Durability of RC Structures

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
DURABILITY OF
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
BUILDING DEGRADATIONS. CAUSES

Durability is the ability of constructions to preserve their performances on
the entire duration of service.
The performances represent quantitative expression of user requirements
on the characteristics required in service (strength, stability, safety in
service, fire safety, economy, acoustic & visual comfort, etc.)
The durability of concrete is its property to resist on any deterioration
processes during service (mechanical action, chemical actions, climate
actions, abrasion etc.). A durable concrete is one that keep, with minimal
maintenance costs, initial form, features and functionality throughout the
service.
The degradation of a material or construction element is defined as any
negative change of the physical and / or chemical properties, who affect the
performance criteria of the building.
Degradations can be visible or hidden.
Degradations can appear both on structural and non-structural elements.

Designing and execution deficiencies can be considered initial degradations
of the building.
The level of degradation for a building is inversely proportional to its safety
level.
Actions are defined as causes of any kind capable of generating

degradation in a building. Actions can be classified as follows:
mechanical actions which produce mechanical stresses being represented
usually by force systems;
physical actions that produce changes in the integrity of materials and / or
components but without altering the chemical structure;

chemical and biological actions that produce changes in the chemical
structure of materials.
In the design codes (Eurocode 1), the term action is usually used for
mechanical actions.
Physical, chemical and biological actions are also named corrosive actions.
CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL ACTIONS
A. Actions from construction:
Loads (dead loads, live loads)

Corrosive actions:
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Expansive cements
B. Actions from natural environment:
Climatic actions:
Humidity
Temperature variations
Freeze-thaw
Snow
Wind
Corrosive actions:
Air
Water
Marine environment
Aging (creep, shrinkage)
Biological actions
Exceptionally actions:
Earthquake, fire, hurricanes, flooding
Soil failure
C. Actions from industrial environment:
Corrosive actions
Polluted air
Polluted water
Exceptionally actions:
Fires
Shock
D. Actions resulted in designing/execution process
Accepted risk
Insufficient knowledge
Ignorance
Mistakes
Blunders
Malevolence
BUILDING/ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP
NATURAL AIR
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Gases in sea water reveal the ways in which a variety of physical, chemical,
and biological processes interact in the oceans and coastal environments. A

series of reactive trace gases found in sea water include methane, carbon
monoxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen. These gases are both
produced by and consumed by various types of organisms. The marine
environment can be a source of these gases to the atmosphere.
Action of marine air is complex due to the large number of aggressive ions,
but less intense than if these ions were acting on simple solutions.
Gas
Chemical Symbol
Percentage in Air
Percentage in Sea
Water
Nitrogen
N2
78.08
62.6
Oxygen
O2
20.95
34.3
Argon
Ar
0.934
1.6
Carbon Dioxide
CO 2
0.033
1.4
Neon
Ne
0.0018
0.00097
Helium
He
0.00052
0.00023
Methane
CH 4
0.00020
0.00038
Krypton
Kr
0.00011
0.00038
Carbon Monoxide
CO
0.000015
0.000017
Nitrous Oxide
N 2O
0.000050
0.0015
Xenon
Xe
0.0000087
0.000054
POLLUTED AIR FROM INDUSTRIAL

ENVIRONMENT
Due to industrial activity, in the atmosphere is discharged a large amounts
of pollutants from the various industries.
AGGRESSIVE WATER FROM SOIL

Soil water is aggressive because of the dissolution of substances
contained in the soil and acid rain. Another important source is the infiltration
of polluted wastewater.
AGGRESSIVE WATER FROM SURFACE

Surface waters, both from the seas, lakes or rivers contain dissolved
substances that have chemical aggressivity.
In addition to chemical corrosion, water has physical effects on concrete
(erosion by abrasion).
Erosive action of water usually appear to hydraulic structures and is not
the subject to this lecture.
Characteristic degradation of a concrete bridge pylon (Pimpama River,

Queensland, Australia), occurs as the sulfuric acid from acid sulfate soils
attacks the carbonate in the concrete.
RHEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA
The shrinkage represents a time dependent deformation which reduces
the volume of concrete, without the impact of external forces. The time flow
and the final values of shrinkage are influenced by numerous factors:
temperature and humidity, dimensions of elements, the type and quantity of
cement, w/c factor, aggregates, concrete strength, method of workability and
curing, concrete age at the end of curing and many other factors.
Concrete creep is the tendency to deform under the influence of

mechanical stresses. Creep is a deformation mechanism that may or may not
constitute a failure mode. For example, moderate creep in concrete is
sometimes welcomed because it relieves tensile stresses that might otherwise
lead to cracking.
Unlike brittle fracture, creep deformation is a result of long-term stress.
Therefore, creep is a "time-dependent" deformation.
CAUSES OF CONCRETE DEGRADATION

Degradation of concrete can appear from internal causes (due to
internal processes), or external causes (which are due to environmental
features).
Internal causes are able to initiate concrete destruction by chemical
or physical processes occurring in concrete mass. They can be grouped as
follows:
expansion of harmful chemical components that are in excess
on cement, such as calcium and magnesium oxides or sulfur
trioxide;
differentiated mechanical stresses that can be caused by large
variations in temperature (particularly between the outer
surfaces and the interior of massive elements);
aggregates with the thermal coefficient of expansion different
from that one of the cement stone (the changes in volume
under the action of temperature provoke internal stresses);
alkaliaggregate reaction who is a term mainly referring to a reaction

which occurs over time in concrete between the highly alkaline cement
paste and non-crystalline silicon dioxide, which is found in many common
aggregates; this reaction can cause expansion of the altered aggregate,
leading to spalling and loss of strength of the concrete.
External causes can be: mechanical, physical, chemical, and

biochemical.
Mechanical causes are composed by static and dynamic loads

(short or long term), fatigue, etc.
Physical degradation of the concrete under the influence of
mechanical action mainly consist of cracking process.
Cracks causes many problems in reinforced concrete elements
because they fragments the internal structure, reduce the stiffness and the
active area of concrete. At the same time, cracks allow the penetration of
aggressive substances into the element, which affects not only the
concrete but also the embedded reinforcement.
Physical degradation of concrete under repeated freeze-thaw

action is a problem of wet concrete. The degradation of concrete occurs
due to the pressure that arises in its mass, due to the increasing volume of
frozen water contained in the structure.
Chemical
and
biochemical
factors
induce
degradation
by
decalcification of cement stone and / or expansion processes.
Concrete deterioration is rarely produced by a single cause. In

practice, the concrete degradation occurs due to simultaneous action of
several factors.
CARBONATION OF CONCRETE
Carbonation occurs in concrete because the calcium bearing phases
present are attacked by carbon dioxide of the air and converted to calcium
carbonate.
The carbon dioxide along with water, forming a solution of carbonic

acid which, although weak and unstable, under favorable circumstances can
react with cement paste. In the presence of high humidity, CO2 is chemically
aggressive, destroying any cement.
The carbonation process requires the presence of water because CO2
dissolves in water forming H2CO3. If the concrete is too dry (RH <40%) CO2
cannot dissolve and no carbonation occurs. If on the other hand it is too wet
(RH >90%) CO2 cannot enter the concrete and the concrete will not carbonate.
Optimal conditions for carbonation occur at a RH of 50%...60% (range 40-90%).
The carbonation of concrete will not affect plain concrete. Carbonation
will increase mechanical strength, modulus of elasticity. The areas of carbonated

concrete are usually small and the increased resistance is generally low and the
benefits are irrelevant in practice.
Cement paste contains 25-50 % calcium hydroxide, which mean that
the pH of the fresh cement paste is at least 12.5. The pH of a fully carbonated
concrete is about 8. Under these conditions, concrete can not provide the
necessary protection for reinforcements, which are susceptible to corrosion
phenomenon.
Concrete carbonation does not automatically produce corrosion of
reinforcement. If you meet certain conditions of moisture, even if the concrete is
carbonated reinforcement can not corrode.
The detection of the carbonated concrete can be made using a

phenolphthalein solution.
CHLORIDE ATTACK ON CONCRETE

Chloride attack is one of the most important aspects for
consideration when we deal with the durability of concrete. Chloride attack is
particularly important because it primarily causes corrosion of reinforcement.
Statistics have indicated that over 40% of failure of structures is due to
corrosion of reinforcement.
The destructive effect of the dry chlorine gas is relatively weak on
concrete, but the wet gas is extremely harmful and it manifested as an
aggressive gas both to concrete and steel reinforcement.
Chloride ions diffuse through the concrete without change the pH of

concrete.
The depth of penetration of chloride ions depends on their

concentration at the surface of the concrete and the variations of moisture. In
periods of high humidity, large amounts of chlorine enters into concrete. When
the humidity decrease, the water evaporates but the chlorine ions remain.
Through this process, the content of chloride ions may increase significantly.
Given the action of chloride attack, the density of concrete

becomes an important influencing factor on the rate of its deterioration:
concrete with smaller pores and lower pore connectivity will absorb less
water or vapour and inhibit its transport thus slowing down the ingress of
chlorides into the structure.
The physical condition of surface concrete plays an important role
in the rate of deterioration. Where there is existing surface damage
particularly in the form of abrasions, cavities or other impact damage the
resultant cracks serve to speed up the transportation of moisture and ions
to the steel which amplifies the rate of corrosion. Freeze thaw cycles can
then exacerbate the process further.
SULPHUR ATTACK ON CONCRETE

Corrosion by sulphur compounds is usually founded in the
industry.
The action of the sulphur compounds consist of replacement of
the OH ion (from the Ca(OH)2) by the SO4 ions.
Sulfuric acid reacts first with the calcium hydroxide and form the
gypsum. In the first stage, the gypsum formed with volume expansion,
filling the pores of the concrete and compacting it into a layer of variable
thickness.
If the corrosive action continues, other constituents of cement
stone (tricalcium aluminate) reacts with the sulphate ions, forming
ettringite.
Both products (gypsum and ettringite) have volume expansion in
concrete (the ettringite expands by 2.5 times) and the concrete is peeling.
Concentrated
sulfuric
acid
has
no
influence
on
the
reinforcements but diluted sulfuric acid heavily corroded them.

Sulfuric acid react with steel only at high humidity (over 75%) and
initially form ferrous sulphate. Ferrous sulphate is converted in rust and
the sulfuric acid is released at the end of the reaction. Released sulfuric
acid attacks a new zone of steel and the process will continue. A massive
corrosion of the reinforcement can be produced even under the action of a
small amount of sulfuric acid.
If the reinforcement is already corroded (due to other causes) and
the sulfur dioxide is absorbed by existing rust, a ferrous sulphate results
from the reaction. The ferrous sulfate is converted in sulfuric acid, and the
reaction will continues.
NITROGEN ATTACK ON CONCRETE

The most active compounds of the nitrogen are nitric acid, ammonia
and ammonium nitrate.
In the first phase, nitric acid react with surface layer of concrete by
forming calcium nitrate that is soluble and peeling.
The reinforcement is not attacked by concentrated nitric acid but is
corroded by the diluted one. The action of the ammonium nitrate is manifested
both in corrosion and by embrittlement and breaking of the crystalline structure.
PARTICULARITIES REGARDING CORROSION OF

PRESTRESSING REINFORCEMENTS
Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which high-strength steel,
become brittle and fracture following exposure to hydrogen. Hydrogen
embrittlement is the result of the corrosive process and, at the same time, a big
static load.
The mechanism starts with a locally corrosion of the reinforcement that
form a fragile layer on the surface of the metal oxide, accompanied by the
release of hydrogen. The hydrogen atoms diffusing through the metal and, when
they re-combine in minuscule voids of the metal matrix to form hydrogen
molecules, they create pressure from inside the cavity where they are located.
This pressure can increase to levels where the metal has reduced ductility and
tensile strength, up to the point where it cracks open.
A new corrosive process occurs in the crack accompanied by the release
of hydrogen ions and the process will continue until failure.
The failure is brittle and occurs without warning.

The hydrogen embrittlement appear only when two conditions are met
simultaneously: mechanical stress in reinforcement and corrosive attack by a
specific agent.
CORROZIVE ACTIONS ON CONCRETE
ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS
Windsor Tower, Madrid, Spain
The Windsor Tower was a 32storey concrete building with a

reinforced concrete central
core.
A typical floor was two-way

spanning 280mm deep waffle slab
supported by the concrete core,
internal RC columns with additional
360mm deep steel I-beams and
steel perimeter columns.
W
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ASSESSMENT METHODS OF MECHANICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE AND
REINFORCEMENTS
Investigations must be performed with an adequate complexity to
assess the safety level of the structure with satisfactory accuracy. At the
same time, the assessment cost must justify the proposed solution.
The complexity of the investigations is established according with:

type and characteristics of the structure;
causes and spreading of damages;
the importance class of the building;

technical equipment available for investigations;
availability of standard and norms.
The investigations can be achieved
by:
simple
tests
on
site,
performed by a trained
person with simple tools;
complex
investigations
that are carried out by

qualified personnel using
special
complex
equipment;
investigations
can be made on site or in

the laboratory.
Visual examination
Acoustic impact
SIMPLE TESTS
Reinforcement inspection
Testing of alkalinity (with phenolphthalein)
Testing of chloride ions (with silver nitrate)
COMPLEX INVESTIGATIONS
Complex investigations are carried out by qualified personnel using
special equipment. Complex investigations can be made on site or in the
laboratory.
VISUAL INSPECTION OF INACCESSIBLE AREAS

A borescope is an
optical device consisting of a
rigid or flexible tube with an
eyepiece on one end, an
objective lens on the other
linked together by a relay
optical system in between.
The assessment of mechanical characteristics of concrete and

reinforcements can be made with:
direct methods, who establish directly the strength of the

material;
indirect methods, who establish other properties of the material
(such as hardness) and the strength can be estimated later
according with these properties.
INDIRECT METHODS FOR STRENGTH ASSESSMENT

ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)
testing of concrete is based on the pulse
velocity method to provide information on
the uniformity of concrete, cavities, cracks
and defects. The pulse velocity in a material
depends on its density and its elastic
properties which in turn are related to the
quality and the compressive strength of the
concrete. It is therefore possible to obtain
information
about
the
properties
components by sonic investigations.
of
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

test instrument to examine the quality of
concrete and other materials such as rock,

wood and ceramics.
IMPACT ECHO TEST

Impact Echo is a method for
nondestructive evaluation of concrete and

masonry. It is based on the use of impactgenerated compression waves that travel
through the structure and are reflected by
internal flaws and external surfaces.
Impact Echo can be used to measure the
thickness of slabs, plates, columns and
beams, and hollow cylinders. It can also be
used to determine the location and extent
of flaws such as cracks, delaminations,
voids, honeycombing and debonding in
plain,
reinforced
concrete structures.
and
post-tensioned
SURFACE WAVE TEST

This method applies
the mechanical surface waves,
to
investigate
the
medium.
Surface waves penetrate the

medium from the surface down
to a depth of approximately one
wave length. This means that by
using different wave lengths it

will be possible to investigate
the medium to different depths
SCLEROMETER TESTS ON CONCRETE

The sclerometer tests are NDTs that allow the estimation of the
concrete quality on-site. The tests use a Schmidt sclerometer that
measures the superficial hardness of the concrete from the recoil of an
incident mass after the collision with the surface being tested. This recoil is
then converted to a value of compression resistance through an abacus.
The test must be carried out on homogeneous concrete surfaces and it
usually involves the removal of the carbonated superficial layer by scraping
before.
WINDSOR PROBE TEST

The Windsor probe test
is
used
to
evaluate
the
compressive strength of in-place

concrete. This non-destructive
test can be used on fresh or

mature
concrete
effectiveness.
with
The
equal
system
features an electronic measuring

device
efficiency.
for
accuracy
and
COMPLEX INVESTIGATIONS
DIRECT ON SITE METHODS
FOR STRENGTH ASSESSMENT
Direct methods can establish directly the strength of the material by
measuring the force required to provoke failure of a small area of the element.
Because the concrete has a good behavior in compression, usually the
direct methods establish the strength of concrete in tension.
DIRECT METHODS FOR STRENGTH ASSESSMENT

PULL OUT TEST
A pullout test measures the force
required to pull a specially shaped steel rod
out of the hardened concrete into which it
has been cast. Because of its shape, the
steel rod is pulled out with a cone of
concrete
whose
surface
slope
is
approximately 450 to the vertical. A hollow

tension ram bearing on the concrete
surface exerts the necessary pull on the
steel rod, with power supplied by a handoperated hydraulic pump.
PULL OFF TEST

The pull-off test is a near-tosurface method in which a circular
steel disc is glued to the surface of
the concrete with an epoxy or
polyester resin. The force required to

pull this disc out from the surface,
together with an attached layer of
concrete,
is
measured.
Simple
mechanical hand-operated loading

equipment has been developed for
this purpose.
BREAK-OFF TEST
A
direct
assessment
on
strength can be made by core

sampling and testing. Cores are
usually cut by means of a rotary
cutting tool with diamond bits. In this

manner, a cylindrical specimen is
obtained usually with its ends being
uneven, parallel and square and

sometimes with embedded pieces of
reinforcement.
The break-off test is one of the

recent developments for testing inplace concrete strength. In the breakoff method, the force required to
break-off
an
in-place
concrete
cylindrical specimen is measured. This

force
is
then
related
to
the
compressive strength of the concrete

from a predetermined calibration curve
developed for the particular concrete.
The
Break-Off
test
method
measures the flexural strength of the in

place concrete.
METHODS TO DETECT REINFORCEMENTS

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
The profometer is an advanced
cover meter for the precise and non
destructive
measurement
of
concrete cover and rebar diameters

and the detection of rebar locations
using the eddy current principle with
pulse induction as the measuring
method.
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Radiography can be used to
obtain permanent image of surface and
sub-surface (embedded) discontinuities.
With concrete radiography, precise

locations of rebar, cable and metal
conduit can be detected prior to core
drilling or saw cutting. This can verify
size and spacing of reinforcement in
concrete.
RADAR TESTING
Radar test is a high-frequency electromagnetic method that can
be commonly applies to a number of engineering problems associated
with both new and aging concrete structures.
A GPR system radiates short pulses of high-frequency EM energy
into the concrete from a transmitting antenna. This EM wave propagates

in the concrete at a velocity that is primarily a function of the relative
dielectric permittivity of subsurface materials. When this wave
encounters the interface of two materials having different dielectric

properties, a portion of the energy is reflected back to the surface, where
it is detected by a receiver antenna and transmitted to a control unit for
processing and display.
INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY
Infrared thermography, a nondestructive, remote sensing
technique, has proved to be an effective, convenient, and economical
method of testing concrete. It can detect internal voids, delaminations,
and cracks in concrete structures. As a testing technique, some of its most
important qualities are that it is accurate, it need not inconvenience the

public and it is economical.
An infrared thermographic scanning system can measure and
view temperature patterns based upon temperature differences as small

as a few hundredths of a degree Celsius. Infrared thermographic testing
may be performed during day or night, depending on environmental
conditions and the desired results.
HALF-CELL POTENTIAL TEST

The
method
measures
the
electrochemical
potential
of
reinforcement against a reference electrode placed on the concrete surface.

A number of reference electrodes may be used, including copper/copper
sulphate or silver/silver chloride.
The evaluation of the results is normally performed by means of a
personal computer.
ASTM C876-87 provides a classification for assessing the results of the

half-cell potential mapping:
a potential bigger than 350 mV, indicate an active corrosive process;
for a potential between 200 and 350 mV the result is inconclusive
(probability of 50 % for a corrosive process);
for a potential under 200 mV the corrosive process is not present on
the reinforcement.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TEST

The electrical resistivity test is used to estimate the speed of the
corrosive process in the reinforcements.
Concrete electrical resistivity can be obtained by applying a current
into the concrete and measuring the response voltage. There are different
methods for measuring concrete resistivity:
with two electrodes (contact resistance can significantly add to the
measured resistance causing inaccuracy);
with four electrodes when the problem of contact resistance is overcome
(the two end electrodes are used to inject current as before, but the
voltage is measured between the two inner electrodes).
The results can be classified in:

for resistivity bigger than 20 kcm, the corrosive speed is
negligible;
for resistivity between 10 and 20 kcm, the corrosive speed is
small;
for resistivity between 5 and 10 kcm, the corrosive speed is

high;
for resistivity lower than 5 kcm, the corrosive speed is very
high.
METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING PHYSICAL AND

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE ON SITE
RESISTIVITY METHOD FOR ASSESSMENT OF HUMIDITY
In a porous material, the resistivity decreases with an increase of
moisture content. This is because the resistivity of the pore fluid is lower
than the resistivity of the solid base. Thus, moisture content changes can
be monitored by measuring changes in the electrical resistance of the
material. Monitoring resistivity will show at which locations changes in
moisture are presented.
MICROWAVE METHOD
FOR ASSESSMENT OF HUMIDITY
In the microwave methods two components are considered, the
attenuation of penetrating microwave bean and the phase change. It has

been found that measurements of the attenuation and phase change can
often be combined to obtain a measure of moisture content.
Microwave attenuation measurements use a transmitter on one side

of a sample and a receiver on the opposite side. In such a case the sampled
volume can be measured with reasonable certainty. However, attenuation
increases at higher frequencies and at high moisture contents in the sample,

hence, higher frequencies and high moisture contents should be avoid for
measurements using microwave attenuation.
NEUTRON SCATTERING
FOR ASSESSMENT OF HUMIDITY
When fast neutrons are emitted from a radioactive source they
penetrate into concrete and collide with the nuclei of atoms composing
the concrete. The velocity reduction is greatest for collisions with nuclei
that have mass comparable to that of the neutron. After a series of
collisions the slow neutrons can be monitored using a detector that
incorporates a slow neutron absorber.
Hydrogen in water molecules is the dominant source of light
nuclei that causes the production of slow neutrons in concrete. Thus, in
the absence of organic material and other sources of hydrogen, the slow
neutron count is primarily a measure of the total water content.
ASSESSMENT OF PERMEABILITY ON WATER

This method is intended to determine the susceptibility of an
unsaturated concrete to the penetration of water. In general, the rate of
absorption of concrete at the surface differs from the rate of absorption
of a sample taken from the interior.

The exterior surface is often subjected to less than intended
curing and is exposed to the most potentially adverse conditions. This
test method is used to measure the water absorption rate of both the
concrete surface and interior concrete.
The equipment consist of a

pressure chamber that containing a
watertight gasket. The chamber is
secured tightly to the surface by two

anchored clamping pliers or by
means of a suction plate.
The chamber is filled with water and the water is allowed to be
absorbed by the test surface for 10 minutes. The filling valve is closed,
and the top cap of the chamber is turned until a desired water pressure is
displayed on the gauge. As water permeates into the concrete, the
selected pressure is maintained by means of a micrometer gauge pushing
a piston into the chamber. The piston movement compensates for the
volume of water penetrating into the material. The travel of the piston as
a function time is recorded and the speed the piston travel in m/s is
used to characterize the permeation of the test surface.
ASSESSMENT OF PERMEABILITY ON AIR

The on site permeability
test permits a rapid analysis of the
air
permeability
concrete
by
of
non
the
cover
destructive
method. The essential features of

the permeability test method are a
two-chamber vacuum cell and a
pressure regulator which ensures an
air flow at right angles to the surface
into
the
inner
chamber.
The
permeability test takes only 2 12

minutes.
Drilled-hole tests in concrete

The measurement of transport to or from
a drilled hole is the alternative to surface
measurements for in situ assessment of
air permeability. A convenient way of
carrying out these tests is to drill a hole,
seal the top of it, evacuate the space

below the seal and measure the time
taken for the vacuum to decay.
METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING MECHANICAL,

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS IN THE LABORATORY
A
direct
assessment
on
mechanical, physical and chemical

properties can be made in the
laboratory on:
disengaged material;
core samples;
elements
structure.
extracted
from
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Compressive Strength
Tensile Strength (splitting)

Modulus of Elasticity (static modulus of elasticity or dynamic
modulus)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Density
Permeability
Freeze-thaw
Shrinkage
Thermal movement
Microscopically examination
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical analyzes performed on concrete and reinforcement
should elucidate the following:
identify corrosive agent;
determining the depth of penetration;

concentration of corrosive agent;
changes in the chemical composition of the concrete and
reinforcement.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Statistical analysis of experimental data must cover two aspects,
namely:
establishing the boundaries (intervals) for the studied
characteristic;
differentiation between the real values on degraded material

and the results affected by measurement errors and / or
interpretation.
Degraded areas can be identified by imposing standard deviation

relative to mean value.
SIMPLE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Mean value
Xi
X
n
Standard deviation
X i X
n 1
ESTABLISHING THE NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS

n F o
F - is a number that corresponds to a very low probability that the

difference between the results of testing and result considering all
the characteristics and operating conditions of the item, not
greater than E (a probability of 4.5%, F = 2)Mean value
0 - standard deviation
E - the maximum imposed error
ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Advanced statistical analyzes can be performed when has the
same characteristics determinations made by different methods.
1 R R apr
2
f( R ) (2apr ) exp
2 apr
R apo
1 2 n E ( x i | v i )
1
/ 2
R apr / 2 apr
2
Si
i 1 Si
i 1
Si
r 1
2
1 / 2 apr
i 1 Si
1
apr / 2
i 1 Si
r
1
2
apr 1 / 2
i 1 Si
r
2
apo
ASSESSMENT OF SAFETY LEVEL FOR EXISTING BUILDINGS

Evaluation of existing buildings involves two fundamental
aspects, namely:
assessment of bearing capacity of elements/structure;
estimation of service life for various hypothesis (with or
without interventions).
Evaluation of the safety level of existing buildings is done in
three distinct steps:
preliminary data collection
investigation of degradation
evaluation of bearing capacity of the structure and service
life prediction.
ESTABLISHING OF BEARING CAPACITY

The evaluation process include:
checking of compliance requirements;
investigation of degradations;
evaluation of the bearing capacity.
Based on all results the building vulnerability is established
according with four seismic risk classes:

Rs I (high risk of collapse);
Rs Class II (low risk of collapse but high risk of structural
damages);
Rs III (low risk of structural damages but high risk of nonstructural damages);
Class IV (the behavior is similar with new buildings).
ASSESSMENT OF COMPLIANCE REQUIREMENTS

Assessment of compliance requirements must establish if
compliance rules provided in current norms are satisfied by the analyzed
building. The main components of this qualitative assessment are:
a.
verification of the loads path
b.
verification of the redundancy
c.
verification of the geometrical configuration
d.
verification of interaction with other buildings near by
e.
verification of the infrastructure and foundation soil
f.
verification of the structural details
Assessment of seismic risk class from compliance requirements point of

view is made according with the table below.
ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURAL DEGRADATION

The structural damage degree express the structural degradation
produced by the seismic action and other causes.
ASSESSMENT OF SEISMIC SAFETY DEGREE

The seismic safety degree revealed the strength and
deformability capacity of the structure. Three methodologies can be used
for the assessment of the seismic safety degree.
Methodology 1
Seismic safety degree is determined in terms of strength:
3 =
where:
capable shear stress
shear stress determined according with seismic norm
Methodology 2
Individual values were determined for each of the structural
elements:
3 =

where:
capable internal force, in j element
design internal force, in j element
behavior factor for j element
Global value of the seismic safety degree is:
,
3 =
, /
where:
, capable shear force for j element
, design shear force for j element
Methodology 3
Seismic safety degree is determined in terms of displacements:
3 =
where:
ultimate lateral displacement
imposed lateral displacement
ESTIMATION OF SERVICE LIFE

Service life of a building is the time where all the building
properties are maintained at an acceptable levels under the conditions of
current maintenance.
Because
reinforced
concrete
degradation
is
complex
phenomenon with many variables, service life may be affected by large
errors.
In the estimation of the service life of an element or construction
must be taken into account:
physical,
chemical
and
biological
environment
characteristics of the materials
the influence of structural damages
actions
from
the
The service life assessment can be achieved by the following

methods:
assessment based on experience
evaluating by comparisons with similar situations
assessment with accelerated tests
assessment by mathematical modeling of the degradation
process
evaluation by stochastic analysis
DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS FOR NEW BUILDINGS

The requirement of an adequately durable structure is met if,
throughout its required life, a structure fulfils its function with respect to
serviceability, strength and stability without significant loss of utility or
excessive unforeseen maintenance.
To provide the required overall durability, the intended use of
the structure shall be established, together with the load specifications
to be considered. The required life of the structure and the maintenance
programme shall also be considered, in assessing the level of protection
required.
Durability may be affected both by direct actions and also by
consequential indirect effects inherent in the performance of the
structure (e.g. deformations, cracking, water absorption, etc.).
Actions shall be assessed in accordance with the definitions given

in Eurocode 1 and based on values given in appropriate national codes. In
special cases, it may be necessary to consider modification of these values
to meet particular durability requirements.
Environmental influence means those chemical and physical
actions, to which the structure as a whole, the individual elements, and
the concrete itself is exposed, and which results in effects not included in
the loading conditions considered in structural design.
For the design of regular buildings, environmental conditions
should be classified in accordance with Eurocode 2, to establish the

overall level of protection.
In addition, it may be necessary to consider certain forms of
aggressive or indirect action individually.
DETERMINATION OF CONCRETE COVER

The concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of
the reinforcement (including links and stirrups) and the nearest concrete
surface. A minimum concrete cover shall be provided in order to ensure:
the safe transmission of bond forces;
that spalling will not occur;
an adequate fire resistance;
the protection of the steel against corrosion.
The protection of reinforcement against corrosion depends
upon the continuing presence of a surrounding alkaline environment
provided by an adequate thickness of good quality, well-cured concrete.
The thickness of cover required depends both upon the exposure
conditions and on the concrete quality.
The minimum concrete cover required shall first be determined.

This shall be increased by an allowance for tolerances ( ) , which is
dependent on the type and size of structural element, the type of
construction, standards of workmanship and quality control, and
detailing practice.
The result is the required nominal cover which shall be specified

on the drawings.
cmin b minimal cover from bond requirements;

cmin dur minimal cover from durability requirements;
Dcdur, additional safety value;
Dcdur,st reduction of the minimum cover for stainless steel reinforcement;
Dcdur,add reduction of the minimum cover for reinforcements with

supplementary protection against corrosion.
To transmit bond forces safely, and to ensure adequate

compaction, the concrete cover, to the bar or strand being considered,
should never be less than:
or n
or ( + 5 mm) or (n + 5 mm) if dg > 32 mm
where:
is the diameter of the bar, diameter of a strand or of the
duct (post-tensioning);
n is the equivalent diameter for a bundle;
dg is the largest nominal maximum aggregate size.
The allowance for tolerances ( ) will usually be in the range

of 0 mm and 5 mm, for precast elements, if production control can
guarantee these values and if this is verified by quality control.
The allowance for tolerances ( ) will be in the range of 5
mm and 10 mm for in situ reinforced concrete construction.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS FIRE ACTION

The fire triangle or combustion
triangle is a simple model for understanding
the necessary ingredients for most fires. The
triangle illustrates the three elements a fire
needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and an oxidizing
agent (usually oxygen). A fire can be
prevented or extinguished by removing any
one of the elements in the fire triangle.
The fire tetrahedron represents the addition of a component, the
chemical chain reaction. Once a fire has started, the resulting exothermic
chain reaction sustains the fire and allows it to continue until or unless at
least one of the elements of the fire is blocked.
Oxygen is an essential element for the maintenance of fire.

Burning speed is influenced by the amount of fresh air.
The simplified calculation method o fire determines the ultimate

load bearing capacity of a heated cross section. The method is applicable
to structures subjected to a standard fire exposure. The procedure is also
applicable for the calculation of the ultimate resistance at a specified time
for any other fire exposure, if the temperature profiles corresponding to
that exposure are known or calculated, and correct data for material
properties corresponding to it are used.
The procedure is to first determine the temperature profile of
the cross section, reduce the strength and the short term modulus of
elasticity of concrete and reinforcement, reduce the concrete cross
section, and then calculate the ultimate load bearing capacity of the
construction and to compare the capacity with the relevant combination
of actions.
In a real fire, the temperature may have different values.

Numerous experimental and theoretical studies has determined the
time-temperature curve and led to the establishment of a standardized
curves.
The fire damaged cross-section is represented by a reduced section

by ignoring a damaged zone of thickness at the fire exposed surfaces.
The reduced values for strength are determined by the relation:
X d , fi k ( ) X k / M , fi
where:
Xk strength at normal temperature (for concrete and
reinforcement);
k() reduction factor due to temperature;
temperature value due to fire;
M,fi safety factor.
The reduced values for the modulus of elasticity are determined

by the relation:
X d , fi k ( ) 2 Eck / M , fi
where:
Eck modulus of elasticity at normal temperature;
k() reduction factor due to temperature;
temperature value due to fire;
M,fi safety factor.

Durability of RC Structures

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DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

BUILDING DEGRADATIONS. CAUSES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Degradations can be visible or hidden.

Degradations can appear both on structural and non-structural elements.

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Actions are defined as causes of any kind capable of generating

components but without altering the chemical structure;

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL ACTIONS

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

A. Actions from construction:

Loads (dead loads, live loads)

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

and biological processes interact in the oceans and coastal environments. A

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

POLLUTED AIR FROM INDUSTRIAL

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

AGGRESSIVE WATER FROM SOIL

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

AGGRESSIVE WATER FROM SURFACE

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Characteristic degradation of a concrete bridge pylon (Pimpama River,

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Concrete creep is the tendency to deform under the influence of

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

CAUSES OF CONCRETE DEGRADATION

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

alkaliaggregate reaction who is a term mainly referring to a reaction

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

External causes can be: mechanical, physical, chemical, and

Mechanical causes are composed by static and dynamic loads

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Physical degradation of concrete under repeated freeze-thaw

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

decalcification of cement stone and / or expansion processes.

Concrete deterioration is rarely produced by a single cause. In

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

The carbon dioxide along with water, forming a solution of carbonic

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

The carbonation of concrete will not affect plain concrete. Carbonation

will increase mechanical strength, modulus of elasticity. The areas of carbonated

The detection of the carbonated concrete can be made using a

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES