:Nl'ENI'S
Page No
AckncMledgements
Sumnary
ii
List of Figures
vii
List of Tables
Ncmenclature
xi
INTRODUcrION
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Human Population and Energy Demand
1.3
Energy Sources
1.3.1
Coal
1.3.2
Oil
1.3.3
Natural Gas
CllAPI'ER 1:
1.3.4 Nuclear Power
1.4
The Sun and Solar Energy
1.5
References
10
Solar desalination
11
11
2.2
Introduction
Basin-type Solar Still
12
2.3
History of Solar Desalination
12
2.3.1
2.3.2
Algeria
Australia
16
16
2.3.3
Orile
16
2.3.4
Egypt
18
18
CllAPI'ER 2:
2.1
2.3.5
Greece
2.3.6
2.4
India
2.3.7
Spain
2.3.8
2.3.9
Tunisia
The USA
.......
. . . . . .
.......
18
18
19
19
2.3.10 USSR
20
Results
20
2.4.1
Effect of Atmospheric Parameters
22
2.4.2
Design Effects
22
iv
Page No
2.4.3
O!API'ER
Operational Techniques
2.5
2.6
COst of Product Water by Solar Stills
3:
SOLAR DISTILLATION GENERAL THEDRY
3.1
3.2
Introduction
References
Theory
3.2.1
3.2.2
25
26
31
31
33
Heat Balance on the Absorber and

Cover Assembly
33
Heat Balance on the Absorber
34
34
3.2.3 Heat Balance on the Cover

3.2.4 Heat Flux by Radiation.qr
3.2.5 Heat Flux by Convection ~
3.2.6 Heat Flux by Evaporation ~
3.2.7 Heat Lcsses qLc
O!API'ER
25
3.3
References
4:
A FREE FLOW FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR
34
35
35
35
39
THEORETICAL MODEL
40
4.1
Introduction
40
4.2
Theoretical Model Development
42
4.2.1
General Equations
42
4.2.2
Boundal:y Conditions
45
Simplification Process
46
4.3.1
Liquid and Interface Phases
46
4.3.2
Solution of the Liquid Equations
47
4.3.3
Vapour Phase
49
4.3.4
Stream Function Approach
50
4.3.5
Computational Procedure
Method of Solution
52
52
4.4
Theoretical Results and Discussion
54
4.5
References
76
4.3
4.3.5.1
Page No
0iAPI'ER 5:
INSTRUMENTATION
EXPERll1ENTS AND
78
5.1
Introduction
78
5.2
Still Cbnstruction
79
5.2.1
The Still
79
5.2.2
The Tank
79
5.2.3
The Pump
79
5 . 2 .4 'fubes
81
5.3
Outdoor Still
81
5.4
5.5
The Laboratory Still
81
Instrumentation
87
5.5.1
Temperature Measurements
87
5.5.2
Solarimeter
87
5.5.3
Data Logger
88
5.6
5.5.4 Liquid Flow Rate Measurements
90
Tests
90
5.6.1
5.6.2
The Outdoor Still Tests
90
5.6.1.1
Principles
90
5.6.1.2
Tests
94
Laboratory Tests
5.6.2.1
Principles
94
94
5.6.2.2
Tests
95
References
96
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
97
6.1
Introduction
97
6.2
Laboratory Results
97
6.3
The Outdoor Tests
99
6.4
Cbnclusions
5.7
0iAPI'ER 6:
0iAPI'ER 7:
116
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER

WORK
117
7.1
Conclusions
117
7.2
Further Work:
Still Plant
a Long Large Scale Solar

119
vi
Page No
APPENDICES :
Appendix Al:
Relative Scale Values
123
Appendix 1\2:
Simplification Process
125
Appendix A3:
Tabulation of Velcx::ity Vectors
130
Appendix A4:
A4.1
Nag Routine Programme D02 BAF to

Solve 2F'"
A4.2
+ FF" ::; 0
The Mathematical M:::ldel Programme
131
132
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page No
QIAPl'ER
1:
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
QIAPl'ER
4
4
7
9
2:
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
QIAPl'ER
Conversion of energy from one form to

another
GrcMth of world population 1400-2000
Estimated world energy demand 1800-2000
The electranagnetic spectrum
..
Average annual solar radiation on a
horizontal surface at the ground
Different types of solar stills used around

the world
Basin type solar still
Tilted still . . . . .
Inflated plastic still
Geographical locations of the stills in
North Africa at the end of 1957 . . . .
13
14
14
17
17
3:
Figure 3.1
Diagrammatic sections of solar still showing

significant energy transport streams to,
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
from and within the still

Evaporative heat transfer qe vs cover
temperature Tg for different values of brine
32
temperature Tw
37
........... .
Cover heat loss ~ vs =ver temperature Tg

for values of ambient temperature Ta and
wind velocity
O1aracteristic chart for thermal performance
of a solar still . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
38
viii
Qil\Pl'ER
4:
Figure 4.1
Solar =llector
41
Figure 4.2
A two-dimensional vapour behaviour in

relation to Hquid-vapour interface
55
Figure 4.3
DiInensionless longitudinal vap:>ur vel=i ty
57
Figure 4.4
DiInensionless transversal vap:>ur vel=i ty
58
Figure 4.5
Variation of dF/dB with ut
59
Figure 4.6
Variation of liquid velocity with film

thickness for various inclinations
Figure 4.7
Variation of the liquid thickness with the

=llector length
Figure 4.8
62
63
Film thickness variation with heat flux for

various inclinations
64
Figure 4.l0a
EV versus YLr <ffir.) .

Em versus YLr <ffir.)
EV versus XLi' Clw as
Figure 4.l0b
Ehv versus XLi
Figure 4.lla
EV
Figure 4.llb
Ehv versus XLi' anega as parameter
73
Figure 4.12
Rate of temperature rise
75
Figure 5.1
The solar distillation system
80
Figure 5.2
A cross-section of the free flow flat plate
Figure 4.9a
Figure 4.9b
Qil\Pl'ER
68
69
parameter
70
,Clw as parameter.
71
versus XLi' omega as parameter
72
5:
solar still
.....
81
Figure 5.3
The outdoor still
83
Figure 5.4
The laboratory still
84
Figure 5.5a
Heating simulation - view A
85
Figure 5.5b
Heating simulation - view B
85
Figure 5.6
Heater and micropr=essor therm:meter
86
Figure 5.7
Solarimeter
90
Figure 5.8
The data logger
91
Figure 5.9
FICMmeter
93
be
Page No
CliAPl'ER 6:
Figure 6.1
Water production versus plate temperature
98
Figure 6.2
Water production versus liquid flow rate
100
Figure 6.3
Water production versus still inclination
101
Figure 6.4:
Daily still output
104
Figure 6.5
Average daily insolation
105
Figure 6.6
Average daily wind speed
106
Figure 6.7
Average daily ambient air temperature
107
Figure 6.8
Environmental data of day 1
108
Figure 6.9
109
Figure 6.10
110
Figure 6.11
111
Figure 6.12
112
Figure 6.13
113
Figure 6.14
114
Figure 6.15
115
Figure 7.1
A long, large scale solar still
121
Figure 7.2
Evaporated water of a long scale solar still
122
CliAPl'ER 7:
LIST OF TABLES
Page No
0IAPl'ER 2:
Table 2.1
Table 2.2:
Data on the most important solar

distillation plants that have been built
from 1872 to 1980
........... .
21
List of the still components that have

proved to be reasonably satisfactory in
solar stills around the =rld
..... .
24
AI'PFNDIX A3:
Table Al:
Tabulation of liquid velocities
130
Table A2:
Tabulation of vapour velocities
130
xi
Film thickness
a*
Dimensionless film thickness = A/YLr
Br
Cp
Brinkman number = )J Ur / A!1 Tr

Heat capacity
Fe
External forces
Gravitational acceleration
Ehthalpy
l\..
Kutateladze number
Heat of vaporization
)Jc;I)JL
Variation of viscosity
m
-+
Mass transfer per unit area and per unit of time
Normal unit vector
Pressure
p*
Dimensionless pressure
*
Pm
Pe
Dimensionless m::xlified pressure = (P-Pr )/6Pr

Peclet number = Ur YrP(Cp/A)
Pr
Prandtl number = )JCp/A
CJw
Plate heat flux
Re
Reynolds number
Time
Temperature
-+
= ~ f':, TLr/L
= Ur
YrP/)J
Tangential unit vector
Longitudinal velocity
Dimensionless longitudinal velocity = U/Ur
Dimensionless interfacial longitudinal velocity difference
(UGi - Vr,i)
= ----"'=-,Z\crO,------:=r
-+
Velocity vector
Transversal velocity
Dimensionless transversal velocity V/Vr
Dimensionless interfacial transversal velocity difference
(VGi - VLi)
=
----'-'---.,6."VTr~~
xii
We
Weber number
= J/PL
Ur YLr
Longitudinal CXJOrdinate
x*
Dimensionless longitudinal CXJOrdinate =
Transversal CXJOrdinate
y*
Dimensionless transversal CXJOrdinate = Y/Yr
X/~
Greek symbols:
i3
Variation of the density
pg/Pr.,
Viscous stress tensor
Density
Tf
Stress tensor
Dynamic viscosity
Thennal conductivity
8*
Dimensionless temperature
ljJ
Stream function
Angle of inclination of the plate to the oorizontal
Indices:
G
Vapour
Interface
Liquid
Particle
Scale
Saturation
Plate
(G,L)
Dimensionless term
(T-Tr )/6T
What is energy?
really.
Is i t a flash of light?
A burst of heat?
These are just two among many forms of energy:
Not
electric,
chemical, biochemical, nuclear, kinetic, gravitational, magnetic and

forms we have not yet discovered.
That is why there can never be a
true energy shortage.

As Einstein demonstrated in his famous
formula, E = mc2 , that everything in the Universe is energy.
Light,
heat, matter - is just energy in one form or in transit between
different .forms.
Figure 1.1 shows the conversion of energy from one
form to arnther.
Energy surrounds us in inconceivably vast quantities.
However, while
the earth itself is composed of so much energy that we can never

complain about it, we are still concerned about harnessing energy
supplies, mainly in the 20th and 21st centuries, which is due to ever
increasing energy demand.
This increasing demand is due to human
population growth and rising industrialization and standards of

living.
1.2
HlM\N roPULATICN AND ENERGY DEMI\NI)
The utilisation of power by man in the past followed a similar trend
to the growth of the population.
Figure 1.2 shows some estimates of
the total world population with projections to the end of this

century,
Brinkworth [1] . As can be seen from Figure 1.2, up to the
19th century, the total population had remained in the interval of

300 to 1000 million.
zero to 0.75% per year.
The rate of increase in that period was nearly
The big change occurred in the 20th century,
passing from approximately 1500 million at the beginning of the
nuclear
,radiant .ner~r
en~rg)'
-------
/-~--------------+--------~~~~~
electrical enerGY
FIGURE 1.1:
IV
cncq~1
CONVERSION OF ENERGY FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
century to about 5000 million at the end of it, with a rate increase
of 2% per year.
The curve for energy demand steepens more rapidly than that for the
world population (see Figure 1.3),
mainly from the mid-20th century
where the rate increase was higher than 5% per year.
This was caused
by the extraordinary technology development and social changes,

especially after the Second World War.
This development has
dramatically increased the demand for energy to the extent of

reaching a critical state.
The future dem8f'.ds for energy are likely to go up both on account of
increasing population and owing to a better standard of living in all
parts of the World.

What, therefore,
are the energy alternatives to meet these demands?
To answer this question a brief discussion on energy sources will be
given.
1.3
ENERGY SOORCES
There are two types of energy sources:
those which are exhaustible
classified as non-renewable such as fossil fuels (Le. coal, oil,

gas), nuclear fuels (Le. uranium) and geothermal power;
and the
inexhaustible sources classified as renewable like solar, wind and

hydro power.
Today man relies on five main sources of energy.
The fossil fuels -
coal, oil and natural gas - account for no less than 95% of world
wide consumption, the remainder coming from hydroelectric with 3% and
nuclear power stations with 2%, Garg [2].
1.3.1
Cbal
Coal, which is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from the remains

of plant life, is the most plentiful of the earth's fossil fuels.
I
I
,,
,
5
~
I
I
"04
c
:x
.c
~
~3
"3
a.
0
a.
:g2
~
~
1800
1900
2000
year, A.D.
FIGURE 1.2:
GROWTH OF WORLD POPULATION 1400-2000

After (1)
50
I
I
I
I
I
40
I
I
I
I
1800
FIGURE 1.3:
1900
2000
year, A.D.
ESTIMATED WORLD ENERGY DEMAND, 1800-2000

After (1)
Ninety three per cent of CDal reseIVes are concentrated in only three
countries,
the USSR, USA and China [2].
This uneven disparity in
coal reserve distributions, add to that the pollution which can be

caused by the release of carbon dioxide through combustion and the
risk of exhaustibility in the near future,
make coal not
recommendable as a solution for the 21st century.

1.3.2 Oil
Oil, which is fonned from marine life by the de=mposition of living
matter, is the most used energy source in the world.
While coal is
concentrated in certain places, oil is widely distributed in the

world
The exploration of oil which is also exhaustible and causes
atmospheric pollution, is more uncertain than that for coal and it is

believed that oil production will reach its peak in the 1990's and
start to decline after that.
That is why there are growing
difficul ties in maintaining an equilibrium in oil demand.
Add to
these disadvantages, the political manoeuvres in oil prices which

have dramatically worsened the situation
to the extent of reaching an
energy crisis.
I t can be said then, from the actual infonnation that oil cannot be a
solution to meet the energy demands in the future.

1.3.3
Natural Gas
Natural gas, which always accompanies crude oil, is a hydrocarbon

composed essentially of 90% methane (0l4). The remainder is ethane,
propane and butane.
80% of gas reserves in the world are
concentrated in a few regions Garg [2]:

Russia:
39.9%, USA:
8.3%.
Middle East and Africa: 31%,
This uneven distribution of reserves
ensures that natural gas will never become available to meet any
generalised world energy demand
1.3.4
Nuclear I\:Jwer
Nuclear power is one of the new energy sources which have been
extensively developed in the last 30 years.
The power can be
obtained by two contrasting types of nuclear reaction:

i)
ii)
The fissioning of heavy atonic isotopes (Uranitnn 235)

The fusion of the isotopes of hydrogen into heavier helitnn.
It can be said that it is a promising source of energy to meet the

energy demands but the cost of installation,
the use of nuclear
weapons (at Hiroshima in 1945) and mainly the pollution which

threatens life on earth (the last example of this pollution was the
CheITlObyl disaster in Russia, which caused the death of many people
and polluted eveIything around the site,
reaching many neighbouring
=untries) are to the disadvantage of this source of power.

There is no need to speculate far beyond the non-renewable sources
for each one has sh:>wn a lack in meeting the demand for energy in the
future.
The only solution for us is to develop the renewable sources
such as solar, wind, oceans, agricultural wastes, and solve the

technical problems which face them.
Unlike the non-renewable sources,
solar energy causes no
environmental pollution and it is the only one for which technology

is available in many applications.
1.4
'!HE SUN AND SOLAR ENERGY
The sun is responsible for most of our energy resources, including

fossil fuels, solar, wind, hydroelectric power and also food.
other words, without the sun there would be no life on earth.
In
The
solar radiation which is an inexhaustible energy source, comes to

earth as light, which is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Most
solar radiation falls between 0.15 and 120 11 m, but the practical one
WAvELENGTH
_l
10
COSMIC
RAYS
REACHiNC
FROM
(.a.ATH
GAMMA
RAYS
(MITTED
SKY
RADIUM
X RAYS
H'GH FR.EQUENCY
"
DSCllLA rlONS
PR.ODUCED BY
X-~AY rUBES
[MICRONS)
,.
O l O l . r".. 7 - 0
ULT'RA
VIOjLET
10
IN'FRARED
RADIO WAVES
pR.QOUCEO
ay
HEAT
,
ELECTRIC
WAVES
PROOUCED
PP,QOUCEO BY
HIGH-FAEQUENCY
G(NEIlATOR.
er
ELECflUC
GENERATO!!S
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
"
I
PIIDOUCEO
~II
By
IElECTlItC LAMPS
r--------------------~
I
100
'~~
RO
~o
...
r
uo
~F~::~--~~--~;_Ir_~~:J~~r-~~:=::~~~~~~"'"'>4rr----lr----lr----lr----l:
\.'l.
~------------------~--,
,
MOOLE
THE [UTI-!
NEAQ
VISIBLE
60
,0
DISCQIMINATlO"l Of
SHORT WAVE INFRARED

HEAT
THERAPy -
DRYING
lO
O~~--~~~~~~~I~L---J-~~L---J-~-2----L---~----UUL-~~~~~==~~-----1
0.)
0.J.5.
0'
0'5
05
055
06
0.65
0-7
0-75 10
)0
lO
50
'0
WAVELENGTH
FIGURE 1.4:
(MICRONS)
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

After (3)
falls between 0.15 and 3
~m.
Figure 1.4 shows the electromagnetic
spectrum, Giedt [3].
The earth receives annual energy from the sun amounting to 1018 kWh,
Garg [2].
This is equivalent to more than 500,000 billion barrels of
oil or about 1000 times the energy of the known reserves of oil or
more than 20,000 times the present annual consumption of energy of
the whole world.
The most favourable sites for exploiting solar energy are oonfined to
areas between latitudes 35 deg north and south of the Equator which
receive some 2000-3500 hours of sunshine per year [2].
Figure 1.5
shows the average annual solar radiation on a horizontal surface at

the ground, Sellers [4].
The major technical obstacles which face solar energy are:

i)
solar energy is a diffuse energy form,
i.e.
~lithout
ooncentration
ii)
These
i)
the short term variation of solar energy.

~
obstacles imply
things:
large areas and structures are necessary to provide the needed

energy
ii)
energy must be stored for time when it is not available.
Unlike other sources of energy, solar energy has several unique

features which place it in an advantageous position. Most of the
materials required for making solar apparatus are easily available
and are not very =mplex to design and solar energy can be used for a
variety of applications, such as for:
heating water for domestic,

purposes;
industrial and agricultural
> ' - .. - : .
FIGURE 1.5:
AVERAGE ANNUAL SOLAR RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL

SURFACE AT THE GROUND. THE UNITS ARE KILOLANGLEYS PER YEAR, VALUES SHOw~ IN PARENTHESES
ARE IN kWh/rn 2 YEAR
After (4)
10
dxying agricultural and industrial products;
space heat_ing and cooling;
refrigeration for preservation of food;
desalination and distillation of water;
cooking of food;
electricity production
and
The application of solar energy is wider than any other form and
therefore to obtain technological progress,
only a specialised
application should be oonsidered. In this work we have addressed our

attention to the solar desalination process.
1.5
1.
REFEREN:ES
B J Brinkworth:
"Solar energy for man".

2.
The Canpton Press, 1972.
H P Garg:
"Treatise on solar energy:

energy".
3.
Vol.
1,
fundamentals of solar
A Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1982.
W H Giedt:
"Principles of engineering heat transfer".
Van Nostrand, New
Jersey, USA, 1961.

4.
W D Sellers:
"Physical Climatology".
University of Chicago Press, 1965.
11
OIAPI'ER 2
SOLAR DESALINATICN
2.1
:INl'RaXX:I'ICN
Solar desa1ination (or distillation) of salt water is suitable for

supplying fresh water to small communities where the supply of
potable water is inadequate or of poor quality and where solar
radiation is abundant.
'!'he basic approach of distilling saline water by solar energy is the
natural hydrologic cycle which consists of:

i)
The absorption of solar radiation as heat by oceans, rivers,

lakes, causes evaporation of water;
ii)
The vapour produced is transported as humidity of the air to

cooler regions by means of winds;
iii)
When the air vapour mixture is cooled, the condensation occurs
and causes its precipitation as rain and
S!'DN.
This process is motivated by solar energy which penetrates the water

surface, warms it and causes its evaporation.
The transport of the
vapour to the cooler regions where it condenseS are caused by winds

which are also produced by solar energy.
By analogy to this, man has reproduced, on a small scale, the natural
cycle.
As a result the following process by which pure water can be
produced in a solar still is:

i)
ii)
The production of vapour fran the solution;

The transport of this vapour by convection to the transparent
cover where it is cooled and condensed;

iii )
The collection of the condensed water.
and
12
There are several solar still designs which use this process. They
may differ from one another in shape and materials used, but all use
the same principles and serve the same functions. Figure 2.1 shows
different types of solar still.
2.2
BASIN-TYPE SOLAR STILL
The most =mmonly used solar still is the basin-type still which is
also Irnown as a greenl'Duse-type, r=f-type
simple-type. The design
=mprises a horizontal blackened surface which is fitted with saline

or brackish water in a shallow or deep dish and covered with a
transparent sloping surface on which water can be condensed. The
CXJVer which can be either glass or plastic, is sloped towards troughs
where it is collected and then stored.
Such a still is shown in
Figure 2.2.
In operation, solar energy which is transmitted by the cover is
absorbed by the solution (30%) and the basin (70%), Cooper [1].
Heat
which is =nducted from the black surface to the solution, irlcreases

water temperature and thereby causes evaporation.
The transparent
cover which is =oler than the brine, condenses the warm air-vapour
mixture which has been carried by convection currents.
The =ndensed
moisture slides down the slope to the =llecting troughs from which
it passes to storage.
To increase the productivi ty above that achieved in the-horizontal
basin still, tilted or inclined solar stills have been used.
The
reasons for this improvement are that the tilted surfaces intercept
more energy per square metre of collector area and that covers
reflect less sunlight because of a more direct angle of incidence.
tilted still is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

2.3
HIS'lORY OF SOLAR DESALINATICN
Several reports and historical reviews of solar desalination are

available in the literature review, Telkes [2, 3]; Daniels [4]; Howe
13
BASIN-TYPE, PLASTIC COVERS
TILTED WICK
PREFABRICATED TRAY
c:c::J.
"""'''' mm
DOUBLE
TUBE
___
...
:=:1
EXTERNAL CONDENSING
Transparent
l~~icol
;,~~~~~~~~~~
Solar Disliliotion
Plont~_
Distillate t
BASIN-TYPE, GLASS COVER
FIGURE 2.1:
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLAR STILLS USED AROUND

THE WORLD
14
Angle of glass
Glass cover
(10-20)
FIGURE 2.2:
Condensate trough, and ~
BASIN TYPE SOLAR STILL
/Feed water
Insulation
Distillate outlet -::::-Brine outlet
FIGURE 2.3:
TILTED STILL
15
[5], United Nations [6], the treatise of Talbert et al [7] and the
latest book by Malik et al [8].
The earliest solar distillation plant on record was the large basin-
type solar still designed in 1872 by a Swedish engineer, Carlos

Wilson in Las Salinas in the province of Antofagasta in Northern
Chile. It had a collector area of 4700 m2 and produced 20 m3 of
distilled water per day during the Summer.
[2],
that the still
worked until
It has been reported,
1910,
that is 30 years
approximately. A detailed descripti.on of the design and operation of

this first still was reported by Harding [9] in 1883.
It has been reported [7] that in the early 1930's, a tilted-wick
design had been proposed by Trofimov in Russia.
During the Second World War, a new interest in solar distillation
emerged with the invention by Dr Maria Telkes of inflated plastic
stills to be used in emergency life rafts of the US Navy and Air
Force, [10].
These units consisted of an inflatable small plastic
envelope containing a black absorbent pad made of cellulose sponge to

be saturated with sea water before inflation,
and a distillate
collector bottle connected to the bottom of the envelope.
Vapour
which would be produced by solar energy on striking the absorbent

pad, would condense on the plastic envelope and drip into the bottle.
I t was reported that over 200,000 of these units were produced during
World War I!.
Such a still is shown in Figure 2.4.
After the war,
she investigated glass-covered stills and in 1951, she designed a

.glass greenhouse-type still.
She has also reported [3] experiments
on tilted-wick stills where 20 of them were constructed in 1960-6l.

During the decades following World War 11,
sustained drought
conditions in many parts of the world caused problems in water

supply.
The use of solar desalination seemed to give a solution to
this problem by producing fresh water. All over the world, wOl?k on
solar distillation began. Amongst the countries which experimented
with solar desalination were:
16
2.3.1
Algeria
In 1953 Cyril Gomella developed various tray-type solar stills in

Algeria [11].
More than twenty stills of ten different designs were
tested and some of them were sold commercially throughout North

Africa,
Senegal,
Cyprus and Australia.
Figure 2.5 shows the
geographical locations of the stills in North Africa at the end of

1957.
Savornin and Lejeune [12] investigated five other types,
including three trays and one tilted.
These designs attempted to
improve convection within the still.

2.3.2
Australia
In 1953, the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research

Organisation) in Australia, started investigating solar stills.
They
developed a unit similar to the Gomela's tray and from 1963 to 1967,
CSIRO built more than 8 glass-covered stills.
The aim of these
experiments was to improve the efficiency of solar stills by studying

the effect of some parameters such as wind velocity, ambient air
temperature, cover inclination, water depth, thermal capacity, base
and edge losses;
and by operating the stills under a range of
conditions with saline water supplies varying from brackish water to

sea water, Morse and Read [13 and 14].
Also a variety of materials
were used in still construction in an attempt to evaluate their life

expectancy and reliability, [15, 16, 17].
2.3.3
0li1e
It was mentioned above that the first solar still in the world was
built in Chile in 1872. In 1969/70, two solar still pilot plants were
built at Quilagua by Santa Maria Technical University [18].
In 1972
at the Port of Pisagua, four inClined solar stills were installed

[19].
The purpose of the work was to make theoretical predictions of
still characteristics under different environmental conditions.
17
, - bl-cJ.:
1)0.0 ...
t - P<'d ppori
JNd
S - pad lutP'ftllOft
] - tr'IU~"t ...... ~rop.
.. - .,1"'-<:011111., Ctw.",bfl
FIGURE 2.4:
INFLATED PLASTIC STILL

After (10)
NORTH WEST AFRICA

AND N_W_CENTRAL
AFRICA
FIGURE 2.5:
6 - .tt.chln, ",'n'ore.",.nl
pi .. !
11 - lo.ln!' loop
10 -
AFRIQUE DU NORD
ET A.O.F.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS OF THE STILLS IN

NORTH AFRICA AT THE END OF 1957
After (11)
18
Egypt
2.3.4
During 1960, several small solar stills were tested by the National
Research Centre, Hafez et al [19].
It has also been reported [7]
that in 1966 a plastic =vered still was developed and tested on the
Red Sea coast.
2.3.5
Greece
From 1964 to 1973, several large stills located in different islands

were built for a total area of 28891 m2 . A V-shaped cover made of
glass and plastic was treated with a variety of construction
materials.
They have also introduced new concepts in designing a
large still to increase the daily production, Delyannis et al [20].

These two concepts are:
i)
ii)
a stronger =nstruction of the =ver, and

making the still surface, including side walls, as a whole area.
2.3.6
India
Five small tray-type stills were =nstructed in 1957 by the National

Physical Laboratory in New Delhi, Khanna et al [21]. To assess the
performance of various materials and glass cover designs, several
other experimental solar stills were tested, Gomkale et al [22]. They
also studied the effect of different parameters, such as atmospheric
variables,
=nstruction materials and operational techniques on the
performance of solar stills, Ahmed et al [23]. Two of the =nclusions

obtained were that:
20 degree inclination was the best angle for the
covers and that the average efficiency was about 30% of energy
utilisation in the solar still.
2.3.7
Spain
It has been reported [7] that during 1958, two small tray solar
stills were constructed to study the effect of various glass
19
inclinations and construction techniques.
It was found that a glass-
covered still with a shallow basin and a low inclination cover was
the best design. In 1966, an 869 m2 still was completed at Las
Marinas. The installation was designed to provide a village of 300
persons with fresh water.
2.3.8
'l\misia
Since 1962, the solar energy group of the Tunisian Atomic Energy
Authority has been actively studying solar distillation [24].
More
than a dozen were built and at the beginning of 1967, three large
solar distillation stations were constructed [25].
2.3.9
'!be USA
After the Second World War,
many research centres in the USA
amducted work on solar distillation. The University of California

started its investigation in 1952 and continued for more than 20
years.
Various configurations for simple solar stills were built and
tested in trying to reduce capital costs and improve efficiency.
The
work aimed to study the features which would seem to affect the still
efficiency, such as various geometrical configurations, batch-feeding
versus continuous-feeding,
means of recircu1ation of air, and kinds
and thicknesses of insulation.
It was concluded that the conditions
which seemed to lead to maximum efficiency are:

i)
ii)
iii)
a low heat capacity of the still and the water contained in it;
a low inclination of the vapour-tight transparent cover; and
good insulation of the bottom of the still.
A summary of this work can be found in Howe and Tleimat [26].
From
1958 to 1965, the Office of Saline Water planned a solar distillation

programme and financed the Battelle Mem=ia1 Institute to build and
test several types of solar stills at Daytona Beach Station in
Florida [27].
Many other universities and research centres in the
USA investigated solar distillation.
20
2.3.10
USSR
It has been reported [7] that during 1956 the Solar Energy Laboratory
in Krzhizharovsky in Moscow,
began investigating solar stills as a
means of supplyirq water to arid and semi-arid lands in Russia.

1962,
In
a solar still was designed and tested at Tashkent University.
From 1961 to 1965, experimental stills were tested in Turkemenian and

based on this work, =nstruction of a large still began in Ashkhabad
in 1969 [28].
It has been reported in the literature reviews that solar
distillation has also been investigated in the following =mtries:
Italy, Japan, Taiwan, South Africa, Libya, France, Morocco, Kenya,
New Caledonia, West Indies, Pakistan, Cyprus, Iran, Senegal, Mexi=,
China etc.
Data on the most important solar distillation plants that have been
built fIOm 1872 to 1980 are shown in Table 2.1 [29].
2.4
RESULTS
Here are the conclusions obtained in a careful study of the

significant results presented by many investigators all over the
world.
Solar distillation should be =nsidered a possible method for water
supply under the following circumstances:
1.
Natural fresh water is not available and saline or brackish water

is available;
2.
3.
The climate is good (i.e. solar radiation levels are high);

The potable water needs are below 200 m3 per day;
4.
The land is available for solar still sites;
5.
Such land is in isolated locations where other sources of energy

are non-existent.
and
21
Country
Loc.ation
Year
Australia
Huresl 1
Huresk Il
Coaber Pedy
Caiguna
Hamelin Pool
Griffit.h
196)
1966
1966
1966
1966
Cape Verde
1,1
Santa Y..aria
Santoll Haria
1965
1968
Chile
Las 5aliDalO
1872
QuillaE'ua
1968
Greece
J~&7
1964
SyDi I
Symi Il
Aegic.a. I
Operat.ing
743
Seilv.ater
Pl.astic
4460
100
Brad.ish
Class
S~lJater
Clan
2686
2600
1490
10486
388
8600
2508
2005
Sea1Jater
Se.vater
Sea\r.lter
Planic
Operac.in&
Abandoned
Ab.mdoned
Operating
1969
95
Seavatcr
Class
Operating
1969
1972
306
9072
Sea\.73ter
Seavater
0011;,
Clas~
Operating
Operating
1966
868
Se.Jnlater
Glass
Operating
1967
~40
1968
1300
Brackish
Brackish
Class
Class
Operating
Operating
1959
1961
1961
1963
228
246
216
148
Se.avater
Seavater
Sem.:-ater
Se.avate:r
Cb.sl;
Class
Plastic
Ph.stic
Rebuilt
Disoantled
DiSI:iantled
Dismantled
Natividad Isl
C\.7adar 1
G'uadar 1I
Spain
Las Marinas
Tunisia
Chakmou
l-'.ahd ia
Beach
Beach
Class
Operaticg
Operating
Pakistan
Bead>
B<>...z.:::h
Buck.iah
Operating
C1ass
Class
Mexico
Daycona
Daytona
.Daytoo.a
Daytona
Rebuil t
Operating
Operating
Se~l1.:ater
1965
1978
U. S.A.
Brackish Clau
Brackish Class
Bnui5h Class
Bracki ..b Clau
Brackish Clan
Se.avater
Bru.kish
Bhavnagar
A\',rania
lHsyros
Fiskardo
RCIIl.Drke
377
1866
India
Patmos
Kimolos
372
)72
)160
372
557
413
Cover
2528
Kionioc
Hegisti
Salamis
Feed
Rebuil t.
StT. Plas. Disn-..antled
Rebuilt
J."lastic
St.r. PIa&:. Abandoned
Abandoned
Plastic
OperOlting
Class
Clau
Operating
Class
Operating
Class
Operating
Cl.as~
Operating
Class
Operating
1968
1965
1968
1965
1967
1968
1969
1971
1971
1973
Aegina 11
,,'
Se31Jat.er
Se.auat.er
5uuater
5eawater
5uv.ater
2200 Se0l10l3t.cr
2400 Seav.lt.er
USSR
Bakb.arden
1969
600
Brackisb
Class
Operating
\.Jest Indies
Potit
St.Vincent
Raiti
1967
1710
Seavater
Plastic
Operating
19.9
223
Seavater
Clau
Operating
hldia
Bilra
1980
Brackisb
Class
Kult:!.i,
1980
Bracitisb
Class
Gperot.ing
(capacity
2000 l/day)
Operating
(c:apaci ty
:;000 l/da}")
\..'uzhi
Zbungjian
j9)~
Se.al.1ater
Sea....ater
Class
Class
China
TABLE 2.1
1979
385
50
Operat.ing
Operating
DATA ON THE MOST IMPORTANT SOLAR DISTILLATION

PLANTS TF~T HAVE BEEN BUILT FROM 1872 TO 1980
After (29)
22
It has also been found that the number of variables influencing the
productivity of solar stills is very high and they are often
independent.
Among the most important are:
(solar radiation, wind velocity and rainfall);
atmospheric variables
design (brine depth,
insulation, vapour tightness, construction materials, maintenance)

and operational techniques.
2.4.1
1.
Effects of Atln::>s[tleri.c Paraneters
Ambient temperature:
Solar still productivity increases slightly
as ambient air temperature increases. For each lOoF rise in

ambient temperature,
the magnitude of the output increase
averages 5%.
2.
Solar radiation:
concerned,
As far as the atmospheric variables are
the solar still productivity depends almost entirely
upon the solar radiation intensity.
It will depend to some
extent upon how the radiation is distributed throughout the day;

but it is usually sufficient to consider only the total radiation
received each day.
3.
Thermal capacity:
The thermal capacity of a still has a small
effect on its performance.

