Chapter 6

Taylor series
6.1

Introduction

Setting x = a and noting that (x a)n = 0 at x = a for

n = 1, 2, . . . gives
g(a) = c0 .
If you have information about a function at a point, can
you approximate values of the function near that point ? Differentiating both sides once gives
Example: At x = a assume you know f (a) and f (a).
N
X
Near to x = a the curve will be approximately straight
g (x) =
cn .n.(x a)n1 ,
and given by
n=1
f (x) f (a) + (x a)f (a)

and setting x = a gives

g (a) = c1 .1
If you also know about the curvature, f (a), at x = a, reasonable to build that in by adding a quadratic correction
Differentiating again
to the formula above.
N
X
Can we generalise this idea ?
g (x) =
cn .n(n 1).(x a)n2 ,
n=2

6.2

Higher order approximations

and setting x = a gives g (a) = c2 .2.1.

Continuing this process we find that

6.2.1

A note on polynomials

g (n) (a) = cn .n(n 1) . . . 1 = cn .n!

A polynomial is a function of the form c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +

. . . cn xn .

Hence we can match the function and its derivatives if we

take g(a) = c0 = f (a) and g (n) (a) = n! cn = f (n) (a), i.e.
cn = f (n) (a)/n! for n = 1, . . . , N .

Defn: The highest power of polynomial is called the degree of the polynomial.

Thus we take as our approximating polynomial to be

Example 1: cx5 + x2 + 1 is a polynomial of degree 5 (if

c 6= 0) or degree 2 (if c = 0).

g(x) =

Example 2: f (a) + (x a)f (a) is a polynomial of degree

1. We call this the Taylor polynomial of degree 1.

6.2.2

Taylor polynomials

N
X
(x a)n (n)
f (a)
n!
n=0

Defn: The RHS is called the Taylor polynomial of degree

N about the point a. It is usually written TN (x).

Assume that we want to approximate a function f (x) as 6.3

Taylor series
closely as possible near x = a by a polynomial of degree
N , and assume that we know f (a), f (a), ..., f (N ) (a). If
We might expect the approximation TN (x) to work better
we write our polynomial as
the more terms we take in the series. This does depend on
f (x) being well behaved close enough to x = a; we dont
g(x) c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 + + cN (x a)N
expect polynomials to be able to recreate singularities.
N
X
n
=
cn (x a)
It is therefore natural to take limit N .
n=0

Defn: This defines the Taylor series of the function f (x)

then what we want to do is to choose the coefficients cn about the point x = a to be
to make the value of the polynomial g(x) and its first n

X
(x a)n (n)
derivative match those of the function f (x) at the point
f (a)
(6.1)
n!
x = a.
n=0
18

6.4. POWER SERIES AND CONVERGENCE

CHAPTER 6. TAYLOR SERIES

Note: The N th partial sum of (6.1) is the Taylor polyno- So it is the same function! But the GP only converges if
mial TN (x).
|1 x| < 1 or if 0 < x < 2. So even though the curve 1/x
is well behaved for x > 0, the Taylor series is only valid
for 0 < x < 2.

6.3.1

Maclaurin Series

Defn: A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series about the

point x = 0 so the Maclaurin series for f (x) is

X
xn (n)
f (0)
n!
n=0

Example 1: Take f (x) = ex .

Then f (n) (x) = ex and f (n) (0) = 1 for all n. Hence the
Maclaurin series for ex is

X
x
x
xn
1+x+
+
+ ... =
2!
3!
n!
n=0
2

Defn: A function f (x) is smooth at x = a if f (n) (a) exists for all n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., so f is continuous and all its
derivatives are continuous at x = a.
A function is smooth if it is smooth everywhere.
Example 2: f (x) = x4/3 . This function continuous and
differentiable everywhere. But it is not smooth at x = 0
(higher order derivatives do not exist at x = 0). The
Taylor series about x = 1 again only converges for 0 <
x < 2 (harder to show).
With this in mind, we extend the definition of singularity
to include
any point where f is not smooth. With this
definition x 2 is singular at x = 2 even though the
functions itself is well behaved there. Similarly, x4/3 is
singular at x = 0,

Example 2: Take f (x) = sin x.

Then f (x) = cos x, f (x) = sin x, f (x) = cos x Rule: (not proved) If a function f (x) has a singularity at
and so on, where cos(0) = 1 and sin(0) = 0. Hence the x = c (i.e. is not smooth at x = c) then:
Maclaurin series for sin x is:
There is no Taylor series at x = c

X
x3
x5
(1)n x2n+1
x
+
+ ... =
The Taylor series about x = a will only converge if
3!
5!
(2n + 1)!
n=0
|x a| < |c a|.
Example 3: Take f (x) = cos x.
Then f (x) = sin x, etc. Hence the Maclaurin series for
cos x is:
1

X
x2
x4
(1)n x2n
+
+ ... =
2!
4!
(2n)!
n=0

Questions:

Power series and convergence

Defn: A power series in the variable x is a series of the

form

X
cn xn ,
n=0

For what values of x do these infinite series converge?

If they do converge, will their sum equal f (x) ?

6.3.2

6.4

where the cn are independent of x.

A Taylor series about the point x = a is a power series in
(x a) as it has the form

Functions with singularities

n=0

cn (x a)n

Example 1: Consider f (x) = 1/x. Cant construct a

Maclaurin series as f and derivatives not defined at x = 0. Note: often take a = 0 (giving a Maclaurin series).
However they are defined and easy to compute at x = 1,
so we look at Taylor series about x = 1. Easy to see that To determine if these series converge use the ratio test
n
1
(1)(2)
(1)n n! (see 2.3.2) with an = cn (x a) .
(n)
f (x) = 2 , f (x) =
,
.
.
.
f
=
x
x3
xn+1
Recall - Ratio test: Consider a series of the form
So f (n) (1) = (1)n n! and the Taylor series of 1/x about P a and suppose |a
n
n+1 /an | L as n . Then
x = 1 is hence
Pn=0
P

n=0 an converges if L < 1 and

n=0 an diverges if

X
X
L
>
1.
(x 1)n
(1)n n! =
(1 x)n
n!
n=0
n=0
This is a Geometric Progression (GP) and its sum is
1
1
=
1 (1 x)
x

Example 1:
A GP is a power series

cxn with an = cxn . By the

n=0

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of Bristol 2014-15. This material is copyright of the University unless explicitly stated otherwise. It is provided exclusively
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6.5. CONVERGENCE OF TAYLOR SERIES

ratio test



 an+1 


 an  = |x|

CHAPTER 6. TAYLOR SERIES

The Taylor series is an infinite series of polynomials, all

of which are smooth. It can be shown that wherever the
Taylor series converges, it must be smooth.

so L = |x| and the series converges if |x| < 1, diverges if As a consequence of this, the radius of convergence R of
the Taylor series for f about a is the distance from a to
|x| > 1.
the nearest singularity of f .
Example 2:
If f (x) has no singularities it will converge everywhere.
Exponential function ex has a Maclaurin series (6.3.1) of
Sometimes we can determine R just by considering the

X
xn
distance to the nearest singularity.
. So an = xn /n! and, for any fixed x,
n!
n=0
Example 1:

 

 an+1   n! xn+1 
In the example of 6.3.2 where f (x) = 1/x, the Taylor

=
 = |x| 0
 an   (n + 1)! xn  n + 1
series about x = 1 was shown to converge for |x 1| < 1.
Here a = 1, the nearest singularity is at x = 0 and the
as n . So L = 0 and by ratio test, the series converges distance from a to the nearest singularity is 1, so here
for all x.
R = 1, so the series converges for |x 1| < 1, agreeing
with 6.3.2. In particular, this means the series will not
Example 3:
converge for x > 2.
(1)n x2n
Maclaurin series for cos x (6.3.1) has an =
. So
Example 2:
(2n)!
Similarly for x4/3 about x = 1.
 


2
 an+1   (2n)! x2(n+1) 
|x |
 


Example 3:
 an  =  2(n + 1)! x2n  = (2n + 2)(2n + 1) 0
Take f (x) = (1 + x) where not an integer. Now f (n) =
as n . So L = 0 and by ratio test, the series converges ( 1) . . . ( n + 1)(1 + x)n . So Maclaurin series is
for all x. Similarly for sin x.
( 1) 2 ( 1)( 2) 3
1 + x +
x +
x + ...
2!
3!
Example 4:

X
n!xn has an = n!xn . So
Defn: This is the generalised binomial expansion of (1 +
n=0
x) . Very important and should be remembered !

 

Note: Singularity is at x = 1, series is about point
 an+1   (n + 1)! xn+1 

=
 = |x|(n + 1)
a = 0, distance from 0 to 1 is 1 so radius of convergence
 an  

n! xn
is R = 1.
and this tends to for all x 6= 0. So this power series (it
is not connected to a function) diverges unless x = 0.

In general, a power series in (x a) either:

converges for |x a| < R and diverges for |x a| > R,
where R is a number called the radius of convergence
of the series;
converges for all x. We say it has an infinite radius
of convergence;
diverges for all x 6= a. We say it has a zero radius of
convergence.
In Example 1 above, a = 0 and R = 1.

Example 4:
Take f (x) = ln(1 + x). Now
f (x) =

1
1
, f (x) =
,...
1+x
(1 + x)2

. . . f (n) (x) =

(1)n+1 (n 1)!
(1 + x)n

and the Maclaurin series is

x

x2
x3
+
...
2
3

Note: ln(1 + x) is singular at x = 1, series is about

point a = 0, distance from 0 to 1 is 1 so again the radius
of convergence is R = 1.

Note: Why radius ? Its because you really need to worry Example 5:
about complex values of x too !
Cautionary example:

6.5

Convergence of Taylor series

1
is smooth for all real x. The
1 + x2
Maclaurin series is (easily identified as a GP with ratio
x2 )
1 x2 + x4 x6 + . . .

A Taylor series is a special type of power series determined from which it can be shown to have a radius of convergence
from properties of a function f (x) at x = a.
of R = 1.
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of Bristol 2014-15. This material is copyright of the University unless explicitly stated otherwise. It is provided exclusively
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6.7. APPLICATION: MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Why ? Well, 1/(1 + x2 ) is singular in the complex plane

a distance 1 from the origin, when x = i. (Later).
Exercise: For the above examples, check you get the same
value if you use the ratio test method to determine R.

CHAPTER 6. TAYLOR SERIES

6.6.1

LH
opitals Rule for 0/0 limits

If f (x) 0 and g(x) 0 as x a, then using Taylor

series about x = a,

6.5.1

(x a)f (a) + (x a)2 f (a)/2 + . . .

(x a)g (a) + (x a)2 g (a)/2 + . . .


f (a) + (x a)f (a)/2 + . . .
= lim
xa
g (a) + (x a)g (a)/2 + . . .
f (a)
=
g (a)

f (x)
= lim
xa g(x)
xa
lim

Does the Taylor series always converge to f ?

In general for the functions you will meet you can assume
that if the Taylor series converges it converges to f . How- Unless f (a), g (a) are both zero, in which case continue
ever, it is possible to construct exceptions.
and the limit is f (a)/g (a) and so on.
sin x
cos x
Example 1: lim
= lim
=1
x0 x
x0
1
6.5.2 Shortcuts to calculating Taylor se- Example 2:
Both 1 cosh(x) and sinh(x) 0 as x 0 so
ries
1 cosh x
sinh x
cosh x
1
lim
= lim
= lim
=
x0
x0
x2
2x
2
2
Sometimes can avoid having to work out f (n) by using x0
known series.
Example 1:
By rearranging f (x) into a generalised binomial form:
1/2

(2 x)

= 2

1/2

= 2

1/2

1/2

(1 + (x/2))

1 + (1/2)(x/2) +

6.6.2

Other types of limits

This approach can also be useful for / or 0

limits. For example, if f (x), g(x) as x a (and if
the limits below exist), then


(1/2)(3/2)
(x/2)2 + . . .
2!

lim

xa

f (x)
g(x)

= lim

xa

f (x)
g (x)

Example 1: We know ln(x) as x 0 So what

Example 2:
By expressing f (x) as a product of functions with known about:


Taylor series and multiplying out. For example
1/x
lim (x ln(x)) = lim (ln(x)/(1/x)) = lim
x0
x0
x0 1/x2
sin x
1
= (1 + x) sin x
= lim (x) = 0
1+x
x0




x3
2
=
x
+ ... 1 x + x ...
by turning into /.
3!
Hard to see general term, but can get first few at least.

6.6

Application: limits

(Important) Taylor series useful when finding limits.

sin x
. Use Maclaurin series for sin x:
Example: Find lim
x0 x
sin x
x0 x
lim

=
=

x x3 /3! + x5 /5! + . . .
x0
x
lim (1 x2 /3! + x4 /5! + . . .) = 1
lim

x0

Can formalise in the following very useful method.

6.7

Application:
Minima

Maxima

and

Defn: A stationary point of f is a point c such that

f (c) = 0
It can be;
A local minimum of f if f (x) > f (c) for all x near
x = c;
A local maximum of f if f (x) < f (c) for all x near
x = c;
Neither: For example f (x) = x3 at x = 0. Normally
called an inflection point

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of Bristol 2014-15. This material is copyright of the University unless explicitly stated otherwise. It is provided exclusively
for educational purposes at the University and is to be downloaded or copied for your private study only.

6.7. APPLICATION: MAXIMA AND MINIMA

CHAPTER 6. TAYLOR SERIES

If f (x) is smooth near x = c and f (c) = 0 then its Taylor

series is
f (c) + 0 +

(x c)2
(x c)3
f (c) +
f (c) + . . .
2!
3!

Close to x = c higher powers of (x c) are small compared

to (x c)2 . So, provided f (c) 6= 0
f (x) f (c) +

(x c)2
f (c)
2!

a quadratic which is:

upwards if f (c) > 0 local minimum.
downwards if f (c) < 0 local maximum.
if f (c) = 0 may be either min/max or neither.

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University
of Bristol 2014-15. This material is copyright of the University unless explicitly stated otherwise. It is provided exclusively
for educational purposes at the University and is to be downloaded or copied for your private study only.