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Time how long it takes for the cross to disappear from view
You can change the temperature and concentration of acid used
Keep constant:
Diameter of beaker
The Cross
Volume
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Source of error =
heat escapes
= (/)
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Lithium = Red
Sodium = Yellow
Potassium = Lilac
Iron = Gold
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You can calculate the Rf value to identify a substance, given by the formula:
=
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Filtration
Mixture goes in a funnel with filter paper, into a flask.
Residue is insoluble and filtrate goes through
Crystallization
Some water in the solution is evaporated so solution becomes
more concentrated.
Solution is left to cool and crystallise.
Crystals are filtered to remove solvent.
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Simple distillation:
Impure liquid is heated
It boils, and steam rises into
the condenser
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Fractional distillation:
Removes a liquid from a mixture of liquids, because liquids
have different b.p.s
Mixture is heated to evaporate substance with lowest b.p.
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It dissolves
Some salts, sugar
Gloss paint
Grease, nail polish
Glues, printing inks, scented substances, chlorophyll
Used to separate
A solid from a liquid
A solid from a solution
A solid from a solution
A solvent from a solution
Liquids from each other
Different substances from a solution
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Acid + Metal
Preparation
Soluble Salts
Salts
Insoluble Salts
Acid + Carbonate
Titration
Acid + Alkali
Precipitation
Acid + Base
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Titration:
Put a certain amount alkali in a flask and add phenolphthalein
Add acid from a burette, stirring, until it goes colorless
Find out how much acid you used and repeat, to be more accurate
Precipitation:
Mix the two soluble salts, so they react together
Filter the mixture to separate the products produced (soluble and insoluble salt produced)
Wash the insoluble salt on the filter paper
Dry the insoluble salt in a warm oven
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Solubility of salts:
Indicators:
pH Scale:
Soluble Salts
All sodium, potassium and
ammonium salts
All nitrates
Chlorides
Sulphates
Potassium, sodium and
ammonium carbonates
Indicator
Phenolphthalein
Methyl orange
Methyl red
Red litmus
Blue litmus
Insoluble Salts
The rest
N/A
Except silver and lead
Except barium, lead and calcium
Color in acid
Colorless
Pink
Red
Red
Red
Color in alkaline
Pink
Yellow
Yellow
Blue
Blue
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Calcium (Ca2+)
Sodium
Hydroxide
Soluble white
ppt.
Ammonium gas damp red litmus
turns blue
White ppt.
Copper (Cu2+)
Iron(II) (Fe2+)
Iron(III) (Fe3+)
Green ppt.
Red-brown ppt.
White soluble
ppt.
Cation
Aluminum (Al3+)
Ammonium
(NH4+)
Zinc (Zn2+)
Ammonia
White ppt.
N/A
No ppt.
Light blue soluble
ppt.
Green ppt.
Red-brown ppt.
White soluble
ppt.
Anion
Test
Test result
Carbonate
(CO32-)
Chloride (Cl-)
Bromide (Br-)
Iodide (I-)
Limewater goes
cloudy
White ppt.
Cream ppt.
Yellow ppt.
Gas produced
turns damp red
litmus paper
blue
Nitrate (NO3-)
Sulphate
(SO42-)
White ppt.
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Gas
Ammonia (NH3)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Chlorine (Cl2)
Hydrogen (H2)
Oxygen (O2)
Substance
Water
Alkene
Alkane
Acid
Base
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To make....
Place in flask:
Add....
Reaction
CO2
Dilute HCl
Cl2
Conc. HCl
H2
Pieces of zinc
Dilute HCl
O2
Hydrogen
peroxide
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Method
Use
when...
Downward
displacement of
air
Gas more dense
than air
Upward
displacement of
air
Gas less dense
than air
Over water
Gas syringe
Gas is sparingly
soluble in water
To measure the
volume
Carbon dioxide,
chlorine, sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen
chloride
Ammonia,
hydrogen
Carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, oxygen
Any gas
Apparatus
Examples