Consolidation PDF

14.
330 SOIL MECHANICS

Consolidation
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION
(Vertical Stress Increase)
CONSOLIDATION:
Volume change in saturated soils
caused by the expulsion of pore
water from loading.
SAND
Saturated Soils:
CLAY
SAND
DEPTH
causes u to increase immediately

Sands: Pore pressure increase
dissipates rapidly due to high
permeability.
after Figure 7.1a. Das FGE (2005).
Clays: Pore Pressure dissipates

slowly due to low permeability.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 1 of 74
14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

Consolidation
At Time of Initial Loading (t = 0)
SAND
CLAY
Variation in Total, Pore water, and Effective Stresses
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1b. Das FGE (2005)
SAND
DEPTH
Pore water takes initial change in

vertical loading (u) since
water is incompressible
Soil skeleton does not see initial
loading
Revised 03/2013
Slide 2 of 74

Consolidation
Between time t = 0 to t =
SAND
CLAY
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1c. Das FGE (2005)
SAND
DEPTH
Revised 03/2013
Pore water increase due to initial

loading dissipates
Soil skeleton takes loading as
pore pressure decreases
Slide 3 of 74

Consolidation
At time t =
SAND
CLAY
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1e. Das FGE (2005)
SAND
DEPTH
Revised 03/2013
Pore water increase due to initial

loading completely dissipated
(u = 0)
Soil skeleton has taken loading.
Effective stress increase now equals
vertical stress increase '
Slide 4 of 74

Consolidation
THE SPRING ANALOGY
SAND
CLAY
SAND
DEPTH
(a)
Initial
Loading
(b)
Dissipation
of Excess
Water
Water takes
Pressure
load
Water
dissipating
Revised 03/2013
Soil (i.e.
spring) has
Soil starts to
no load
t k l
(c)
Final
Loading
Water
dissipated
Soil has load
Slide 5 of 74

Consolidation
ONE DIMENSIONAL (1D) CONSOLIDATION TEST

D2435-11 Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils
Using Incremental Loading
Consolidometer
Revised 03/2013
Figure 7.2. Das FGE (2005)
Slide 6 of 74

Consolidation
1D CONSOLIDATION TEST EQUIPMENT
ShearTrac II DSS Equipment

(Courtesy of Geocomp Corporation)
Figure E-1 USACE EM1110-1-1904.

Revised 03/2013
Slide 7 of 74

Consolidation
1D CONSOLIDATION TESTING
LOAD INCREMENT DATA
THREE STAGES
Stage I: Initial Compression
Primarily caused by preloading.
Stage II: Primary Consolidation
Excess pore water pressure
dissipation and corresponding
soil volume change.
Stage III: Secondary Consolidation
Occurs after excess pore
water pressure dissipation.
Due to plastic deformation/
readjustment of soil particles.
Revised 03/2013
Figure 7.4. Das FGE (2005).
Slide 8 of 74

Consolidation
VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS
Initial Void Ratio (eo):

Revised 03/2013
Vv H v A H v
eo
Vs H s A H s
Slide 9 of 74

Consolidation

@ End of Load 1
1 1
Change in Void
Ratio due to 1st
Loading (e1):
New Void Ratio
after 1st
Loading:
Revised 03/2013
H1
e1
Hs
e1 eo e1
Slide 10 of 74

Consolidation

@ End of Load 2
2 2
Change in Void
Ratio due to 2nd
Loading (e2):
New Void Ratio
after 2nd Loading:
Revised 03/2013
e1
H 2
Hs
H 2
e2 e1
Hs
Slide 11 of 74

Consolidation

Final e log plots consist of
results of numerous load & unload
increments
Two Definitions of Clays

based on Stress History:
Normally Consolidated (NC):
The present overburden pressure (a.k.a.
effective in-situ stress) is the most the soil
has ever seen.
Overconsolidated Clay (OC):

The present overburden pressure is less
than the soil has experienced in the past.
The maximum effective past pressure is
called the preconsolidation pressure (c)
or Maximum Past Pressure (vm)
Revised 03/2013
Slide 12 of 74

Consolidation
DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM PAST PRESSURE

(c or vm)
Graphical Method
(Casagrande, 1936)

