3.

Analysis of Energy Producing,

Consuming & Recovery Systems

Energy Via Steam

Energy in the form of heat or work can be derived via steam. High pressure
steam with superheating is mostly used for power generation to avoid
condensation inside turbines. Medium and Low pressure steam systems
are mostly employed for heating purposes.
Steam turbines are connected with (power) generators to generate
electrical energy. After releasing energy by travelling through the turbine,
high pressure steam expands and becomes low pressure steam.
Some Steam Turbines are equipped with extraction capabilities at the mid
points of the turbine to extract intermediate pressure steam to cater to
heating loads.
At the final end of the turbine it is very common to have a condenser
(surface condenser) so that a healthy pressure drop across the turbine
could be maintained.

Steam Cycle Power Plant configuration

Boiler Types
Boiler Types by Circulation
Superheater

Furnace

Note 7

Furnace

Economizer

Economizer

Natural
Circulation

Superheater

Forced
Circulation

Economizer

Furnace

Superheater

Once
Through

Boiler Types

D-Type

Boiler Types by Construction

A-Type

O-Type

To Stack

Economizer

Air

Boiler Configuration

Air Pre-heater

Condensate
Tank

Steam Turbines
Steam Turbine is a prime mover that derives its energy of rotation
due to conversion of the heat energy of steam into Kinetic Energy as
it expands through series of nozzles mounted on the casing or
produced by the fixed blades.
Steam Turbines can be Classified as per:

Action of Steam Impulse, Reaction, Combined

Number of stages Single & Multi Stage
Direction of Steam flow Axial, Radial, Tangential
Inlet Pressure Levels High, Medium or Low
Outlet Conditions Condensing, Non Condensing, Extracting

Steam Turbines

To condenser

Low pressure
steam header

To other steam
users

Steam Turbines Control

Generator Frequenc: f =
N = Speed RPM
P = Number of Poles

120

Steam Turbines Lubrication

Steam Turbines Lubrication

Thermodynamics of Steam Plants

Carnot Cycle

Carnot cycle =
=

Work done
Heat supplied

Though Carnot cycle has the highest

thermal efficiency for yet it is extremely
difficult to operate in practice mainly due to
difficulty of compressing wet vapor
isentropically to the saturated state as
required by the process 3-4.
4 1 : boiling water to wet steam
1 2 : steam is expanded
2 3 : heat is rejected steam cooled
3 4 : steam is compressed

Furthermore the feed pump must be

capable of handling both wet steam and
water.

Hence in practice no engine operates on

the Carnot Cycle.

Thermodynamics of Steam Plants

Rankine Cycle
T

T1

T2

3'

A slight modification to Carnot Cycle is

introduced by cooling the wet steam
further until it is fully saturated. Then
condensate can be fully pumped back using
the boiler feed water pump.

P
P1

2
S

P2

3'

Carnot Cycle

Draw back is lesser thermal efficiency due

to requirement of heating of more water to
boiling temperature.

Thermodynamics of Steam Plants

Rankine Cycle

Rankine cycle =
=

4-1 : heating water in the boiler

1-2 : expansion in the turbine
2-3 : heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 : pumping process in the feed pump

Work done
Heat supplied

Vapor Cycles Illustrative Example

In a steam turbine, steam at 20 bar, 360C is expanded to 0.08 bar.

It then enters a condenser, where it is condensed to saturated liquid
water.
1
The pump feeds back the water into the boiler.
Assuming ideal processes, find:
Net work per kg of steam
Cycle efficiency.

Heat
In

Work
Out
G

Turbine

2
Surface
Condenser
Work In

Heat
Out

Vapor Cycles Illustrative Example

Point
1
2
3
4

P
bars
20

0.08

oC

360

H
kJ/kg

S
kJ/kg.K

173.88

0.5926

3159.3

6.9917

m3/kg

Work done
Rankine cycle =
Heat supplied

Heat
In

Work
Out
G

Turbine
2
Surface
Condenser
Work In

Heat
Out

Vapor Cycles Illustrative Example

Since we do not know enthalpy values at point 2,

let us first estimate the dryness fraction of steam
at point 2
sg(p2) = 8.2287 | sfg(p2) = 7.6361 | sf(p2) = 0.6992
s1 = s2
Sf
s2 = sf + (dryness fraction) sfg
x = 0.838
Using this dryness fraction figure we can find
enthalpy at point 2 using:
h2 = hf + (dryness fraction) hfg
h2 = 2187.68

Sg

Sfg

Vapor Cycles Illustrative Example

Net work in the system:
Wnet = Wturbine Wpump

Wpump = vf(p2) (p1 p2)

Wpump = 0.00108 (20 0.08) 100
Wpump = 2.008 kJ/kg

WTurbine = h1 h2
WTurbine = 3159.3 2187.68 = 971.62 kJ/kg
Wnet = 971.62 - 2.008 = 969.61 kJ/kg

Sg
Sf
Sfg

Vapor Cycles Illustrative Example

Heat input to the system: 4 5 1

Q1 = h1 hf4 = 3159.3 175.89 = 2983.41 kJ/kg

Work done
cycle =
Heat supplied

Sg
Sf
Sfg

Gas Cycles

The most common type of Gas Cycle is used in the diesel engine.
Natural Gas, LPG driven gas engines are also common in the usage of
gas cycles.
Super-Charging and Turbo-Charging is used to increase the thermal
efficiency of diesel engines.
Other most common type is the Gas Turbine. Inter stage coolers are
employed to increase the density of inlet gas.

Gas Cycles

Super Charging

Turbo Charging

Engine

Interstage
Cooler
C

Engine

Engine

Inter Cooling

Gas Cycles

Otto Cycle
This cycle is so named as it was
conceived by Otto. On this cycle,
many types of oil engines work.

It is the standard of comparison for

internal combustion engines.
Otto cycle =

Work done
Heat supplied

=1
=1
1 2 : Compression [no heat loss adiabatic]
2 3 : Heat supply due to ignition of gas
3 4 : Expansion - [no heat loss adiabatic]
4 1 : Heat rejection [flue gas exit]

Gas Cycles Illustrative Example for Calculation of Thermal Efficiency

Point
1

P
kPa

100

T
oC

H
kJ/kg

27

1500

3
4
3

P3
P2

Compression Ratio:
r

1.4

=8=
=( )

= 2.3

1
V2,3

100

= 300 2.3 = 689 K

4

P1

Air

P4

kJ/kg K

V1,4

= 18.4 bar

~74

=( )

2772
= 1207 K
2.3

= 2.3

=
1
= 74
8

=
= 1 8

Heat Added = 1500 =

~ 2772

=1

~4 bar

=1

= 0.564~ 56.4%