4.
Wind velOCity:
vapo~r
leakage,
However,
productivity is slightly affected by wind.
if the still is poorly sealed,
productivity to a
5.
As long as the still is well sealed to prevent
Rainfall:
wind can lower the
great extent.
Still productivity c:;an be increased by catching the
rainfall.
2.4.2
1.
Design Effects
Brine-depth:
It has been concluded that the shallower the brine
depth of a still, the higher the total daily productivity, but
23
the small water depth requires a=urate levelling of the absorber
surface, since any humps in the surface could cause dry spots,
thus decreasing the water surface area available for evaporation
as well as deterioration of the still.
2.
Materials of oonstruction:
As far as construction is ooncerned,
useful information on materials is yielded,
particularly cover,
absorber and sealants.

The transparent cover can be either glass or plastic, but glass
is preferred to plastic because of its high transmissivit:y for
solar radiation,
radiation,
low transmissivity for low temperature
high wettability for water and relatively high
stability of properties over a long period of time.

The absorber must absorb solar radiation readily,
must be
watertight and shoUld be capable of supporting high temperatures

without deleterious effects.
To prevent vapour leaks, cover sealing is most important since
leakage can dramatically decrease the production rate. The Office
of Saline Water (USA) in the report [7] listed still component
materials that have proved to be reasonably satisfactory in solar
stills around the world,
see Table 2.2.
(The materials are
listed in order of preference from a durability standpoint).

3.
Insulation:
To raise brine temperature and reduce heat losses,
the bottom and sides of the still should be insulated.
In some
cases, the annual productivity of an insulated still is 15% over

the uninsulated version.
4.
Cover design:
The most practicable cover for large installations
is a glass set at an angle of 10-20 degrees from the oorizontal.

The cover should also be placed at no greater distance above the
brine surface. When a long life (up to a maximum of 5 years)
installation is envisaged, or in isolated locations and where
glass transportation could be difficult and expensive, glass
covers can be replaced by plastic ones which should be treated
for wettability to prevent dropwise oondensation.
24
Materials
Component
rubber (OOI}-()OJO-in. thick): B:o;ph:llt

mats (O12-0lS-in. thick): black polyelhylen~
(O.()()8in. thick): roofing OlSph:l1t (o .... er con
crele. etc.)
Butyl
BJ .. in liner
Window sla..'~s (0-10 or OI2-in. thick); ....cttablc

Tcdlar plastic IO-OO4-in. thick)
Support slruc.:ture
Concrete: concrete block: aluminum: galvanizedmetal: redwood-
. Distillate trough
StainJess steel: butyl rubber (lining): black poly

. t:thylcne (lining)
Sealant
Silicone rubber: asphalt caulking compound: butyl

rubber extrusions
Piping and .valves
PVC (polyvinylchloride): asbestos cement (for

saline water): ASS (acrylonitrilc-butadicncslyrene)
\'.'ala ~10rage rcscrvtlirs
Concreh:: masonry
Rl.!lalively short lifetimes.
TABLE.2.2:
LIST OF THE STILL COMPONENTS THAT HAVE

PROVED TO BE REASONABLY SATISFACTORY IN
SOLAR STILLS AROUND THE WORLD
After (7)
25
5.
Condensate leakage:
The leakage of the condensate from troughs
is another reason for the decrease of still output. To prevent

the oondensate spilling or overflowing, the troughs must be deep
and narrow ElOCIUgh to minimise shaoowing of the brine.
2.4.3
Operatialal Techniques
It has been concluded that a long term operation of stills does not
require clearu.ng in the
case of glass covers. However plastic covers
which attract dust because of their eleclLostatic properties, have to

be washed periodically.
It has been recommended that a solar still
should operate continuously throughout the year and feed water

preheating and flushing methods can be used.
2.5
<DST OF
I'RI:J:(CI'
WATER BY SOLAR STILLS
The annual cost of product water is dependent on the following major
factors:
1.
the total fixed costs as an annual percentage of capital

investment;
2.
cost of supplying saline water to the distiller;
3.
operating labour and maintenance costs.
and
The sum of these expenses divided by the annual distilled water, plus
the collected rainwater would be the cost of distilled water.

The following equations relate the cost of water production (for 1000
American gallons) to the above factors [7]:
where:
= 101
CAP
+ MR+TI] + 1000 LW + S
YD~ + Yh
cost of water (OOllars per 1000 gallons)
total capital investment (OOllars)
(2.1)
26
= annual
AP
interest and amortization rate (percentage of
investment)
MR
= annual
maintenance and repair, labour and materials
costs (percentage of investment)
TI
annual taxes and insurance charges (percentage of

investment)
= annual
operating labour costs
operating labour wages, $/man hours
YD = annual unit yield of distilled water (gallons/m2 )

YR = annual unit yield of =llected rainwater (gallons/m2)
An
area of distiller on which distillate yield is based

(m2 )
AR
area of distiller on which rainfall =llection is based

(m2 )
= total
cost (fixed and operating) of salt water supply
($/1000 gallons of product).
1.
P I Cooper:
"The
m~ximum
efficiency of single effect solar stills", Solar
Energy, Vol 15, pp 205-217 (1973).
2.
Maria Telkes:
"Fresh water from sea water by solar distillation",
Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, 45 (5) pp 1108-1114 (May 1953).
3.
Maria Telkes:
"Solar stills", Proceedings of World Symposium on Applied Solar
Energy, Phoenix, Arizona, pp 73-79 (November 1955).
4.
Daniel Farrington:
"Direct use of the sun's energy", Yale University Press, New
Haven, 374 pages (1964) [Chapter 10, 'Distillation of Water', pp
167-195].
27
5.
Everett D Howe:
"Review of still types", Chapter prepared for UN Solar
Distillation Panel Meeting, 34 pages (October 14-18, 1968).
6.
"Solar distillation as a means of meeting small-scale water

demands", United Nations Publication (1970).
7.
S G Talbert;
J A Eibling and G 0 G Lof:
"Manual of solar distillation of saline water", Office of Saline

Water, US Department of the Interior, Res and Dev, report No 546
(1970).
8.
M A S Malik, G N Tiwari, A Kumar and M S Sodha:

"Solar distillation", Pergamon Press, Oxford, England (1982).
9.
Josiah Harding:
"Apparatus for solar distillation",
Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol 73, pp 284-288 (1883).

10.
Maria Telkes:
"Solar distiller for life rafts", US Office of Science, Report
No 525, PB 21120, 24 pages (19 June, 1945).
11.
C Gcrnella:
"Contribution a l'etude de la distillation solaire les resultats
industriels acquis en Algerie apercu sur l' importance de
l' energie thermique",
Colloques internationaux du Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique [Applications thermiques

de l'energie solaire dans le domaine de la recherche et de
l'industrie] France, pp 601-620 (1961).
28
12.
Savornin and G Lejeune:
"Etude sur 1 'evaporation et la condensation de 1 'eau dans 1es

disti11ateurs solaires", Co11oques internationaux du centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique [Applications thermiques
de l'energie solaire dans le domaine de la recherche et de
l'industrie] France, pp 589-600 (1961).
13.
R N M:>rse and W R W Read:

"A rational basis for the engineering development of a solar
still", Solar Energy, Vol 12, pp 5-17 (1968).
14.
P I Cooper:
"The maximum efficiency of single-effect solar stills", Solar
Energy, Vol 15, pp 205-217 (1973).
15.
P I Cooper and J A Appleyard:

"The construction and performance of a three effect, wick type,
tilted solar still", Sun at Work, Vo1 12 (1), pp 4-8 (first

quarter, 1967).
16.
R W M:>rse:
"The construction and installation of solar stills in
Australia", Desa1ination, vo1 5, pp 82-89 (1968).
17.
P I Cooper and W R W Read:

"Design philosophy and operating experience for Australian solar
stills", Solar Energy, Vo1 16, pp 1-8 (974).
18.
German Frick and Julio Hirschmann:

"Theory and experience with solar stills in Chile",
Solar
Energy, Vol 14, pp 405-413, (1973).

19.
M M Hafez and M K Elnesh:.

"Demineralization of saline water by solar radiation in the
United Arab Republic",
UN Conference on New Sources of Energy,
Paper 35/S/63, Rome, 10 pages (August 1961).
29
20.
A Delyannis and E Piperoglou:

"The Patmos solar distillation plant", Technical paper, Solar
Energy, Vol 12, pp 113-115 (1968)
21.
M L Khanna and K N Mathur:

"Experiments on demineralization of water in North India", UN
Conference on New Sources of Energy, paper 35/S/115, Rome, 11
pages (August 1961).
22.
S D Gomkale, S Y Ahmed, R L Datta and D S Datar:

"Fresh water from sea by solar still", Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the Indian Institute of Olemical Engineers,
Bangalore,
23.
India (Dec 1964).
S Y Ahmad, S D Gcmkale, R L Datta and D S Datar:

"Scope and development of solar stills for water desalination in
India", Desalination, Vo1 5, pp 64-74 (1968).

24.
Tunisian Atonic Energy Ccmnission:

"Report of activities 1966-67, Chapter 10, "Solar energy", pp
53-76, Solar Distillation, pp 54-64, in French (1967).
25.
Tunisian Atonic Energy Ccmnission:

"Brochures describing solar distillation stations at Olibou,
Chekmou and Mahdia, Tunisia" (in French and Arabic), 8 pages
each (1968).
26.
E D Howe and B W Tleimat:

"Twenty years of work on solar distillation at the University of
California", Solar Energy Vol 16, pp 97-195 (1974).
27.
Battelle Memorial Institute: J W Bloemer, J R Irwin and J A

Eibling:
"Final three years progress on study and field evaluation of
solar sea water stills", June 1965, OSW Report No 190, 87 pages,
(May 1966).
30
28
V A Batnn and R Bairarrov:
"Prospects of solar stills in Turkmenia", Solar Energy, Vol 16

(1), pp 38-40 (1966).
29.
A Delyarmis and E Delyarmis:
"Solar distillation plant of high capacity", Proceedings of

Fourth International Symposium on Fresh Water from the Sea, Vol
4, p 487 (1973).
31
QlAPl'ER 3
SOLAR DISTlLIATICN GENERAL 'llIEDRY
3.1
INl'RCIXCl'ICN
The basic princfples of operation of solar stills have been stated

and developed by many authors [1, 2, 3, 4] to the point where the
numerical signiUcance of the various parameters may be determined in
relation to performance and fresh water production.
The work,
which was developed by Dunkle [1] in 1961 and which
reviewed some of the work on roof type solar stills, analysed and
discussed the heat and mass transfer relationships and indicated the
effect of temperature and pressure on the performance.
That work was
slightly modified by Morse and Read [2] in 1968 who considered the
heat and mass transfer relationships which govern the operation of a
solar still in the unsteady state and expressed the various heat
fluxes as functions of the =ver temperature.
The analysis was then
used to find the effects on output of changes in various parameters
such as wind velOCity, ambient temperature and heat loss from the
base.
From that work, Cooper and Read [3] studied both theoretically and
practically the operation of a solar still.
They showed that
successful development of solar stills is dependent upon a desfgn

philosophy involving a
working knowledge of the thermal
characteristics of solar still operation. The design philosophy led
to the establishment of thermal and oost =iteria for the selection

of materials and design of component parts.
Finally Malik et al [4] in their latest book on solar distillation
reviewed the work which had been carried out up to that time.
32
(/- o(.q - T) Hs
Cwg
FIGURE 3.1:
DIAGRAMMATIC SECTIONS OF SOLAR STILL,

SHOWTNG SIGNIFICANT ENERGY TRANSPORT
STREAMS TO, FROM AND WITHIN THE STILL
33
3.2
THEDRY
The relationships which govern the operation of a solar still in the

steady state condition,
energy balances.
are the heat and mass transfer rate and the
A diagrammatic cross-section of a solar still on
which are indicated the heat and energy fluxes and their directions,
is shown in Figure 3.1.
It was demonstrated that a set of eight equations suffices to
describe the system.
3.2.1
Heat Balance en the Absorber and Caller Assembly
'The energy balance for the still requires that the total solar energy
absorbed must be equal to the energy transferred from the
~,
CtJ<Jer,
plus losses from the bottom and edges of the still, qlo' plus energy
stored with the system.
For a unit area of solar still in SI units, at a solar radiation
intensity of HS '
and absorbance,
with a transparent
U
CtJ<Jer
g' water absorbance,
and water basin heat capacity,
~Jy
having a transmittance
w system heat capacity,
T,
Cgs '
the energy balance on the still'
can be written as follows, Sayigh [5]:
dT
g
C
-- +
gs dt
dT
dt
(3.1)
'The significance of these terms is as follCMS:

solar energy absorbed by the glass;
solar energy transmitted through the glass and absorbed by
the absorber;
~:
energy transferred fron the CXJVer to the air;
qlo:
energy lost from the still base and edges to the

surroundings;
34
Cwb
dT
w
dt:
energy stored in the system as the water temperature Tw

changes with time t;
energy stored in the cover as the cover temperature Tg
changes with time t. This term can be neglected.
3.2.2
Heat Balarx:e en the Als:n:ber
The heat balance on the basin which was given by Morse and Read [2]
is as follows:
<1w
where
qlo +
Cwb
dT
d: + ~ + qr + ~
(3.2)
is the heat flux by evaporation and condensation
qr is the heat flux by radiation, and

~
is the heat flux by convection.
All the terms are expressed in SI units.

3.2.3
Heat Balarx:e en the Cover
The heat transfer between the =er and the saltwater is the sum of
qr + qc + qe' while the heat flow to the su=oundings is this total
heat flux, plus ,the solar energy absorbed by the glass:
%+
3.2.4
(3.3)
Heat Flux by Radiaticn <Ir
The heat flux by radiation between the cover and the water surface
was given by Dunkle [1] and is equal in SI system to:
35
(3.4)
where
EW
is the emissivity of the water surface and is usually taken

as 0.9
3.2.5
is the Stefan-BoI tzmann constant and is equal to 5.6697 10-8

W/m2 '1<.
Heat Flux by Ccnvection
'le
The heat flux f=m the water surface to the =ver by free convection
which was also given by Dunkle [1] is equal to
'le = 8.84 x 10-4 [(Tw-Tg)
where
and
3.2.6
pw - Pwg
]1/3 (T -T )
268.9 x 103 _ P
w g
w
Pw is the saturation vapour partial pressure at Tw

Pwg is the saturation vapour partial pressure at Tg
Heat Flux by Evap:nation
(3.5)
in N/m2
in N/m2
The heat flux by evaporation and condensation, qe' was given by

Dunkle [1] and when expressed in SI units (see Cooper and Read [3]):
~ = 16.276 x 10-3 'le
3.2.7
(3.6)
Heat losses qlo
Heat losses thI:Ough the base and edges to the surroundings was given
by Dunkle [1] as:
(3.7)
36
where h lo is equivalent to heat transfer coefficient base to the

surroundings and ground. This quantity is difficult to
estimate because the temperature of the ground is generally

l.Il'lkrn-m.
ArDther equation which relates the heat dissipation from the oover to
the ambient temperature Ta can be added to describe the system more
precisely. This equation which was given by Cooper and Read [3] in SI
units is:
(3.8)
where Ts is the sky temperature and is equal, Sayigh [5], to:
(3.9)
and hga is the convective heat transfer coefficient which is

dependent on wind velocity and a=rding to MacAdarns [6]
~a
is equal
to:
~a
; 5.7 + 3.8 Vw
where Vw which is the air velocity, is 0
(3.10)
< Vw < 5 m/so
These eight equations, which describe the system, cannot be solved

explicitly.
However a chart may be constructed from which graphical
solutions can be obtained.
Such charts which can be found in Morse
and Read [2], are given in Figures 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4.
37
If' 0
1\
'\.
.. 0
Oc-
lOO
d--
~
'-
60
40
'0
"'-
~~
'?o
'"
~oo
~~
"~
~ " ~" I'---T"'70
o 60
FIGURE 3.2:
__
70
80
corER
'",-
-\\n
\ ...
'\
160
'\
I\~
\
1\
\"
'"
'\
f'\
"-
'\
~ "" ~'\
51 o
100
TrMPCRATURC.
liD
T,.
'20
-.130
-r.
EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER ge vs COVER

TEMPERATURE Tg FOR DIFFEREN'l.' VALUES OF
BRINE TEMPERATURE Tw
",0
V
/ / /V /
I / Y I /
.. ...,
I 1/ VI 'I 1/
If ~/
0/'1I .,0/ /
~'DQ
,.
j :Y 11 ~I .1 'bY
II W~:f ~1, ~~:f
1/V 1/ V
III
III
IF
W
160
a..~'2D
~
Ba
~
Cl'
60
60
FIGURE 3.3:
70
80
coveR
'0
100
TeMPeRATURe.
uo
120
'30
T,. -F.
COVER HEAT LOSS qa vs COVER TEMPERATURE

Tg FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF AMBIENT TEMPERATURES
Ta AND WIND VELOCITY
38
I~
I~
!"- ill.
clIoIJ'
~I
180
i""
.v. IT.
"
...:l
100
If,.
80
~,
I,
20
,-
.1 I,
N
r,-~r
70 '5.
40
FIGURE 3.4:
,>
fk"
60
' 1\
l\
1/
V 1\
/ 1\
I "
'; I
\ ..l
;\ -~
i\ ,~
"
11'
"
'\J
,I,
',.no
I~
17
.'1 I .
I 1\
rti 140
1/
...
,-+-
1-1-
, ~ I }.
":.:J6O
I1 11
,-' ,
.'~
'I
180
.'1
iJ
11
ICl
11
J
." \!l,
I'
,~
~ 120
t, ,T.
---"
~J
I.
VI
50
Ft...
110'
~ ~I
tJ
H
':11
80
COVEr
I.
.",
I';" -\
100
,.<-~.
\
120
TMPRATUR(
-,
.~
\,,~
140
.'1'9 .F.
CHARACTERISTIC CHART FOR

MANCE OF A SOLAR STILL
180
THER!~L
PERFOR-
39
From equation 3.6 and using the latent heat of vaporization, the
evaporation mass transfer rate which was given by Cooper and Read [3]
is:
(3.11)
3.3
1.
REFEREN:ES
R V Dunkle:
"Solar water distillation:
effect diffusion still".
the roof-type still and a multiple

International Developments in Heat
Transfer, ASME, pp 895-902 (1961).

2.
R N M:>rse and W R W Read:

"A rational basis for the engineering development of a solar
still".
3.
Solar Energy, Vol. 12, pp 5-18 (1968).
P I Cooper and W R W Read:

"Design philosophy and operating experience for Australian solar
stills".
4.
Solar Energy, Vol. 16, pp 1-8 (1974).
M A S Malik, G N Tiwari, A Kumar and M S Sodha:

"Solar distillation".
5.
pergamon Press, Oxford, England (1982).
A A M Sayigh:
"Solar energy engineering".
Academic Press Inc., New YO:r:K (1977,
[pp 431-464 by E D Howe and B W T1eimat 'fundamentals of water

desalination'].
6.
William H MacAdams:
"Heat transmission".
McGraw-Hill Inc., p 249 (1954).
40
rnAPrER 4
A FllliE FLCM FLAT PLATE SOLAR CXlLLEx::IDR 'llIEOREl'ICAL MDEL
4.1
l:Nl'RCIXCl'ICN
In order to maximise the heat absorption, the =llector is inclined.

The fluid which is pumped to the top of the still, flows freely
downward in a thin film and subsequently the heated surface raises
the moving fluid temperature and evaporation will start.
The
evaporated water, which is condensed on the inner side of the =ver,

is recovered in a similar arrangement to the basin still.
collector is shown in Figure 4.1.
Such a
Depending on the intended
application of the tilted =llector under =nsideration [1-7],
many
theoretical analyses have been reported investigating the fluid flow

and heat transfer characteristics of this type [2,3,4,5,7].
An early work by Collier [2], considered a descending fluid in an
open flat plate solar =llector to be used in a refrigeration system.
From his analysis, which =mmenced from the energy equation in which
it was assumed that the flow was steady, he developed an expression
for the vapour mass flow and showed that the performance of the
=llector was initially dependent on environmental =nditions.
A similar type of study in which Peng and Hawell [3] endeavoured to
improve the accuracy of the previous work, was based on the mass and
heat balance equations.
In order to obtain the temperature
distribution along the =llector, the authors assumed the flow rate
and heat capacity of the fluid to be constant. These are invalid
assumptions since the evaporation could be considerable and
furthermore the temperature change in the fluid could be large,
mainly for a long. large plant.
Johannsen and Grossman [4] carried out a study on a regenerating type
solar collector for an air-conditioning system. Starting from the
mass and heat balance equations, they derived a general formula to
simulate their system.
+
M\P
\ \ \,\
42
Aoc>ther investigation relevant
Vaxman and Sokolov [5].
to the present work was presented by
The autlxlrs started their analysis from the
energy equation for both the fluid film and the black plate,
neglecting evaporation rate and assuming steady state fully developed
flow to exist.
Furthermore, the film thickness and heat flux were
taken to be uniform. They obtained the fluid temperature distribution

along the plate and hence predicted the efficiency.
The Vaxman and
Sokolov analysis was constructed only for a fully developed flow

region and the effect of evaporation on the mass flow rate was not
considered.
One
of the most relevant studies to the present one was presented by
Spindler [7] woo conducted a comprehensive analysis and a trorough

review of the linear stability of the liquid film down an inclined
plane.
From the governing equations for the liquid and vapour and
taking into account the film thickness variation, he predicted the

distribution of the velocity,
pressure,
temperature and film
thickness variation of the solution.

4.2
'llIEORF:I'ICAL KDEL DEVELORo1ENI'
To develop this model, the continuity, momentum and energy equations
are used to predict the flow and heat transfer characteristics for
the two different phase layers of liquid and vapour which exist in
the system (see Figure 4.1).
Firstly for the liquid and vapour phases, the following equations are
introduced which, assuming incompressible fluid exists,
are
applicable to both phases, Spindler [7].

4.2.1
General Equaticns
Continuity equation:
op
4-
at + ll(pV)
=0
(4.1 )
43
M:mentum equation:
->-
d pV
at
-+
-+ -+-
+ V. (p V. V) -
Fe -
171T
(4.2)
= 0
where 1T is
1T
=
~(au +
ay
av)
ax
Energy equation:
a
at
-+
-+
(pI - P) + 17 (pIV) - V.I7P + 17,\,-
-+
.I7V
=0
(4.3 )
where q..,is the wall heat flux and is equal to:
~=
-A.I7T
Se=ndly, for the interface region, the fOllowing equations are used,
Delhaye [8]:
Continuity equation:
IDr.
mef
(4.4)
44
M:men:tum equation:
(4.5)
where z is either the liquid (L) or vapour (G) phase.
Energy equation:
(4.6)
The above equations are =mplex and diffiCUlt to solve in this form.
Alterrlative meth:xis can be used either numerically,

finite difference, or analytically by integration.
for example by
In this study the
latter approach is adopted with the introduction of the following

assumptions :
1.
Over the temperature range involved in this study, the changes in
physical properties are to be neglected;

2.
The flow is taken as laminar without perturbation and the heat

transfer is by conduction;
3.
Based on the =lusion given by Cooper [9] of an inclined solar

=llector,
70% of the transmitted solar radiation by the <XJVer,
is absorbed by the plate.

Then using the following boundary conditions,
the vapour and
interface layers are examined together with the liquid layer.
45
4.2.2
1.
Ba.mdaI:y U:nditicns
For the liquid at the plate surface where Y and U are both equal
to zero, and assuming a constant heat flux, the temperature
gradient is given by:
CIw
= -
and
VL
aT
L
AaY
L
(4.7)
where TL is liquid temperature and A is the thermal conductivity.
2.
At the interface, the liquid and vapour velocities at a given

point are assumed equal, Le.
(4.8)
at Y = A
3.
The liquid saturation temperature and vapour temperature are

assumed equal at the interface, Le.
at Y = A
where suffix S refers to saturation.
(4.9)
The velocity may be taken
as zero in the body of the vapour far from the interface.

In the following analysis the vapour and interface layers are
examined in interaction with the liquid layer.
equations,
To generalise the
dimensionless quantities are preferred and especially in
laminar flow.
The relative order of magnitude of the variable has
been ca=ied out with the introduction of relative values for the
46
velocity (Ur ), relative height (Yr ) for the initial film thickness
and the pressure is normalised by (! p U:).
The relative scale
2
values which can be found in Spindler [7], are given in the Appendix
Al.
4.3
SIMPLIFICATICN PROCl'SS
From the general equations in the liquid, vapour and interface phases
(equations 4.1 to 4.9),
reached, Spindler [7].
the following simplified equations are
The development of the simplification of the
equations is srDwn in the Appendix 1\2.

4.3.1
Liquid and Interface Phases
Frcrn the appendix 1\2, equations 1\2.7
to 1\2.10, we get:
(index L is anitted) .
au* + av*; 0
ax*
ay*
( 4.10)
(4.11 )
ap*
+ --; 0
ay*
(4.12)
(4.13 )
at the wall, i.e. y * ; 0
(4.14a)
v* ; 0
(4.14b)
(4.140)
47
At the interface, i.e. y * = a * (x)
u *i +
e*
* vi*
(4.l5a)
= 0
(4.1Sb)
v * - u*
*-
vi* = 0
(4.l5c)
dV *
2~+W:Y
dY*
dU*
ay;>
v*
4.3.2
e r
(4.l5d)
(4.l5e)
* ~+~=O
* de*
-U
* =o
dx*2
2
da
(4.l5f)
dy
Soluti.cn of the Liquid Equatic.ns
The liquid balance equations (4.10 to 4.13).
together with the
interfacial balance equations (4.l5d and 4.l5f) and boundary

condition equations (4.14 and 4.1Sb),
l.
Liquid velocities:
can be solved.
(index L is anitted)
The longitudinal dimensionless liquid velocity is:
(4.16)
The transversal dimensionless liquid velocity is:
48
(4.17)
The dimensionless film mean velocity can be calculated from

equation (4.16):
-*
u
=a*2
--
(4.18 )
and in d.imE>.nsional form:
or
2.
U
a*2
Lr
UL
UL
Pg sinll A2
(4.19a)
(4.19b)
3 11
Liquid pressure:
Fran equation (4.12), the dimensionless liquid pressure is found:
p * = =tg rl (a* - y * )
3.
(4.20)
Liquid temperature:
From equation (4.13), the dimensionless liquid temperature is
found:
e*
4.
a* - y *
(4.21)
Liquid film thickness variation:

The dimensionless liquid film thickness is given by:
(4.22)
49
4.3.3
Vapour Phase
After the simplification process, vapour equations (A2.11 to A2.13)

become (index G is omitted):
au*
av*
~ + ay*
=0
(4.23)
* au*
*au* _ a 2u*
- - ay*L
-u -*+v
ax
ay*
(4.24)
av*
ax*
av*
ay*
aP
a y*
a 2v*
ay*2
m+--+v --=--
(4.25)
At the interface, the vapour and liquid vel=ities are equal, Le. at
YL*
= a x*
or YG*
= 0,
then
(4.26a)
v * = - a *2 aa*
axr,
and far fran the interface, Le. at YG*'"
ti(;
= 0
(4.26b)
00
(4.27a)
(4.27b)
Pm*
= 0
(4.27c)
50
From the above arguments, one can solve the vapour velocities from
equations (4.23) and (4.24) and deduce the vapour pressure from
equation (4.25).
4.3.4
Stream F\mcticn Approach
The differential equations governing the flow may be written in

different forms depending on the choice of variables, while three
alternative forms of the hydrodynamic variables have been used
extensively by previous workers.
Pressure and velocity, vorticity
and stream function, and stream function alone. The use of stream
function has considerable advantages in reducing the number of
variables involved.
On the other hand, the use of pressure and
vel=ity has the advantage that the variables used may be calculated
directly. The most frequently used system is that of the stream
function
which is defined as follows:
lie;
*
vG =
=~
ay*
G
(4.28a)
- .1.t.
(4.28b)
ax*
G
By inserting the above relations into equations (4.23) and (4.24),
we
get (index G is omitted):
a2 w
(4.29)
ay* ax*ay*
and introducing the stream function as:
I xC.~
(4.30a)
51
where F is a variable function of S* which is equal to:
(4.30b)
into equation (4.29), a rnn-linear differential equation is reached:
(4.31a)
or in an:>ther form:
2 F'"
+ FF" ::: 0
( 4.31b)
From equations (4.26) and (4.27), the following boundary conditions

are reached:
At the interface, i.e. at S* = 0
x*
(~)>;
= -2
F'
=~ = 1
t{
(4.32a)
u*
(4.32b)
ut
and far fron the interface as B* tends to
F'
=0
00
(4.32c)
52
From the above
equations involving the stream function, the following
*
relations for dimensionless vapour velocities uG
*
+ vG
can be
derived:
(4.33)
(4.34)
Thus, once equation (4.31) has been solved for F, the velocity field
can be predicted from equations (4.33) and (4.34) and the vapour
pressure which by using equations (4.25) and (4.30) we get:
apm:;
_ 1
as* - 2"
s*
and as
4.3.5
-+
x*
[FF'
-2--
s*
(1 -
2 ) F' 2 - F"]
Xi'
G
* = 0
Pm:;
00
(4.35a)
( 4.35b)
O:IIprl:atialal Procedure
A fourth-order Runge-Kutta solution of the general non-linear

differential equation (4.31) and its associated boundary conditions
(4.32), is performed using a NAG routine with a double precision
computation. (The NAG routine used is D02BAF and the programme is
written in the Appendix M.1).
4.3.5.1
M::ltiDd of solution
By defining hI
= F,
h2
= F'
and h3
= F",
equation (4.31) is replaced
by an equivalent set of three first-order equations:
53
dh
l
dS* - h2
(4.36a)
dh 2
dS* - 11:3
(4.36b)
dh
3
I
dS* - - 2" hlh3
(4.36c)
subject to:
at S*
at S* -7
x*
(~)~
hI
= -2
h2
=I
(4.37b)
h2
=0
(4.37c)
=0
00
starting at S* = 0,
(4.37a)
ut
the integration of equations (4.36) over
successive steps 68 * is achieved by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta

function. For a range of Runge-Kutta methods and their practical
implementation, see [10].
Since we have the initial conditions (at
r!'
= 0)
for hI and h2 only,
a value of h3 at S* = 0 that will generate a solution that yields to

h2 = 0 at S* -7
method.
00,
is searched. This is accomplished by the iteration
In practice h2 = 0, when S* tends to S*max which corresponds
to the physical fact that the mainstream velocity is effectively zero

far from the interface.
By the iteration method, a solution was
obtained and the convergence criteria defined by:
(4.38)
max
was
ob~
Where fm is the value of the function at m iterations
and CC was in the range of 0.005 to 0.01.
54
From the solution of this equation, the values of F, F' and F" were
*
deduced. In carrying out the computation, each value of xG
*
and uL
require a new iteration to satisfy the =ntinuity equation until the

fixed boundary values are obtained.
4.4
THEDREl'ICAL RESULTS AND DISOJSSICN
To show the vapour behaviour down the inClined still, the counter
method has been used for this purpose (see Figure 4.2). The twodimensional plot shows that for a specific stream function 1jJ,
corresponds to different values of x* and y*. The different points
(x * , y * ) of the same stream function 1jJ are connected to form one of
the layers of the vapour phase.
function 1jJ 1
= -0.02,
As an example of this,
for a stream
corresponding to different points (x *, y *),
which are:
x*
0.2
1.13
0.3
1. 73
0.5
2.9
0.7
3.96
5.7
1.2
6.5
1.4
7.85
The different points are cormected to each other to form the vapour
layer 1jJ = -0.02 of the Figure 4.2.
Other vapour layers which
co=espond to other stream function values are plotted in Figure 4.2.

The conclusion which can be drawn from Figure 4.2 is that a certain
amount of vapour is moving with the liquid flow down the still,
mainly near the interface.
vapour,
The influence of liquid vel=ity on the
rapidly decreases as the vapour moves away from the
interface.
This can also be seen by the vapour velocity
'-
0
';>
cO
.c
0)0)
---g-.
.00
cO
?"""
oS
';>(1)
(f,.c
c ......
.%9
,I
cc:
0)0
(2.. ~
'i5~
o~
....-<:
5-C
......
~
~
o:;t
.-
(J)
~
~
"""
I
...
tP.
"'"
>
<:l>
'"
p-"
"
?-
"*-S'"
'"<'
'"
"':
-l>
<:>
Q.
'"
""
56
distributions which are given in Figures 4.3 and 4.4.
It is seen
that the velocity longitudinal and normal to the surface, rapidly

reduce and between 8 * = 10 and 15 tend asymptotically to zero.
Figure 4.5 stnws the same behaviour as Figure 4.3, but for different
liquid longitudinal velocity values u{ (Le. for different liquid
mass flow rates).
It is seen that as ui decreases, the vapour
velocity u~ for a given value of 8* is decreased.
*
are dependent on uL
Since
% and v~
[equations (4.33) and (4.34)], any variation of
u L* will also influence both vapour velocities.

Another interesting feature is the normal component of vapour
velocity v~ which is plotted in Figure 4.4.
The graph stnws the same
trend as in Figure 4.3, although it is not surprising to find that

the magnitude of v~ is small compared to
%.
This is important since
the use of two-dimensional flow is of significance in determining the
vapour flow in the normal direction.
In order to confirm the
necessity for two-dimensional flow for the vapour and one-dimensional

flow for the liquid, the direction and magnitude of the resultant
component are given in the Appendix A3 (Tables 1 and 2).
Finally,
the results of the computation,
performed in double
precision arithmetic, are also displayed in Figures 4.3 and 4.4.

success of the method can be seen by examining
*
F'( 8
The
'
differs
max ) which
only marginally from the required value of zero. The co=esponding
* = 15) at the end of the iteration process was

value for F'( 8max
0.0015598 for x* = 1.4 *and u~ = 0.4. It is also seen from Figures
4.3 and 4.4 that F' =
for 8 * = 15.
UCi,
~
essentially attains its mainstream value
n:>ted above, any variation in liquid longitudinal velocity
have an influence on both vapour velocities.

parameters which affect u~,
u~
will
This means that the
will affect ~ and vC;.
Thus by
incorporating the expression for liquid mean velocity U L [equation

(4.19a)], which is identical to the mean velocity equation in the
film flow in molecular distillation [11].
(Here the film thickness
57
1,0
0.8
t~"-J
0.6
:l"::J
11
-Lt..
0.4
0.2
OL-------~------~~=---
FIGURE 4.3:
S
10
D1MENSIONLESS f3lf'
__~
1S
DIMENSIONLESS LONGITUDINAL VAPOUR VELOCITY
58
1.0
ul =0.4
xG=1.4
>'"
0.8
>foLJ
0
--J
lJ.J
>
a::
=> 0.6
0
a..
<X:
>
--J
<X:
V1
a::
lJ.J
0.4
>
V1
z
<X:
a::
fo-
fB
...J
z
0.2
V1
lJ.J
1:
--J
o~------~------~~--
FIGURE 4.4:
S
10
DlMENSIONLESS J31t
__~
15
DIMENSIONLESS TRANSVERSAL VAPOUR VELOCITY
59
1,0
1....:-.......
-'
::>
"-
0>
::>
x(j=1.4
0.8
>-
ILJ
Cl
-l
UJ
>
0.6
-l
z
0
::>
Il::J
Cl
-l
04
.
=>
d
-l
Cl
I-
0:::
0.2
::>
Cl
Cl..
>
DlMENSIONLESS J3~
FIGURE 4.5:
VARIATION OF
~~
vlITH
U~
10
60
is considered variable down the still):
where A is the film thickness and is equal to:

A
and
= a*
YLr
(4.39)
r. is the inclination angle.
0L is dependent on collector length XLi'
initial film thickness YLr

(Le. liquid mass flow rate) and the scale value XLr . XLr is also a
function of the plate heat flux qw (Le. the solar radiation reaching
the plate) and the angle of inclination r. (XLr formulae can be found
in the Appendix l).
Figure 4.6 shows the variation of UL calculated from equation (4.l9b)
for different initial film thicknesses (i.e. liquid mass flow rate)
at different angles of inclination.
The fluid considered is water
with the following physical properties: *

PLr
= 960
kg/m3
= 9.8
m/s2
A
Lr
= 0.68
PrL
W/m"K
= 1.7
~ = 4180
J/kg"K
The programme used to calculate and plot these results is written

in Appendix A4.2.
61
0.01
= 2.3 10 6
J/kg
4
Lr = 2.8 10- kg/m.s
.p
As expected,
Yr
4
= 6.2 10-
Mr
4.4 10- 2
the graph shows the film thickness reduces with
evaporation as the velocity decreases.

In order to study the effect of collector length on the liquid film
thickness, Figure 4.7 was plotted for various inclinations.
that as the =llector length increases,
It shows
the film thickness reduces,
mainly at small angles. Previous theoretical work considered a

=nstant film thickness throughout the collector and although this
may be permissible in small scale applications, the effect of the
thickness appears to be significant in long, large scale plants.
Similar trends in relation to film thickness are also found by the
effect of the plate heat flux,. which is shown in Figure 4.8 for a
typical length of 30 metres. As the heat flux increases, the film
thickness decreases, implying higher evaporation partiCUlarly in the
case of lower inclinations.
'!he present results demonstrate quite clearly that the reduction in
film thickness has a =nsiderable influence on the evaporation rate,
i.e. it will alter the total performance of the evaporator.
It is
apparent that the approach which =nsiders a =nstant film thickness,

will noticeably underestimate the evaporation rate in a long, large
plant.
62
10
0.9
9, = 1000 W/m 2
Ul
n = 30
(m/5)
0.6
n =20
0.3
= 10
o~--~----~~~~~~
4
1
FILM THICKNESS (m
0
le
10-
FIGURE 4.6: Variation of liquid velocity with film thickness

for various inclinations.
63
20.0..---.......
q=1000W/m
-'to
Ylr=2~Om
18.0
.Q..:30
11)'"'
'0
I(
U)
U)
16.0
12=20
UJ
LJ
:c
I-
14.0
....J
u..
J.l=10
Cl
:::>
d
....J
12.0
10.0 ':-0--1.5--l---L--L----1-~
10
15
20
25 30
COLLECTOR LENGTH (m)
FIGURE 4.7:
VARIATION OF THE LIQUID THICKNESS WITH THE

COLLECTOR LENGTH
64
20.0
~'"
'0
16.0
E
V)
V)
LU
z:
~
:r: 16.0
I-
-J
u...
Xu=30m
LU
y Lr=2x10- 4m
:r:
I-
u...
14.0
C>
z:
C>
I-
<t:
n=10
Cl::
<t:
> 12.0
10.0L...--'---.."....L----...l.-_ _---l_ _ _--lI

200
400600
600
1000
WALL HEAT FLUX, ~(W/m2)
Figure 4.8: Film thickness variation wilh heat flux for

various inclinations.
65
In order to study the effect of such parameters Le. the plate heat
flux qw the collector length XLi' the inclination angle
Q,
the
initial film thickness YLr (or liquid mass flow rate), on the still
production, a new set of equations are added.
The evaporated film thickness Aev may be defined as:
(4.40)
Thus,
which is the reduction of film thickness, is dependent on
all parameters which affect the film thickness A.

The evaporated water volume
EV
may be defined as the =llector length
XLi' times the =llector width W, times the evaporated film thickness
Aev' i.e.
(4.41)
where W is the still width.
It is seen that
EV
is a volume and represents the volume of liquid
evaporated in a given sized still (Le. one run only). Using this
equation (4.41), the evaporation rate may be expressed as:
(4.42)
where tc is a characteristic time which represents the time required

for the solution to flow from the top to the Ix>ttom and it is defined
as:
(4.43)
66
Using equation (4.42), the hourly evaporated water volume %v may be

expressed as:
Ehv = 3600
H me
1(4.44)
where H is the length of time of still operation.
The value of H is
the number of hours and is equal to 1 unless specified.

It is seen that Ehv is a volume and represents the volume of liquid
evaporated in a given period of still operation.
'Ib sixlw the variations of evaporated volumes
E"
and
Ehv
for different
initial film thickness (i.e. different mass flow rates) at different

=llector lengths, Figures 4.9a and 4.9b were plotted.
As expected,
they sixlw that as the =llector length increases at a certain initial

thickness, Ev and Ehv increase.
However, the trend is not the same
when the initial thickness (Le. mass flow rate) is variable.
In
Figure 4.9a, as YLr (Le. mL) increases, the evaporated volume Ev

decreases for higher =llector lengths. This can be explained by the
fact that as the initial film thickness YLr increases, the time tc
required for the solution to flow from the top to the bottom of the
=llector decreases, implying that it t=k the solution less time to
flow and to be heated down the still.
As a result of that less water
is evaporated.
However, in Figure 4.9b, Ehv increases for higher

initial film thickness and for higher =llector lengths. As far as
the initial film thickness (i.e. mass flow rate) increases,
tc
decreases, implying that more liquid has run down the still and that
the number of runs increases.
In other words when YLr (or

L
increases, the evaporated volume E" decreases, but after a period of
time (e.g. one hour), the number of runs increases, inducing an
increase in the quantity of evaporated volume.
67
An:rther interesting conclusion which can be drawn from the two graphs
is that there is an optimum initial film thickness (Le. liquid mass
flow rate) which ==esponds to a maximum evaporated volume
EV or Em,
and that beyond this optimum thickness which is YLr " 0.4 mm (or ~L =
14 litres/min) the evaporation remains almost constant.

In order to study the effect of the plate heat flux (i.e. solar
radiation reaching the plate) on the evaporated volume
EV
and Ehv '

Figures 4.l0a and 4.l0b were plotted for various collector lengths.
As expected in both cases, as the plate heat flux increases (Le. as

solar radiation increases), evaporated volumes
EV
and
Em, increase.
The inclination effect on evaporation is stuwn in Figures 4.l1a and

4.llb for different =llector lengths.
The graph 4.l1a stuws that as
the inclination decreases, the evaporated volume Ev increases.
different trend in relation to the evaporated volume Ehv is found.

Figure 4.l1b stuws that as the inclination decreases, Ehv decreases,
mainly for higher =llector lengths.
Another interesting feature can
be drawn from Figure 4.l1b, and which is related to the definition of
Em"
is that for n = 10 degrees, Em, reaches its maximum value for a
=llector length of approximately 25 metres and decreases for higher

collector length.
Finally, the rate of temperature rise down the still can be expressed
by =nsidering' the following equations. First,
rate which is =nsidered to be laminar.
the liquid mass flow
Hershey [12J is:
(4.45 )
(4.46)
or
where mL is the mass flow rate of fluid per unit width [kg/sJ and A
is the film thickness.
68
Legend
..
'0
~
12.0
collector length XIi=5m;"<=2.0deg,gw=1000w!sg.m
XIi=10
--------------------_.
XIi=lS
XIi=20
------
b. XIi=25
X -----------------------------------------XIi=30
,,
10.0
M-
8.0
~
L
....o
(])
6.0
\J
~
o
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,
,
\ ,, \,,
, ,
\ \
0..
4.0
2.0
"
'"'"
..
,,,
'", "'\\,'"
"'''
"--",----- ------.........
""
------- ..... -
\.
----"
", '", '",
'-,
'-- -------
- ___
------
- - - -
-------7.(
-----
o.o~===;::::==~~-~;;;,,;;::;;~;;;;;;;,;;=F~~=-=~
2.0(1;7) 3.0 (5.9)
4.0 (14)
5.0 (27 .5) 6.0(47.6) 7.0(75.6) 8.0(112.9)
initial film thickness Ylr(m) [ml(l per mn)] *10-
Fig4.9a.Ev versus Ylr
(ml)
69
Legend
collector lenglh XIl=5ml'=20deg.gw per sg.m=1000w per sg.m

Xli=10m
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
XIl=15m
--------------
XIi=20m
XIi=25m
l:::. -------------------------------
_________________________________________ .
0.018
~U~~Q~
,------------------------------------~
0.016
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
0.014
/
/
/
,.,_----------------------i'>.
to'
///
5
L
ID
+Cl
0.012
~
"0
ID
+-
---<0
0.010
0...
Cl
>
>- 0.008
ID
1:
::J
- --
_-------------e
0.006
-- __ -------------------u
0.004
0.0021------,-----,------,------,
2.0. (1.7)
4.0 (14)
6.0 (47.6)
8.0 (112.9)
10.0 (220.6)
Initial thickness Ylr(m) [ml(l/mn)]
Fig4.9b Ehv versus Ylr
(mi)
*10-
70
Legend
'0
~
12.0
10.0
plate heat flux=200w per sg.m,Ylr=2e-4, 20deg
gw=400w..P.!.':...sg.m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
gw=BOO~
;:;,
gw=10_0_0_w~s_q,'!'______________
per sg.m
/);.
I
/
I
I
M'
g,
B.O
tij
L
(])
....o
~
6.0
"0
o
0...
o
tij
4.0
2.0
10
15
20
25
30
collector length Xli Cm)
Fig4.1Oa.ev versus XILqw as parameter
71
Legend
plale heal flux gw=200w!sg.m. -20deg.Ylr=2e-4m
~=600W
gw=800W per sg.,!, _ __
l:.
gw=10_0_0_~,!q.!!,________________ /
0 gw=400w MLsg.m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
0.014
per
s~m
/
/
/
0.012
t<)
0.010
g,
I..
Q)
-+-
0.008
"0
Q)
-+-
Q.
>
Q)
0.006
I:
:J
0.004
0.002
0.000
10
15
20
25
collector length Xli (m)
Fig4.10b.Ehv versus XILqw as parameter
30
72
,.
'a
~
30.0
Legend
25.0
ome=10 dea,Ylr=2e-4m,qw=1000W per s9.m
ome=20d~
ome=30~e!L
_ _ _ _ _ _ __
_
-;;) 20.0
S
~
....Q)
15.0
-0
Q)
2o
a.
o
>
Q)
10.0
5.0
0.0
5
10
15
25
20
collector length Xli
30
Cm)
Fig4,11a.Ev versus XILomega as parameter
73
Legend
0.016
Ome=10 deg,Ylr=2e-4,gw=1000w sq.m
Ome=20deg __________ __
Ome=3..Q. d~ _
0.014
/
/
to
//
//
0.012
-
0
~
-0
//
//
//
0.010
Q)
....0
a.
//
0.008
>
Q)
>-
-.:
:J
..c
///
>
..c
w
....
Q)
)d
0.006
;:/
:/
//'
f'
;;
0.004
0.002-t-----,-----,------r------,-----,
25
15
5
20
30
10
collector length
Cm)
Fig4.11b.Ehv versus XIi.Omega as parameter
74
The heat transfer in the fluid is [13]
(4.47 )
where
Hence,
gw
is the plate heat flux.
from equations (4.45) and (4.46), the rate of temperature rise
of the brine lITL
oown
the still is obtained from:
(4.48 )
Figure 4.12 shows the variation of the temperature rise lITL for
different collector lengths at different plate heat flux.
75
35
30
- -e
/'
/
/
/
/
25
El
v(I)
/
20
::J
-+-
1:v
15
0..
/"
------
-----
_-El
I /
I /
10
./
Legend
plate temperature=50C
plate temperature=60f
p!at~temperature=70C
O~---.----.----.----.----.----.----.----.
10
F4.12.Rate of temperature rise
12
14
16
76
4.5
1.
REFEREN];S
G Gmssman, A Shitzer and Y Zvirin:

"Heat transfer analysis of a flat plate solar energy =llector",
Solar Energy, Vol 19, pp 493-502 (1977).
2.
R K Collier:
"The analysis and simulation of an open cycle absorption
refrigeration system", Solar Energy, Vol 23, pp 357-366 (1979).
3.
Chingshiang, Patrick Peng and John R Howell:
"Analysis of open inclined surface solar regenerators for

absorption c=ling applications, =mparison between numerical and
analytical modelS", Solar Energy, Vol 28, No 3, pp 265-268, 1982.
4.
A Johannsen and G Grossman:
"Performance simulation of regenerating type solar =llectors",

Solar Energy, Vo130, No 2, pp 87, 92 (1983).
5.
M Vaxman and M Sokolov:
"Analysis of a free flow solar =llector", Solar Energy, Vol. 35,

No 3, pp 287-290, 1985.
6.
S G Talbert, J A Eibling and G
G Lof:
"Manual on solar distillations of saline water", US Department of

the Interior, Office of Saline Water, R & D Report No 546, 1980.
7.
B Spindler:
"Equations gouvernant l'ecoulement plan d'un film liquid avec
flux de chaleur a la paroi et changement de phase a 1 'interface",
Commissariat a 1 'energie atomique, France, Rapport CEA, R506l,
1981.
77
8. J M Delhaye:
"Conditions d'interface et source d'entropie dans les systemes

diphasiques", Commissari.at a l' energie atomique, France, Rapport
CEA, R4562, 1974.
9. P J Cooper:
"The maximum efficiency of single effect solar stills", Solar
Energy, Vol. 15, pp 205-217 (1973).
10. G Hall and J M watt (Eds):

"Modern numerical methods for ordinary differential equations",
p 59, Clarerubn Press, Oxford, 1976.
11. G Bu:crcMs:
"M:llecular distillation", Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1970, P 120.

12. D Hershey:
"Transport analysis", Plenum Press, New York, 112-113 (1973) 6602842.

13. Edward E I'.nderson:
"Fundamentals of solar energy conversion",
Publishing Cnmpany, p 177 (1983).
Addison-Wesley
78
0IAPl'ER 5
EXPER1MENI'S AND lNSTRlJI1ENl'RATICN
5.1
:INl'RCIXI'ICN
In this chapter, the free flow flat plate solar still model is
described.
The model has been designed and tested to study the
features which are expected to affect the still production such as

solar radiation, wind vel=ity, ambient air temperature, liquid mass
flow rate, angle of inclination etc.
The intention was to study the parameters which would affect a long
large scale solar still. For this reason, a small model of 1 m2 area
was cOI1structed and tested to investigate the effect of the above
parameters on this type of still.
Such a still, which was first
developed to use in the laboratory, has also been used under direct
solar oonditions by making some alterations to its design.
The solar
condition tests which have been carried out on an open weather

station were conducted to study the effects of the solar radiation,
ambient air temperature, wind velocity and some other technical
features on the performance of the solar still.
The laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the effect
of the plate heat flux (Le. simulating the solar. radiation reaching
the plate), the liquid flow rate, the angle of inclination etc.
Due
to some technical problems, such as the transport, changes in the

still construction and other design problems,
the still had
insufficient insulation and some leakage which impaired its

performance .
79
5.2
STILL a:NSTROCTICN
Figure 5.1 shows the distillation system which has been designed and
tested.
It is seen that the system is divided into six parts:
the still
itself (1) with its two holding beams (2) by which the collector can
be inclined and fixed;
a tank (3) where the hot solution is stored
and then pumped to the top of the still by means of a pump (4), tubes
(5) which connect the different parts of the system and finally a
bottle (6) where the condensate is collected.

Following is a description of each part with dimensions and materials
used.
5.2.1
The Still
Figure 5.2 shows a cross-section of the still.

of the following parts:
The still is composed
a black base plate made of aluminium with a
6 mm wooden insulation plate,
a 6 mm glass cover,
top small
cylindrical tank from which the solution starts to flow, a bottom

rectangular tank, the trough used to collect the condensed water and
the two beams which fix the still.
5.2.2
The Tank
The tank is a black rectangular container made of plastic. It was

made to store the heated solution which was IXlt evap:>rated and which
would be pumped and used again in the still.
5.2.3
The Pump
The pump which was used to pump the solution from the storage tank to
the top of the still has the following technical characteristics:
FIGURE 5.1:
THE SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM
----,
r- - - - - - - - -
I
I
I
I
I
I
3
81
Head of the pump, in metres
Mass flow rate, litres/min
5.2.4
3-14
125- 4
(in ft
10-45 )
(GPH 1650-50)
Tubes
Plastic tubes were used to connect different parts of the system so

that the solution which reaches the bottom of the still could be
recycled to the top of it.
5.3
a.mxJOR STILL
The system which has been described above with its different parts,
is the still used under direct solar conditions.
Figure 5.5 shows
the still in the meteorological station at Loughborough University of
Technology .
5.4
THE LAOORA'lORY STILL
The laboratory still construction differs slightly from the outdoor
still. In the outdoor experiments the solar still is heated directly

by solar radiation,
while the latoratory still, which is used inside
a bUilding, uses heating simulation (see Figure 5.4).
To simulate
the solar radiation reaching the plate, the wooden plate was removed
and replaced by an aluminium plate on which six resistances were

placed and oonnected to a heater (see Figure 5.5).
By setting the dial of the 3 kW heater (Figure 5.6) to 60 0 e for
example, the heater is on full until the sensing probe reaches 6cPe,
then a relay mechanism switches 'off' the heater.
As the temperature
of the probe goes down to 600 e, the relay mechanism switches 'on' the
heater until the temperature of the probe again reaches 600 e.
This
mechanism 'on' and 'off' will maintain the temperature of the plate
at 600 e.
.. ' ..
~--~'Top
cylindrical tank
Wooden
insulation
plate
Black absorber
Glass coVER
Beam
FIGURE 5.2:
;...
_ _-I
A CROSS SECTION OF THE FREE FLOW FLAT PLATE SOLAR STILL
CD
Fig. 5.4 The laboratory still
Resistances
00
(J1
/'('l~"-------,.
IT
Probe
Heater
Electrical po'-"='Lr_ _ _~~=-ll",L=---_________1L-"'-=r--=c-=t=lF"""-=l'=F'"=""=<::::F=-=t::::F""'-'-=c:::rconnected to

~
- ........ _ _ =c:::F __ =c::F _ =<=t" - ==c:F _ =c::I
the heater
FIGURE 5.5a:
HEATING SIMULATION VIEW A
FIGURE 5.5b:
VIEW B
CD
C"l
--J\ ,
Cig. 5.6 Heater and microprocessor thermometer
87
5.5
IM5TRlMNl'ATICNS
5.5.1 'l'enpmlture
~ts
The liquid temperatures were measured using thermocouples connected
to a microprocessor thermometer (see Figure 5.6).

The COMARK
thennooouples BS 4937 which are made of NiCr/NiAl have the following
characteristic ranges:
Therm:x:xJuple type:
Range
Maximum Error :':
Fran
To
-200
500
<0.15
500
1150
1372
<0.05
1150
<0.1
The microprocessor thermometer comprises the latest 1:echrnlogy in

microprocessor application.
The versatility of such a 1:echrnlogy has
offered in one instrument what is normally provided by several

instruments.
For example, six BS 4937 thermocouple types can be
installed within the appropriate instrument and can be readily

selected by push button control.
In addition,
four scales are
available, namely Absolute (or Kelvin), Celsius, Fahrenheit and

microvolts.
All ranges are autozeroing and auto-calibrating under
microprocessor control.
can be found in [1].
The specifications of such microprocessors
5.5.2 Solarimeter
The Casella instrument is a sensitive pyronometer intended for
measurement of the total energy of solar radiation per unit area
88
(direct and diffuse) falling on a horizontal surface.
'n1e detector
consists of silicon chip diodes of low thermal mass attached to a

thin glass substrate.
The diodes are assembled on the underside of
the substrate and connected to form a bridge. The upper side of the
sensor over the inner array of diodes is painted black and the outer
concentric array is painted white.
The resulting temperature

~
difference between the black and white arrays when subjected to solar
radiation changes the forward voltage drop on the diodes so that at
constant forward current the change in forward voltage can be
measured in terms of energy output in watts per square metre.
Such a
solarimeter is shown in Figure 5.7 [2].

5.5.3
Data
uwer
The data logger, a CR21 micrologger (see Figure 5.8) which was used
in the outdcor experiments, is capable of handling 9 analogue input
channels over time intervals up to five days.
This miniature,
battery-operated micropr=essor based computing recorder inputs data

from a variety of sensors, pr=esses the information and stores the
pr=essed data in memory to be read later using a p::!rtable printer.
Once each hour, the micrologger samples the inputs, converting the
raw electronic signals to engineering units.
in nine memory locations for later use.
These values are stored
Stored data is output in the
following format: [3]

Channel
Description
01:
02:
Output interval number (1, 2 or 3)
03:
Time
04:
First output data value: hourly ambient air
Julian day
temperature
05:
Second output data value:
hourly solar
radiation
06:
Third output data value:
etc
etc
hourly wind speed
The CR21 operating system is shown on the follCMing page.
89
Sensor I
-
Sensor 9
Sensor processing: sensor readings are cx:mverted to

engineering units. The user enters a signal oonditioning
programne number, multiplier and offset for each input channel
Input storage: sensor readings are stored in engineering units

for use in data
.
or =-".1 -t; IT1P ell ",,1;w
Output processing: data sunmaries are generated fron processed

sensor readings. The user enters the processing intervals and
programnes desired Averaging, maximum, min:imum, and histograms
are part of the CR21 library
Intennediate storage:
temporazy storage for
SLnT1S, max, min, number
of samples, histogram
bins etc
Final storage: 640 processed data

points can be stored. When the
menory is full, new data is
written over old. After each new
data array is stored, data is
transmitted over the serial
interface to the printer or
cassette. Keyboard ccmnands
transfer stored data to a
printer, cassette, or the display.
Merrory can also be interrogated
via a telephone nodem
~
~
Cassette
Recording
PoPrrtaintberle
L---=-:='::-=--I
I:::.~eemphone
. , .......
~ ig.
5.7 The solarimeter
~ ig.
5.8 The data logger
92
5.5.4
Liquid Flow Rate Measuranents
Mass flow rates were measured with a RhJdes flowmeter which oansists
of two instruments:
the RhJdes Model R/T transmitter and an assembly
of RhJdes flow rate indicator model A/4 and multi-isolator models M/4
and MA/4 (see Figure 5.9).
The Rhodes model R/T transmitter is mounted remote from its
associated instrument. A magnet is incorporated in the propeller
shaft which, in turn, rotates proportional to the flow through the
transmitter.
On the outside of the transmitter there is a reed
switch which opens and closes as the magnet rotates. The magnetic
flux passes through the wall of the transmitter and so operates the
reed switch.
The transmitter is connected to its instrument which is an assembly
of a flow rate indicator A/4 and a multi-isolator M4 and MA/4.
The
A/4 accepts signals from any transducer providing a pulse output.

These signals are converted to drive a 0.2 mA analogue meter mounted
on the front panel.
The multi-isolator model M/4 converts the input
signals to provide three completely isolated outputs which may be

used to drive three flow registering instruments.
The flow rate ranges of these two instruments are between 0-10 GPM.
For more information see RhJdes reference [4].

5.6
TESTS
5.6.1
'liE Outdxn:s Still Tests
5.6.1.1
Principle
The solution which was pumped from the Storage tank by means of the
pump to the top cylindrical tank of the inclined still, flowed freely
down the black plate in a thin film.
The black surface which faced
the south, absorbed the portion of solar radiation that is

transmitted through the glass cover and brine layer.
The hot surface
5.9 The flowmeter
94
heated the moving fluid and raised its temperature.
When the brine
reached the saturation temperature,. evaporation commenced.
The
resulting evaporated water was condensed when it came into contact
with the inner side of the cover.
The cxmdensate slid down the slope
to the cOllecting trough from which it passed to the bottle, while

the =ncentrated hot solution went to the storage tank from where it
was pumped and used again.
5.6.1.2 Tests
The outdoor tests consisted of measuring the daily condensate
produced by evaporation and environmental parameters which include
the daily average ambient air temperature,
the daily average
insolation and the daily average wind speed. The thermometer which
measured the ambient air temperature, the solarimeter which measured
the insolation and the sensor which measured the wind speed were
connected to the data logger from which the average results were
read.
5.6.2
A
Laboratmy Tests
general view of the laboratory still with the instrumentation is
shown in Figure 5.4.
5.6.2.1 Principle
The laboratory still used the same principle as in the outdoor still.
The only difference was the black surface which heated the moving
fluid.
The outdoor solar still directly absorbs the solar radiation,
while in the laboratory experiments, the surface was heated directly

by a set of six resistances connected to a heater.
95
5.6.2.2 Tests
The latoratory tests a:>nsisted of measuring the production of water
by evaporation, liquid mass flow rate variation, the black surface
temperature variation and the inclinations.

rise of the brine was also measured.
The rate of temperature
96
5.7
REFEIlEN::ES
1.
"Microprocessor thermometers, operating system, Cbmark", Comark

Electronics Limited, 6200 Issue 2, Raytec lABl, England.
2.
Casella London Limited:

"Solarimeter", Reference W65OO, Catalogue 934.
3.
"an
Micrologger"
Abacus MicropIOducts, Watford, England.
4.
Manual for Rhodes.
97
QIAPI'ER 6
6.1
lNI'RCIXCl'ICN
The experimental still which has been described in the previous

chapter was tested in both laboratory and outdoor sites.
In order to
simulate the full theoretical model, a 1.5 metre experimental segment

of the full still was designed and tested. To the difference of the
theoretical still operation, the hot solution was recycled and used
again in the experimental tests. This enabled the experimental
results only to be compared in general terms with the theoretical
results, although it was not possible to model the variation of
properties theoretically predicted of the full still.
6.2
LAIlORATOR'{ RESULTS
Using the laboratory still principle of Section 5.6.2, many tests

were conducted to study the effect of the plate heat flux, the liquid
mass flow rate and the =llector inclination on the performance of
the still.
Each test was =nducted for a period of 150 minutes.
The first test was to study the effect of the plate heat flux (Le.
simulating the solar radiation reaching the plate) on the still
performance by varying the heater temperature.
In this experiment,
the liquid flow rate and the =llector inclination were. fixed to 2.7
l/min (Le. 0.6 GPM) and 20 degrees respectively.

test which is shown in Figure 6.1,
The result of the
shows that as the plate
temperature increases, the production of water increases, implying

that the higher the solar radiation,
performance.
the higher the still
As expected this result demonstrates quite clearly what
has been =nc1uded in the theoretical results (see Figure 4.10).
- - - - -
98
450
400
350
300
-::::::-
-5
c
+u
250
::J
"D
Q.
200
'(])
3:
150
100
50
O~--------.---------,---------.---------.
20
30
40
50
60
Plate temperature CC)
Fig6.1. Water production versus plate temperature
99
'The second test was carried out
to examine the effect of liquid mass
flow rate variation on the still production. The plate temperature

and the still inclination were fixed at 50 0 C and 20 degrees
respectively.
Figure 6.2 was then plotted.
Again the theoretical
results of Figure 4.9a were in agreement with the experimental

results of Figure 6.2, that is as the liquid flow rate increases
(Le. the film initial thickness increases), the production of water
decreases..
Also
it can be sh:>wn that f= a specific collector length
XLi (here 1.5m), the water production starts to decrease slowly for
higher flow rate.
In Figure 6.3, which sh:>ws the effect of the still inclination on the
water production, the liquid flow rate and the plate temperature were
fixed at 2.7 l/min and 500 C respectively.
I t can be seen from graph
6.3 that the production reaches a peak value at an angle of 20

degrees. This result is in agreement with the literature survey
oonclusion which says that the best inclination is 20 degrees. It was
expected from the theoretical results of Figure 4.11a that water
production is higher at
Q =
Q =
10 degrees, but Figure 6.3 sb:::>ws that at
10 degrees, the water production is not maximum.
the dropwise condensation effect. In fact, at
Q =
This is due to
10 degrees, there
was more evaporation and condensation on the cover than at
Q =
20
degrees, but as mentioned in the literature survey and what was

noticed in the experiments, for smaller inclinations, dropwise
condensation occurred and reduced quite significantly the output of
the still.
6.3
THE ClJI1XX)R TESTS
The tests, which were conducted under direct solar conditions, use
the still principle seen in Section 5.4.1.
The aim of the
experiments was to study the effect of environmental parameters such

as direct solar radiation, wind speed and ambient air temperature on
the still performance. Such results are given in Figures 6.4 to 6.7.
100
320
310
300
C-
c
0
:;::
290
::J
"'0
ea..
L.
Cl)
280
{)
3:
270
260
250;------.------.-----.------.------.-----~
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
liquid mass flow rate CL/mn)
Fig6.2. Water production versus liquid flow rate
101
300
280
260
240
C-
S
c
0
:;::
u
220
:J
"0
0..
200
1Q)
180
160
140
120~--------.---------.---------.---------,
10
15
20
still inclination
25
30
(deg)
Fig6.3. Water production versus still inclination
102
Figure 6.4 shows the variation of the daily still output, i.e. the
daily amount of water produced from the evaporation and condensation
on different days.
In these tests, the still was run f= 8 days.
On
each day, the average insolation, average wind speed and average
ambient air temperature were measured and then plotted in Figures
6.5, 6.6 and 6.7 respectively.
Also from the readings of the data
logger, the hourly ambient air temperature, insolation and wind speed
of each di!q were plotted in Figures 6.8 to 6.15.
It can be seen from Figure 6.5 that the average daily insolation is
not maximum on Day 7 which corresponds to the peak value of the
produced water, Le. 510 ml (see Figure 6.4).
It can also be noticed
that the maximum daily insolation which is on Day 4 does not

correspond to the higher still output.
half of Day 7.
The Day 4 value is less than
A priori, this means that solar radiation does not
affect Significantly the still output and as a result of that it does

not agree with the theoretical and laboratory results.
In fact,
solar radiation affected the still output as can be seen by comparing

Day 4 and Day 2, but combined sometimes with other environmental and
design parameters, this effect was diminished. Such environmental and
design factors are the wind speed and the sealing of the still. The
effect of wind is sh:>wn in Figure 6.6.
On Day 4 where the insolation
is maximum, the average daily wind speed is the second highest value
(Le. 4.41 m/s).
In spite of the maximum insolation, water
production was diminished by vapour leakage due to the effect of the

wind speed. The same result can also be noticed on Day 5 where the
maximum average wind speed value (Le. 5.5 m/s) corresponds to the
second lowest still production value (i.e. 120 ml).
However, in the laboratory tests, it has been sh:>wn that the higher
the plate temperature (Le. the solar radiation reaching the plate),
the higher the still performance.
This is explained by the fact that
in the laboratory there is no wind which can affect the still

production.
"
103
The final parameter which was measured to study its effect on the
still performance, was the average daily ambient temperature. Figure
6.7 shows that both maximum and minimum ambient temperatures do not
oorrespond to the maximum and minimum water production, mainly when
there is a temperature inversion (i.e. the day is cloudy and the
ambient temperature is high) and high wind speed.
The performance of
the still was also affected by some design features:
It has been shown from the above discussions that the sealing of
the still has greatly affected water production by increasing
vapour leakage.
This conclusion is similar to the one given in
the literature survey
The 6 mm glass cover, which is quite thick, used in the test, may
have decreased the solar radiation reaching the plate by

reflecting more solar radiation and that due to this type of
glass, dropwise condensation decreased the still output
One of the big problems of the test was the feeding technique of
the water to all the still.
In fact one of the reasons
for not
sealing the still was this problem. To resolve it,
the top
cylindrical tank was left open at the beginning of each test so

that all the black surface =uld be flushed by the solution.
When
the plate became wet and the solution flowed freely down the still
without having dry spots on the surface, the cylindrical tank was
closed by an aluminium plate
By recycling the hot solution from the bottom to the top of the
still, a lot of vapour and heat were lost on the way
Sometimes it was noticed that a certain quantity of the oondensed

water was lost because the trough which collected the produced
water was not deep enough
104
400
-:::::-
--
::J
a. 300
::J
0
0+-
(f)
200
345
Day number
Fig6.4.Daily still output
105
E'
400
0-
3:
'--'
c
0
:;::
350
.S:!
-0
0
I...
I...
0
0
300
Ul
Q)
{J)
I...
Q)
~ 250
345
Day number
Fig6.5.Average daily insolation
106
'Cii' 4.5
E-
'--"
-0
Q)
Q)
0..
(J)
-0
C
.~
3.5
Cl>
{J')
Cl>
345
Day number
Fig6.6.Average daily wind speed
107
'--'
-:.a
Ql
24
:J
C
Ql
a.
E
Ql
22
.~
Ql
20
Ql
Cl
e
Ql
>
18
<!
345
Day number
Fig6.7.Average daily ambient air temperature
108
tb.
. ambient
air temperature
wind speed
solar radiation
24
22
4.5
1000
900
20
800
3.5
18
700
3
'E
Q)
'-
::J
-<-
'Ui'
16
"'-
'-
a.
Q)
..-
ID
ID
a.
'-
'0
..c
Q)
500
"0
.~
400
.D
E
0
300
1
200
0.5
44----------.--------~--------_,,_------~0
10
12
14
16
18
time of the day1
Fig6.8.Environmental data of day 1
-+-
E
'0
0
Ul
1.5
10
.~
"0
Ul
12
~
c
"0
14
0-
2.55
Q)
600
100
109
tf,
ambient air temperature
wind speed
solar radiation
I
24
1000
22
900
6
20
en
800
18
700
Q)
....
::J
+0
..........
16
....
Q)
a..
E
Q)
+....
c
600
'--"
Q)
Q)
a..
500
III
.~
400
Q)
:c
.2
+0
....
0
0
III
E
0
~
3:
'--'"
"'0
~
3"'0
12
0-
"'0
14
0
0+-
10
300
200
100
4~---------.----------.----------.------~--,
10
12
14
16
18
time of the day2
110
if>
wind speed
solar radiation
30
1000
900
3.5
25
BOO
3
.........
()
'-'
700
20
Q)
....
'Ui'
1-
Q)
a.
E
Q)
....
600
'-'
"U
15
"-
....'0c
Q)
Q)
a.
(/)
c
.~
Q)
0-
~
3:
'-'
C
500
.2
....
400
"0
"U
.~
"U
1.5
:.0
2.5
"-
::s
(/)
10
300
1
200
5
0.5
100
O~-------r-------.-------.--------.-------+O
10
12
14
16
lB
20
time of the day3
Fig6.1O.Environmental data of day 3
III
tf:,
ambient air temperature.
wind speed
solar radiation
1200
30
25
1000
u
-----
'--"
20
800
Q)
l-
....
::l
Q)
0..
E
Q)
.....
'--"
"0
'--"
C
E
Cl>
600 ,2
....
0..
,~
"0
III
I-
'0
c
Q)
:0
D"
----~
Q)
15
3"0
'~
10
l-
0
0
400
200
1
o~-------.-------.-------.--------.---~-.
10
12
14
16
18
20
time of the day 4
III
112
t'tl.
wind speed
solar radiation
20
1000
18
900
7
16
800
6
14
700
(])
'-
'::J
-+-
l:
(])
5,,-...
12
500
.2
+.2
-0
10
+-
(])
(])
Cl..
'-
'0
+c
~
3:
'-"
Cl..
E
(])
(I)
"Cl
-0
.~
(])
400
Cl
l:
'Cl
0
.Ll
~
CT
600
(I)
300
2
200
1
100
O~-------r-------r-------.-------.r---L&-.
10
12
14
16
18
20
time of the day 5
113
L1l
wind speed
solar radiation
18
1000
16
4.5
900
800
3.5
700
14
U
'--'"
12
<1>
'-
.....:l0
'<1>
n.
<1>
<1>
n.
500
(I)
'0
.....c
.~
..0
.~
~
3:
'-'
.2
.....
.2
'0
0
'0
~
0c
'0
2.5
.....
600
-.S
10
E
<1>
'-
.--..
400
'-
'0
0
(I)
1.5
300
200
0.5
100
O~-------r-------.-------'--------r---~-.
10
12
14
16
18
20
time of the day 6
114
If:,.
wind speed
solar radiation
25
1200
1000
20
'""'
B
e
.....
e
::l
800
<D
0..
<D
<D
600
0..
\...
Cl)
'0
.~
"'0
E
.....<D
.....C
0..g!..
'""'
~
4 E
'-"
15
'E'
.2
.....
.2
3"'0
"'0
0
.~
\...
10
\...
<D
0
.n
400
2
5
200
o4----------.----------.----------.----------~0
10
12
14
16
18
time of the day7 (hours)
Cl)
llS
,1;.
. ambient
air temperature
wind speed
solar radiation
24
r 7
1000
900
21
6
800
18
5
700
0
'-'
Q)
1-
:J
15
r--..
-+-
1-.
Q)
a.
Q)
-+-
600
E
Q)
Q)
12
a.
(J)
500
.~
.2
-+.!2
'"0
3'"0
-+-
'"0
1-
c
Q)
:0
~
eT
400
e
l-
0
0
(/)
300
2
6
200
1
100
01--------.-------.-------.-------.--~L&_.
la
12
14
15
18
20
time of the day 8
Fig6.15.Environmental data of day8
116
A final interesting point which was IXlted during the experiments- .

was that the still output would have been increased if the rain
water had been =llected.
Some very useful information and =nclusions can be drawn from the
=mbination of the theoretical, experimental and literature survey
resul ts as well as design problems to perform the inclined still.
Such =nclusions are:
1.
To decrease the vapour leakage and the effect of the
\~ind,
the
still must be well sealed;

2.
From the theoretical and laboratory results, the higher the solar
radiation, the higher the water production. Then to get the

maximum of solar radiation, the still would be well insulated in
order to decrease the heat losses and should be inclined in the
best JX)Sition to intercept the maximum of solar radiation;
3.
The glass cover should be thinner and should be treated to

decrease the dropwise condensation;
4.
To over=me the dry SjX)ts on the black surface, the plate sh:Ju1d
be wettable and the feeding system should be improved;
5.
All the tanks and tubes which connect different parts of the
still should be well insulated to decrease the heat losses;
6.
To prevent the condensate spilling or overflowing, the trough

should be deep e!XlUgh;
7.
The best materials should be used; and
8.
Finally, to increase the still performance rain water should be

=llected by means of a trough.
117
0Il\PI'ER
7.1
a::n::wsI<N>
A free flow flat plate solar still model has been studied, both
theoretically and experimentally in this work, and the effect of
experimental and design parameters on the performance of the still
obtained.
To study theoretically the effect of the significant parameters on a
free flow flat plate solar collector, a mathematical two-dimensional

flow analysis was carried out based on continuity, momentum and
e~ergy
equations for liquid and vapour flow with an iterative
computational procedure.
In the case of a constant plate heat flux, a set of liquid and vapour
equations were reached and solved. As far as the liquid is concerned,
the velocity, pressure, temperature and film thiclmess profiles were
found.
In the case of vapour, a stream function aw=ach was used to
solve the dimensionless set of equations and a third non-linear

differential equation was reached and solved numerically by the
Runge-Kutta methxL
It was found that:
1.
A relationship exists between liquid and vapour velocities and

the higher the liquid velocity, the higher the vapour velocity
due to the interactive effects between the two phases;
2.
Variation in liquid film thickness down the still has a

significant effect on the general performance of a solar still
and slnuld OClt be neglected (partiCUlarly in the case of a long,
large scale plant);
118
3.
As the initial film thickness YLr (Le. mass flow rate mL ) passes
from 0.2 mm (1.7 litres/min) to 0.4 mm (14 litres/min), the

evaporation rate
Ern,
increases from 13 litres to 16 litres f= a
period of one hour and for a collector length of 30m and
q,.
= 1000 W/m2.
,
4.
As the collector length passes from 5m to 30m, the evaporation
rate
Ern, increases steadily from 3 litres to 16 litres for YLr =
0.2 mm and qw = 1000 w/m2;

5.
As the plate heat flux increases from 200 to 1000 w/m 2 , the
evaporation rate increases from 4 litres to 14 litres, implying

that as the solar radiation reaching the plate increases, the
still output increases steadily;
6.
Finally, as the still inclination
passes from 10 deg to 30 deg,
the evaporation rate Ehv increases from 7 litres to 14 litres

respectively f= a collector length of 30m and qw = 1000 W/m2.
As far as the experimental work is concerned, a small scale free flow
flat plate solar still of 1 m2 in area was designed and tested in

both laboratory and under direct solar conditions to study the effect
of the theoretical significant parameters as well as the
environmental and design factors on the performance of such a still.
From the experimental tests which were carried out in the laboratory,
it was found that:
1.
As the plate temperature increases from 200 C to 60o C,
the
production of water increases from almost zero to 0.45 litres,

implying that the higher the solar radiation, the higher the
still performance;
2.
As the liquid mass flow rate increases from 1.5 litres,fuin to
4.5 litres/min, the output decreases from 0.32 litres to 0.25
119
litres, implying that as the liquid flow rate (Le. the initial
film thickness) increases, the production of water decreases.
3.
water production reached its peak value of 0.29 litres at an

angle ot' 20 deg.
As far as the outdoor experiments are concerned, it was found that
water production increased with solar radiation and decreased with

wind velocity and that the ambient air temperature slightly affects
the water production.
To increase the still efficiency, it was also
1.
oor~luded
that:
The still should be well insulated in order to decrease the heat

losses;
2.
The black surface should be wettable and the feeding system

should be improved to overcome dry spots;
3.
To decrease the vapour leakage and the effect of wind speed, the
still should be well sealed;

4.
7.2
and
To increase the still perfonnance, rainwater should be =llected.

FUR'llIER WJRK:
A I.CIG, LARGE SCALE SOLAR STILL PLI\NI'
The theoretical and experimental results of the free flow flat plate
solar still are =mbined together to fonn the basis for the design of
a long, large scale solar still plant for further study.
A 30m long
scale solar still could be constructed and designed using the

following principle.
The solution,
which can be pumped manually or by means of a pump to
the top of the still, flows freely down the long black plate in a
thin film.
The resulting vapour is condensed when it comes into
contact with the inner side of the cover.
The condensate which
120
slides oown the slope, is =llected by means of troughs every 2m and

then passed to storage.
The trough which can be built on the bottom
outer side of the cover, collects the rainwater which falls on the
still area.
To the difference of the experimental tests,
the
remaining concentrated solution is not recycled to the top of the

still, but is thrown away to waste.
As a result of this, extra
energy is not needed to pump the solution again to the top of the
still.
Such a still is shown in Figure 7.1.
From the experimental and literature survey results, such stills,

which should be built from the best materials that have proved to be
reasonably satisfactory (see Table 2.2) and are easily available,
should be:
1.
well sealed to decrease the vapour leakage and the effect of

wind;
2.
well insulated to decrease the heat losses.
To intercept the maximum amount of solar radiation and to decrease
the effect of clropwise condensation,
the still should be built on a
hillside or inclined at an angle of 20 degrees. Such angle choice has

been considered by combining the experimental (Figure 6.3),
theoretical (Figure 4.11) and literature survey results.
It was shown in the theoretical results of Figure 4.9 and the
experimental results of Figure 6.2, that the solution mass flow rate
affected quite significantly the still production and that beyond an
litres/mm (Le. initial film thickness YLr =
4.l0-4m), the evaporation remained constant. For this reason, the
optimum flow rate
= 14
liquid flow rate should be tested at this optimum value to get the
maximum evaporation.
If we =nsider an ideal free flow long, large

scale solar still of 30 m2 area (30 x 1), set at an angle of 20
degrees with a solar radiation reaching the plate equal to 500 W/m 2
and mass flow rate = 14 litres/mm, the fresh water productivity after
a period of 5 hours would be 40 litres (see Figure 7.2).
121
Q)
-iJ
Ul
\
\
\
\
\
\
122
45
40
'Q)'
I-
;!=
35
cIII
I-
:::l
..c 30
If)
l-
V
+'+-
>
..c
25
l-
V
+-
3:
""0
20
V
+-
e
0
0..
15
10
54--------.-------.--------.-------.-------5
10
15
20
25
30
Fig7.2.Evaporated water of a long scale solar still
123
APPENDIX AI
Relative Scale Values

Transversal length in the liquid:
Transversal length in the vap:mr:
Longitudinal length in the vap:mr:
Ratio of the liquid length scales:
Ratio of the vapour length scales:
Longitudinal velocity in the liquid
and vap:mr:
UGr = ULr = Ur
= pg sinll
0Lr/~
Transversal velocity on the liquid

and vap:mr:
Pressure difference in the liquid:
Pressure difference in the vap:mr:

M:xlified pressure difference in
the vap:mr:
Liquid to vaPour interfacial
pressure difference:
Pressure:
=
Pg(X = 0, Y = A(X,T)
124
Temperature difference in the

liquid:
Temperature:
TLr = Tgr = TS (x=O)

3
P 2S
Re:
sinrl. Y
)J2
Lr
125
APPENDIX A2
Simplificaticn Process
Using the climensionless tenus (see nomenclature) and the scale values
(Appendix Al),
the first stage of the simplification pr=ess can be
developed but only the simplification of equation 4.1 is considered.

The other simplified equations are reached in the same manner.
Index
L is omitted:
A2.l
In a steady state, two dimensional flow, equation (A2.l) beoomes:
A2.2
Then:
A2.3
Introducing the diroensionless fonn:
x* =~;
X
and the physical properties:
P = Pr [1 + S (T-Tr )]
where T-Tr =
126
m (T-Tr )]
I' = llr [1 +
and
n*
~U=X
Equation A2. 3 beccmes:
-.
* a[p
+ PrB I1T e*]

dY*
_-,r=-_-=,-,;--_r_ _ = 0
v-r
A2.4
Developing equation (A2. 4) we get:
+ B (T-Tr )]
u au*
P: ox*"
X
r
Vr
I1Tr -
V dV*
+ -I: W"']
Y
r
+prB
I1Tr -I: u
X
r
dS*
-dX*
dS*
-- - 0
A2.5
dY*
By replacing some terms with their value and simplifying, we get:
dU* + dV* +B I1T

dX*
dY*
d8*
dU*
dV*
d8*
- + v* - ] = 0
( - + - ) +u* dX*
dY*
dX*
dY*
A2.6
The second stage of the simplification process deals with the

calculation of the order of magnitude of the different terms in the
dimensionless equations. Neglecting small quaritities with a value
less than 10- 2 and putting terms with a value close to unity on the
left hand side of the equations and terms with a value close to 10- 2
on the right hand side, the new simplified equations are reached [7].
127
1.
Liquid Balance Fquaticns
au*
av*
+ -ax*
ay*
= """"B
(index L is anitted)
lITr [e * (au* + av*) + u ae* + v* ae*]

ax*
ay*
ax*
ay*
au*
au*)
11 * Re ( u * - + v* - ax*
ay*
B"Tr
e*
A2.7
+ Yr + 11 * an*
=-
ax*
ae* atl*
mllTr - - - ay* ay*
cotgll+
La
ay*
- cotg n.. B lITr e* +
A2.8
* [2 a 2v*
ay*2
11
2 a (au*
av*
-+)
3 ay* ax*
ay*
2
+ -a -u*
]
ay*2
a 2e* _
ay*2 -
11*
A2.9
2
Pe (u* -ae*
- + v* ae*) - R. liTre * a e* - R. LITr (ae*)2
ay*Z
ax*
ay*
ay*
A2.1O
2.
VapJUr balance equaticns:
(index G is anitted)
A2.11
* au*
* au*
--+ v
ax*
ay*
* 'v*
0_ _
ax*
11
ap*
_
_ +
* =
'v* +.'!=~n* _ _
(l2 V
_
~:t*
ay*
(ly* 2
_0_
ax*
A2.12
A2.13
128
3.
Interfacial balance equations:
A2.14
aVL*
ayL*
+ 2
aVG*
ayG*
=1
* ae~
(UL -
a~
* aei.
ayi.
+ vL-)
A2.IS
au*
G
ay:*
G
n*2 aV*
L
G
y 2 aX*
r
G
A2.16
(-+--)
ae*L
+ -*
aYL
4.
A2.17
BOlmdary ocoditions:
At the wall (i.e. at YL*
= 0)
=0
A2.18
ae*
* -L
eL
ay*
At the interface:
129
an!'
_'_L)]
~ ay*L
Far frcm the interface:
at YG*
A2.l9
00
*
lie;
= 0
A2.20
*
vG
= 0
To simplify the equations further, the right hand side terms are
neglected and equated to zero; and therefore a new final set of
equations is reached (see Section 4.3).
130
J\PPENDIX A3
TABULATICN OF VELOCI'lY va::IORS

TABLE 1
YLr (m)
UL (m!s)
3.30-4
4.10- 4
5.10- 4
1.03
Liquid Velcx::ities
VL (m!s)
VR (m!s)
1.03
1.83
5.5 10- 6
4.3 10- 6
2.87
3.44 10- 6
2.87
VL/UL
5.33 10- 6
2.3 10- 6
1.2 10-6
1.83
TABLE 2
Vapour Velcx::ities
Ur.* = 0.4
>;*
= 1.4
YLi'
= 0.2
mm
0.049
0.159
0.151
0.082
0.027
0.085
0.322
0.326
0.051
0.014
0.053
0.265
131
APPENDIX A4
A4.1:
RESOLUTION OF EQUATION 4.31

This programme calls on the fourth order Runge-Kutta method
subroutine D02BAF to solve the third non-linear differential
equation 4.31 which describes vapour boundary layer flow,
h(l), h(2) and h(3) are the dependent variables, beta the
independent variable. The boundary conditions are h(l)=2(xg/ul)**0.5,h(2)=1 at beta=O and h(2)=0 at beta=infinity
(betamax). The missing initial condition h(3) at beta=O is
found by an iterative procedure.
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
7
c
c
c
c
local scalars
real * tol, beta, betaend
integer i,ifail,j,n,nout
real *8 w(3,7), h(3),ul,x,y,v,pl,a(2),u,psi
subroutine references
external fcn
data nout /6/
open(unit=7,file='pg' ,form='formatted')
write (nout,99995)
n:specify the number of differential equations
n=3
ul:dimensionless longitudinal liquid velocity
ul=0.4
x:dimensionless longitudinal vapour distance
x=1.4
j:correct decimal digits
j=4
beta:dimensionless distance
beta=O.eO
h(1)=-(2*(x/ul)**0.5))
h(2) is also equal to ug/ul
h(2)=1.eO
h(3) which is the missing initial condition at beta=O, is
found by iteration
h(3) =-0.00505
ifail=O'
do 10 betaend=O,eO,15,eO,O,2eO
write(7,7)
format(17x, 'input data')
tol:tolerance
tol=lO,**(-j)
write(nout,99998)tol
write(nout,99999)
write(nout,99997)beta,h(i),i=l,3),v
call on Runge-Kutta subroutine
call d02baf(beta,betaend,n,h,tol,fcn,w,ifail)
dimensionless transversal vapour velocity
v=O.5*((ul/x)**O.5)*((betaend*h(2))-h(1))
dimensionless transversal vapour distance
y=betaend*((x/ul)**O.5)
132
c
c
30
9
10
10000
99999
99998
99997
99996
99995
99994
c
c
c
c
c
stream function
pSi=ul*x)**0.5)*h(1)
dimensionless longitudinal vapour velocity
u=ul*h(2)
a(1)=0.5*h(1)*h(2)
a(2)=betaend*(1-(2/x))*(h(2)**2)
p1=0.5*ul)/x)*(a(1)-a(2)-h(3))
print solutions
write(nout,99997)beta,h(i),i=l,3),v
if (tol,lt.O) write(nout,99994)
write(nout,99996)ifail
write(0.30) x,y,psi,pl
format (f7,3,15x,f7,3,15x,f7,3,15x,f7,3)
write(7,9)betaend,p1
format (lh, f6,3, eI3.5)
continue
write (7 ,10000)
format (17x, 'eod,')
stop
format(55hO beta
h(l)
h(2)=u:ul
format (5hOtol=, E8.1)
format (lh, F6.3, 4E13.5)
format (8h ifail=, il)
format (3(lx/), 31h d02baf example program results/1x)
format (24h range too short for toll
end
subroutine fcn(t,h,f)
scalar argument
real *8 t
real *8 f(3),h(3)
function references
f' is defined equal to h(2)
f(1)=h(2)
f" is defined equal to h (3)
f(2)=h(3)
f'" is defined as:
f(3)=;(h(1)*h(3))/2
return
end
v)
133
All. 2:
TIIEORlITICAL RESULTS
This programme calculates and plots the theoretical results of

some parameters which would seem to affect the efficiency of a
free flow flat plate solar still.
c
c
c
e
Ehv,H,ml,cp,me
Mr=Mug/Mul
Mr=4,4e-2
g:gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
g=9,8
W:solar still width (m)
W=1
lambda:thermal conductivity (w/m,k)
lambda=O.68
Prl:liquid Prandtl number=(Mul*Cpl)/lambda
Prl=1.7
Yli:liquid transversal coordinate (m)
Yli=O.2e-3
rol:liquid density (kg/m3)
ro1=960
cp:heat capacity (j/kg.k)
cp=4180
H:number of hours
H=1.
Ku:Kutateladze number=cp*Dtlr/L
ku=O.Ol
L:heat of vaporization (j/kg)
L=2.3e06
gama-rog/rol
gama=6.2e-4
Mul:liquid dynamic v~scosity (kg/m.s)
Mul=2,8e-4
Tlr:relative liquid temperature (C)
Tlr=25
ome:angle of inclination of the still to the horizontal (degree)
ome=20
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
7
c
local scalars
real *8 Mr,Prl, rol,ku7 ,gama,L, Mul,qw ,ome, Ylr,Xlr,g, Ygr,Xgr,
Rel,netal,netag,Ur,Vlr,Vgr,xl,Xli,yl,Yli,ao,A,ul,Ulipl,tl,
Tli,Dtl,lambda,Tlr,Pli,Dpl,Plr,b,Dtlx,Tlix,Aev,Ev,W,Uali,tc,
open(unit=7,file='Z' ,form='formatted')
write(05)
Xli:still length (m)
do 4 Xli=5,30,5)
qw:plate heat flux (w/m2)
do 8 qw=200,1000,200
Ylr:initial film thickness (m)
do 10 Yli=0.0002,O,001,O.0002
write (7 ,7)
format(17x,'input data')
Xlr:relative longitudinal length in the liquid (m)
Xlr=(L*rol**2)*g*sin(ome/57.29)*(Ylr**3))/(qw*Mul)
134
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
Ygr:relative transversal length in the vapour (M)

Ygr=(Mr*Prl*Ylr)/ku
Rel:liquid Reynolds number=Ulr*Ylr*rol/Mul
Rel=((rol**2)*g*sin(ome/57.29)*(Ylr**2))/(Mul**2)
netal:relative ratio of the liquid length scales
netal*ku/(Prl*Rel)
netag:relative ratio of the vapour length scales
netag=netal/gama
Ur:relative longitudinal velocity in the liquid and vapour (m/s)
Ur=(rol*g*sin(ome/57.29)*(Ylr**2))/Mul
Vlr:relative transversal velocity in the liquid (m/s)
Vlr=(Ylr*Ur)/Xlr
Vgr:relative transversal velocity in the vapour (m/s)
Vgr=(Ylr*Ur)/(Xlr*gama)
xl:dimensionless longitudinal liquid coordinate
xl=Xli/Xlr
c=3*xl
b=(l-c)
ao:dimensionless film thickness
ao=(b**O.333333)
A:film thickness (m)
A=ao*Ylr
Aev:the reduction of film thickness (m)
Aev=Ylr-A
Ev:the evaporated water after one run (m3)
Ev=Xli*w*Aev
ul:dimensionless longitudinal liquid velocity
ul=(ao**2)/3
Uli:longitudinal liquid velocity (m/s)
Uli=Ur*ul
Uali:mean liquid velocity (m/s)
Uali=(ao**2)*Ur/3
tc:characteristic time (s)
tc=Xli/Uli
me:evaporation rate (m3/s)
me=Ev/tc
Ehv:the hourly evaporated water (m3)
Ehv=(3600*h
yl:dimensionless transversal liquid coordinate
yl=Yli/Ylr
ml:liquid mass flow rate (kg/s)
ml=rol*Ul*A
Dtl:relative temperature difference in the liquid (C)
Dtl=(qw*Ylr)/lambda
Dtlx:the rate of temperature rise in the liquid (C)
Dtlx=qw/(ml*cp)
tl:dimensionless liquid temperature
tl=ao-yl
Tli:transversal liquid temperature (C)
Tli=(Dtl*tl)+Tlr
Tlix:longitudinal liquid temperature (C)
Tlix:Dtlx+Tlr
135
print results
5
format ("Xli" . lOx, tlqw" ,lOx. "YIr lt ,lOx "me" ,lOx. "Ev lf Bx. "Ehv")
I
write (O,30)Xli,qw,Ylr,me,Ev,Ehv
write(7,35)me,Ehv
30 format(f4,l,5x,f6,l,5x,f7,6,5x,8,4x,f8,7,4x,f7.6)
35
format(f9.8,lOx,f7.6)
10 continue
8
continue
4
continue
write(7,40)
40 format(17x, 'eod')
stop
end

A Free Flow Flat Plate Solar Still (Boutebila 1991)

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Loughborough University

A free ow at plate solar

A Master's Thesis submitted in partial fullment of the requirements for

the award of Master of Philosophy of the Loughborough University of

Please cite the published version.

This item was submitted to Loughborough University as an MPhil thesis by

For the full text of this licence, please go to:

A FREE FLOW FLAT PLATE SOLAR STILL

A Master's Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment

STr s tf:' E"S

I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Mr M R Leeson, whose

am grateful to Mr Brian Mace whose help in designing and

who typed this thesis.

Solar distillation (desalination) of salt water is suitable for

physical and technical results of the various designs and

To study the effect of

significant parameters, a mathematical two dimensional flow analysis

momentum and energy equations

It is presented together with an

i terative =mputational pr=edure.

A dimensional set of equations is

developed and solved by the Runge-Kutta method.

It is slx:>wn that the

Human Population and Energy Demand

1.3.4 Nuclear Power

The Sun and Solar Energy

History of Solar Desalination

Effect of Atmospheric Parameters

COst of Product Water by Solar Stills

SOLAR DISTILLATION GENERAL THEDRY

Heat Balance on the Absorber and

Heat Balance on the Absorber

3.2.3 Heat Balance on the Cover

A FREE FLOW FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR

Theoretical Model Development

Liquid and Interface Phases

Solution of the Liquid Equations

Stream Function Approach

Theoretical Results and Discussion

The Laboratory Still

5.5.4 Liquid Flow Rate Measurements

The Outdoor Still Tests

The Outdoor Tests

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER

a Long Large Scale Solar

Relative Scale Values

Tabulation of Velcx::ity Vectors

Nag Routine Programme D02 BAF to

The Mathematical M:::ldel Programme

Conversion of energy from one form to

Different types of solar stills used around

Diagrammatic sections of solar still showing

from and within the still

Cover heat loss ~ vs =ver temperature Tg

A two-dimensional vapour behaviour in

DiInensionless longitudinal vap:>ur vel=i ty

DiInensionless transversal vap:>ur vel=i ty

Variation of dF/dB with ut

Variation of liquid velocity with film

Variation of the liquid thickness with the

Film thickness variation with heat flux for

EV versus YLr <ffir.) .

Ehv versus XLi

Ehv versus XLi' anega as parameter

A free ow at plate solar

A Master's Thesis submitted in partial fullment of the requirements for