Revised 03/2013
1. Visually identify point of minimum

radius of curvature on e-log
curve (i.e. Point a).
2. Draw horizontal line from Point a
(i.e. Line ab).
3. Draw Line ac tangent to Point a.
4. Draw Line ad bisecting Angle bac.
5. Project the straight line portion of
gh on e-log curve to intersect
Line ad. This intersection (Point f)
is the maximum past pressure
(a.k.a. preconsolidation pressure).
Slide 13 of 74

Consolidation
OVERCONSOLIDAITON RATIO (OCR)

(c or vm)
Where:
c
OCR
c (a.k.a. vm) = Preconsolidation

Pressure (a.k.a
Maximum Past
Pressure).
= Present Effective Vertical Stress
General Guidelines:
NC Soils: 1 OCR 2
OC Soils : OCR > 2

Revised 03/2013
Possible Causes of OC Soils:

Preloading (thick sediments, glacial ice);
fluctuations of GWT, underdraining, light
ice/snow loads, desiccation above GWT,
secondary compression.
Slide 14 of 74

Consolidation
EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE
NC and OC soils of low to medium sensitivity will experience disturbance due to

remolding. This changes the consolidation characteristics of the 1D consolidation tests.
NC Clays - Figure 7.9. Das FGE (2005)
OC Clays - Figure 7.10. Das FGE (2005)
Virgin Compression Curve Consolidation Curve Insitu (i.e. w/o disturbance)

Revised 03/2013
Sensitivity (St) St
qu ( undisturbed )
qu ( remolded )
Where qu = Unconfined Compressive Strength

Slide 15 of 74

Consolidation

Reconstruction of Virgin Consolidation Curves (EM 1110-1-1904)
Figure 3-12. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 16 of 74

Consolidation

Table 3-6. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 17 of 74

Consolidation

Table 3-6. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 18 of 74

Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

At End of Primary Consolidation =
V Vo V1 HA ( H S p ) A S p A
Where:
Revised 03/2013
V = Volume, Vo = Initial Volume, V1 = Final Volume, Sp = Primary Settlement
Slide 19 of 74

Consolidation

V S p A Vvo Vv1 Vv
Where:
Vvo = Initial Void Volume, Vv1 = Final Void Volume
Vv eVs
Where:
e = Change in Void Ratio
Vo
AH
Vs
1 eo 1 eo
Where:
Revised 03/2013
e0 = Initial Void Ratio
Slide 20 of 74

Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDAITON

Therefore:
AH
V S p A eVs
e
1 eo
or
e
Sp H
1 eo
e
v
H 1 eo
Sp
Revised 03/2013
Where:
v = Vertical Strain
Slide 21 of 74

Consolidation

Virgin Consolidation
Line
VOID RATIO
eo
NC Clay
Where:
Cc = Slope of Field Virgin
Consolidation Curve
= Compression Index
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
Cs (or Cr) = Slope of Rebound

Curve
= Swell Index
vm = Maximum Past Pressure
o = Initial Vertical Effective
Stress
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
Revised 03/2013
vm = o
Slide 22 of 74

Consolidation

Virgin Consolidation
Line
VOID RATIO
eo
Settlement (Sp) using Void Ratio
o
Cc H
log
Sp
1 e0
o
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
ef
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
Revised 03/2013
NC Clay
vm
= o
Where:
Sp = Settlement
H = Height of Soil Layer
vm = Final Vertical Effective
Stress
= o - Current Vertical
Effective Stress
= Change in Vertical
Effective Stress
f = Final Vertical Effective
Stress
ef = Final Void Ratio
Slide 23 of 74

Consolidation

Same Slope
as Cr
VOID RATIO
eo
Virgin
Consolidation
Lines
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
OC Clay
Where:
Cc = Slope of Field Virgin
Consolidation Curve
= Compression Index
Cs (or Cr) = Slope of
Rebound Curve
= Swell Index
vm = Maximum Past
Pressure
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
o vm

Stress
or
Revised 03/2013
Slide 24 of 74

Consolidation

Same Slope
as Cr
eo
OC Clay
VOID RATIO
Settlement (Sp) using Void Ratio
Sp
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
ef
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
o vm

C H
Cr H
log vm c log o
1 e0
o
o 1 e0
Where:
Sp = Settlement
= Change in Vertical
Effective Stress
Stress
f = Final Vertical Effective
Stress
ef = Final Void Ratio
or
Revised 03/2013
Slide 25 of 74

Consolidation

Compression Index (Cc) Estimates from Other Laboratory Tests
Soil
Cc Equation
Undisturbed Clays
Cc 0.009( LL 10)
Disturbed Clays
Cc 0.007( LL 10)
Organic Soils, Peat
Cc 0.0115Wn
Reference
Terzaghi & Peck (1967)
Cc 1.15(eo 0.35)
Clays
Cc 0.012Wn
Cc 0.01( LL 13)
Varved Clays
Cc (1 eo ) 0.1 0.006(Wn 25)
Uniform Silts
Cc 0.20
Revised 03/2013
EM 1110-1-1904
Slide 26 of 74

Consolidation

Soil
Cc Equation
Clays
1 eo
Cc 0.141Gs1.2
Gs
Clays
LL
Cc 0.2343
G s
100
Reference
2.38
Rendon-Herrero (1983)
Nagaraj & Murty (1985)
Where:
Gs = Specific Gravity of Solids
LL = Liquid Limit (in %)
Wn = Natural Water Content
eo = Initial Void Ratio
Revised 03/2013
Slide 27 of 74

Consolidation

Soil
Revised 03/2013
Cc Equation
Clays
1 eo
Cc 0.141Gs1.2
Gs
Clays
LL
Cc 0.2343
Gs
100
Reference
2.38
Rendon-Herrero (1983)
Nagaraj & Murty (1985)
Slide 28 of 74

Consolidation
EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM VIRGIN

CONSOLIDATION CURVES
1.12
GIVEN:
1.1
OC CH layer
VOID RATIO (e)
1.08
1.06
o = 855 psf
1.04
vm = 1460 psf
1.02
= 1005 psf
eo = 1.1
0.98
0.96
500
600
700 800 900
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Height of CH
Layer = 10 ft
Vertical Effective Stress 'v (psf)

Revised 03/2013
Figure 1. Example of Virgin Consolidation Curves.
Slide 29 of 74

Consolidation
EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM VIRGIN

CONSOLIDATION CURVES
1.12
e
Sp H
1 eo
eo
1.1
1.1
Cs
VOID RATIO (e)
1.08
e 1.11.045 0.055
1.076
1.06
ef
1.045
1.04
eo 1.1
Cc
0.055
S p (10 ft)
11.1
S p 0.262 ft
1.02
1
'
1
S p 3.14in 3 in
4
0.98
0.96
500
600
700 800 900
'o 1000
'vm
'f2000
3000
4000
5000
6000

Revised 03/2013
Figure 1. Example of Virgin Consolidation Curves.
Slide 30 of 74

Consolidation
EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM 1D TEST STRAIN RESULTS

SC
= 105 pcf
sat = 110 pcf
TOTAL STRESS
()
0
2000
Q = P = 144 kips
EFFECTIVE STRESS
(')
0
2000
PORE PRESSURE
(u)
0
2000
10
10 10
10 10
10 10
10
15 15
15 15
15 15
15
20 20
20 20
20 20
20
25 25
25 25
25 25
25
CL
sat = 105 pcf
15
20
SM
sat = 115 pcf
Depth from Existing Ground Surface (ft)
B = 6 ft SQ
MH
sat = 115 pcf
25
Revised 03/2013
2000
2000
2000
Slide 31 of 74

Consolidation

15
CL Layer
Sample from 12 ft
VERTICAL STRAIN (%)
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
100
Revised 03/2013
200
400
600
800
1000
2000
4000
6000
Slide 32 of 74

Consolidation

SC
= 105 pcf
sat = 110 pcf
TOTAL STRESS
()
0
2000
Q = P = 144 kips
EFFECTIVE STRESS
(')
0
2000
PORE PRESSURE
(u)
0
2000
0
0
' o
A
B
315
525
635
'f
315
60
525
2525 5
575
1455
CL Layer 1
10
CL
sat = 105 pcf
250
980
10 10
730
10 10
1250
10 10
435
1325
10
890
1185
15
CL Layer 2
1670
15 15
20
SM
sat = 115 pcf
625
15 15
1045
15 15
1240
810
2015
15
1205
1345
20 20
2360
20 20
1000
20 20
20
1360
B = 6 ft SQ
MH
sat = 115 pcf
25
Revised 03/2013
1250
2820
25 25
25 25
2000
2000
1570
25 25
0
25
2000
Slide 33 of 74

Consolidation

15
CL Layer
Sample from 12 ft
CL Layer 1
S p1 H1 v1
S p1 (6 ft )(0.065)
S p1 0.39 ft
S p1 4.7in
VERTICAL STRAIN (%)
20
25
30
v1 = 6.5% = 0.065
35
40
45
50
100
Revised 03/2013
200
400
600
800
'o1
1000
'f1
2000

Slide 34 of 74

Consolidation

15
CL Layer 2
S p2 H 2 v2
S p2 0.14 ft
S p2 1.7in
Total Settlement
SPtotal S p1 S p2
VERTICAL STRAIN (%)
S p2 (6 ft)(0.024)
25
30
35
v2 = 2.4% = 0.024
40
SPtotal 6.4in
45
1
SPtotal 6 in
2
50
Revised 03/2013
CL Layer
Sample from 12 ft
20
'o2
100
200
400
600
800
1000
'f2
2000

Slide 35 of 74

Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

e
C
log t2 log t1
Where:
C = Secondary Compression
Index
e = Change in Void Ratio
t = Time
Results of 1D Consolidation Test @
One Load Increment
Revised 03/2013
Slide 36 of 74

Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

t2
S s C H log
t1
C
C
1 ep
Where:
ep = Void Ratio @ End
of Primary Consolidation
t = Time
Results of 1D Consolidation Test @
One Load Increment
Revised 03/2013
Slide 37 of 74

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

Theory of 1D Consolidation
(Terzaghi, 1925)
Assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Clay Layer Undergoing

Consolidation
The clay-water system is homogenous.

Saturation is complete (S = 100%).
Compressibility of water is negligible.
Compressibility of soil grains is
negligible (but soil particles rearrange).
5. Flow of water is in one direction only.
6. Darcys Law is Valid.
Figure 7.17a. Das FGE (2005).

Revised 03/2013
Slide 38 of 74

Consolidation

Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
Flow of Water @ Point A

Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005).
Slide 39 of 74

Consolidation

(Rate of Water Outflow)
(Rate of Water Inflow) =
(Rate of Volume Changes)
Mathematical Equation:
V
v z
dz
dxdy
v
dxdy
v
z
z
dt
or
v z
V
dxdydz
dt
z
Where:
V = Volume of Soil Element
vz = Velocity of flow in z direction
Revised 03/2013
Slide 40 of 74

Consolidation

v z
V
dxdydz
z
t
Using Darcys Law (v = ki)
v z ki k
h
k u
w z
z
Where u = excess pore pressure. From algebra:
k 2u
w z 2
1
V
dxdydz t
Rate of change in V = Rate of Change in Vv
V
V Vv Vs eVs Vs
e
Vs
e s
t
t
t
t
t
t
Revised 03/2013
Where:
Vs = Volume of Solids
vv = Volume of Voids
Slide 41 of 74

Consolidation

From Previous Slide
V
e
V Vv Vs eVs Vs
e s
Vs
t
t
t
t
t
t
Assuming soil solids are incompressible
Vs
0
t
and
Vs
V
dxdydz
1 e o
1 eo
eo = Initial Void Ratio. Substituting:
V dxdydz e
1 e o t
t

Revised 03/2013
Combining equations:
k 2u
w z 2
1 e
1 e o t
Slide 42 of 74

Consolidation

From Previous Slide
k 2u
1 e
w z 2 1 eo t
The change in void ratio is caused by

the increase in effective stress.
Assuming linear relationship between
the two:
e av av u
av = Coefficient of Compressibility.
Can be considered constant over
narrow pressure increases.
Combining equations:
k 2u
av u
u
m
v
w z 2
t
1 eo t
mv = Coefficient of Volume
Compressibility.
mv
Revised 03/2013
av
1 eo
Slide 43 of 74

Consolidation

From Previous Slide
k 2u
av u
u
m
v
w z 2
t
1 eo t
av = Coefficient of Compressibility.
mv = Coefficient of Volume Compressibility.
mv
av
1 eo
Rearranging Equations:
2u
u
cv 2
t
z
Revised 03/2013
Where cv = Coefficient of Consolidation.
k
cv
wmv
Slide 44 of 74

Consolidation

Basic Differential Equation of 1D
Consolidation Theory
u
2u
cv 2
t
z
Can be solved with the following
boundary conditions:
z 0, u 0
z 2 H dr , u 0
t 0, u u0
The solution yields

Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
2uo Mz
u
sin
H dr
M
m 0
M 2Tv
e
Slide 45 of 74

Consolidation

From Previous Slide
m
2uo
Mz
u
sin
H dr
M
m 0
M 2Tv
e
Where:
2m 1
2
uo Initial excess pore water pressure
cv t
Tv 2 TIME FACTOR
H dr
Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
Slide 46 of 74

Consolidation
Because consolidation progress by dissipation of

excess pore pressure, the degree of consolidation
(Uz) at a distance z at any time t is:
uo u z
uz
Uz
1
uo
uo

Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
Slide 47 of 74

Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
Slide 48 of 74

Consolidation
Average degree of consolidation (U) for the entire

depth of the clay layer at any time t is:
2 H dr
S
U t 1
Sp
2 H dr
u z dz
0
uo
Where:
U Average degree of Consolidation
St Settlement of layer at time t
S p Settlement of Layer from Primary Consolidation
Substituting U for u
m
2 M 2Tv
U 1
e
2
m 0 M

Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
U can be approximated by the

following relationships:
For U 0% to 60%, Tv
U%
4 100
For U 60%, Tv 1.781 0.933 log(100 U %)
Slide 49 of 74

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF
CONSOLIDATION
Variation of Tv with U
Table 7.1 Das PGE (2006).
Revised 03/2013
Slide 50 of 74

Consolidation

Difference between Average Degree of Consolidation and Midplane
Degree of Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
Slide 51 of 74

Consolidation
COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION (cv)

Generally decreases as Liquid Limit (LL) increases.
Determined from 1D Consolidation Test Lab per Load Increment.
Logarithm of Time Method
Square Root of Time Method
(Casagrande and Fadum, 1940)
(Taylor, 1942)
Figure 7.19 Das FGE (2006).
Figure 7.20 Das FGE (2006).
Revised 03/2013
Slide 52 of 74

Consolidation

1. Extend the straight line portion of primary

and secondary consolidations to interest at
Point A. Point A represents d100
(Deformation at 100% primary
consolidation).
2. The initial curved portion of the deformation
plot versus log t is approximated to be a
parabola on a natural scale. Select times t1
and t2 on the curved portion such that t2 =
4t1. Let the difference of the specimen
deformation between (t2 t1) be equal to x.
Revised 03/2013
3. Draw a line horizontal to DE such that the

vertical distance BD is equal to x. The
deformation corresponding to the line DE is
d0 (Deformation at 0% primary
consolidation).
Slide 53 of 74

Consolidation

4. The ordinate of Point F on the consolidation

curve represents the deformation at 50%
primary consolidation (d50).
5. For 50% average degree of consolidation
(U = 50%), Tv = 0.197 (see Table 7.1, Das
FGE 2006).
T50 0.197
cv t50
2
H dr
or
2
0.197 H dr
cv
t50
Revised 03/2013
Where:
Hdr = Average longest drain path
during consolidation.
Slide 54 of 74

Consolidation

Square Root of Time Method
1. Draw a line AB trough the early portion

of the curve.
2. Draw a line AC such that OC = 1.15OB.
The time value for Point D (i.e. the
intersection of line AC and the data) is
the square root of time for t90 (i.e. the
time to 90% primary consolidation).
3. For 90% consolidation, Tv = 0.848 (see
Table 7.1, Das FGE 2006).
T90 0.848
Revised 03/2013
cv t90
2
H dr
or
2
0.848H dr
cv
t90
Slide 55 of 74

Consolidation

Example
SP FILL ( = 115 pcf)
5ft
SC ( = 115 pcf)
CL ( = 115 pcf)
SM ( = 115 pcf)
GIVEN: Soil Profile (NTS).

2 way drainage.
Revised 03/2013
3ft
4ft
6ft
REQUIRED: Determine the following:

a. The change in pore pressure in the CL layer
immediately after the application of the 3 ft
of SP Fill.
b. The degree of consolidation in the middle of
the clay layer when the excess pore
pressure (ue) is 170 psf.
c. How high would the water in a piezometer
located in the middle of the layer rise above
the GWT when ue = 170 psf?
d. If cv = 0.000004 ft/sec, how long would it
take to get to 25% average degree of
consolidation? To U = 50%? To U = 99%?
Slide 56 of 74

Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

PRECOMPRESSION: Loading an area prior to placement of the planned structural
loading to limit post-construction settlement. Also known as Surcharging.
Settlement caused by structural loading (Sp):
o
Cc H
log
Sp
1 e0
o
Settlement caused by structural loading and surcharging (Sp or Sp+f):
S p S p f
o f
Cc H
log
1 e0
o
Where:
f = Change in vertical stress due to Fill added.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 57 of 74

Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Where:
p) = Change in vertical stress due to

structural load.
f) = Change in vertical stress due to
Fill added.

Revised 03/2013
Where:
Sp = Settlement due to structural load.
Sp+f = Settlement due to structural load
and Fill.
Slide 58 of 74

Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION PLANNING
Mathematical Equations
S p Definition of average Degree of Consolidation U

U
S p
o ( p )
log
U
o ( p ) ( f )
log
( p )
log 1
o
U
( p ) ( f )
log 1
o
( p)

Substitution
Re-arranging (Eqn 7.56 Das FGE 2006)
Place in graphical form

for design use
(Figure 7.27 Das FGE 2006)
Revised 03/2013
Slide 59 of 74

Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION
PLANNING
Where:
f) = Change in vertical stress

due to Fill added.
p) = Change in vertical stress
due to Structural Loading.
o = Initial vertical effective
stress.

Revised 03/2013
Slide 60 of 74

Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION
PLANNING
STEPS:
1. Calculate primary consolidation
settlement from planned loading (Sp).
2. Calculate primary consolidation
settlement from planned loading plus
surcharge (Sp+f ).
3. Calculate average degree of
consolidation U. Note U = Sp/Sp+f.
Can also use Figure 7.27 or
Eqn 7.56 (Das FGE 2006).
1. Find Tv from calculated U. To find
time to when surcharge loading
should be removed (i.e. t2):
Revised 03/2013
2
Tv H dr
t2
cv

Slide 61 of 74

Consolidation

Difference between Average Degree of Consolidation and Midplane
Degree of Consolidation
Removal of Surcharge
may still cause net
settlement
(swelling near drainage
layers, settlement @
middle)
Conservative Approach:
Assume U is the midplane
degree of consolidation.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 62 of 74

Consolidation

Midplane Degree
of Consolidation
Revised 03/2013
Slide 63 of 74

Consolidation
SURCHARGING EXAMPLE
SP FILL ( = 115 pcf)
5ft
SC ( = 115 pcf)
CL ( = 115 pcf)
SM ( = 115 pcf)
3ft
4ft
6ft
REQUIRED: Determine the following:

a. If cv = 0.000004 ft/sec, how long would it
take to get to 99% average degree of
consolidation?
b. If a surcharge of 4 ft of fill was placed in
addition to the 3 ft of fill planned, when
would you be able to remove the
surcharge? Use the same value for cv
given in a.
GIVEN: Soil Profile (NTS).

2 way drainage.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 64 of 74

Consolidation
GROUND MODIFICATION FOR CONSOLIDATION

SAND DRAINS
rw = Sand Drain Radius
de = Effective Diameter
Plan View Triangular Spacing

Figure 10.38. Das PGE (2006)
Section View
Revised 03/2013
Figure 10.38. Das PGE (2006).
Reduction Drainage Path =

Reduction in Drainage Time
Slide 65 of 74

Consolidation

STEPS
SAND DRAINS
4
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Place auger at drain location.

Screw auger to selected depth.
Rotate auger at selected depth to remove soil.
Inject sand while auger is extracted.
Complete sand drain to working platform level.
Sand Drain Installation: Auger Method
Figure 10.39. Das PGE (2006).
(Kirmani, 2004)
Revised 03/2013
Slide 66 of 74

Consolidation

PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS (PVDS) (A.K.A. WICK DRAINS)
Conceptual Concept
Courtesy of www.americanwick.com
Courtesy of
www.americandrainagesystems.com

Revised 03/2013
Slide 67 of 74

Consolidation

PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS (PVDS) (A.K.A. WICK DRAINS)
Courtesy of www.americandrainagesystems.com
Courtesy of www.nilex.com
Revised 03/2013
Courtesy of www.nilex.com
Slide 68 of 74

Consolidation

RADIAL CONSOLIDATION
Ur = Average Degree of Radial Consolidation
8Tr
U r 1 exp
Barron (1948)
n2
3n 2 1
ln( n )
m 2
4n 2
n 1
d
de = Effective Diameter
n e
rw = Sand Drain Radius
2rw
cvr t
Tr 2
de
cvr
Revised 03/2013
Plan View Sand Drain

Triangular Spacing
cvr = Coefficient of Radial Consolidation

Tr = Time Factor for Radial Consolidation
kh
e
(1 e ) w
o
kh = Coefficient of Horizontal Permeability

Tr = Time Factor for Radial Consolidation
eo = Initial Void Ratio
Slide 69 of 74

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF RADIAL CONSOLIDATION

Variation of Tr with U - Table 7.3 Das PGE (2006).
Revised 03/2013
Slide 70 of 74

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF RADIAL CONSOLIDATION

Variation of Tr with U - Table 7.3 Das PGE (2006).
Revised 03/2013
Slide 71 of 74

Consolidation

AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION DUE TO VERTICAL & RADIAL DRAINAGE
U v ,r 1 (1 U r )(1 U v )
Sand
Where:
Drain
Drainage
Clay
Uv,r = Average Degree of Consolidation

due to Vertical & Radial Drainage
Uv = Average Degree of Consolidation
due to Vertical Drainage
Sand
Ur = Average Degree of Consolidation

due to Radial Drainage
Vertical and Radial Drainage

Courtesy of www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov
Revised 03/2013
Slide 72 of 74

Consolidation
CONSOLIDATION MONITORING
SETTLEMENT PLATES
Settlement Rod
(Steel)
Fill Layer
Rod Protection
(Typically PVC Pipe)
Settlement
Plate Base
(Plywood or Steel)
Insitu Soil Layer

to be Monitored
General Concept
Revised 03/2013
Standard Plan Detail

(Courtesy of Iowa DOT)
Slide 73 of 74

Consolidation
SURCHARGING INSTRUMENTATION EXAMPLE

Surcharge
Inclinometers
Settlement Platforms
Permanent Fill
Drainage
Blanket
Soft Clay
Vertical
Drain
Firm Soil
Piezometers
Revised 03/2013
Not to Scale
Courtesy of www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov
Slide 74 of 74

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14.

330 SOIL MECHANICS

causes u to increase immediately

after Figure 7.1a. Das FGE (2005).

Clays: Pore Pressure dissipates

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

At Time of Initial Loading (t = 0)

Pore water takes initial change in

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

Pore water increase due to initial

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

Pore water increase due to initial

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

THE SPRING ANALOGY

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

ONE DIMENSIONAL (1D) CONSOLIDATION TEST

Figure 7.2. Das FGE (2005)

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

1D CONSOLIDATION TEST EQUIPMENT

ShearTrac II DSS Equipment

Figure E-1 USACE EM1110-1-1904.

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

Figure 7.4. Das FGE (2005).

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Figure 7.5. Das FGE (2005)

Initial Void Ratio (eo):

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Figure 7.5. Das FGE (2005)

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Figure 7.5. Das FGE (2005)

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Two Definitions of Clays

Overconsolidated Clay (OC):

Figure 7.7. Das FGE (2005).

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM PAST PRESSURE

Figure 7.8. Das FGE (2005).

1. Visually identify point of minimum

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

OVERCONSOLIDAITON RATIO (OCR)

c (a.k.a. vm) = Preconsolidation

Figure 7.8. Das FGE (2005).

Possible Causes of OC Soils:

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

NC and OC soils of low to medium sensitivity will experience disturbance due to

NC Clays - Figure 7.9. Das FGE (2005)

OC Clays - Figure 7.10. Das FGE (2005)

Virgin Compression Curve Consolidation Curve Insitu (i.e. w/o disturbance)

Where qu = Unconfined Compressive Strength

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Figure 3-12. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Table 3-6. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE