EX PERI M ENTS

EXPERIMENT

AIM
To det er m in e r esist an ce per u n it len gt h of a given wir e by plot t in g a
gr aph of pot en t ial differ en ce ver su s cu r r en t .

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A wir e of u n k n own r esist an ce (~10), bat t er y elim in at or or an
accu m u lat or (0 t o 3V) or t wo dr y cells (1.5 V each ), volt m et er (0-5 V),
m illiam m eter (0500 m A), r heostat, plu g k ey, connecting wir es and a
piece of san d paper .

RINCIPLE
Ohm's law states that the electric cu rrent flowing throu gh a condu ctor
i s d i r ec t l y p r op or t i on a l t o t h e p ot en t i a l d i f f er en c e
acr oss i t s en ds, pr ovi ded t h e ph ysi cal st at e of t h e con du ct or
r em ain s u n ch an ged.
If I be t h e cu r r en t flowin g t h r ou gh t h e con du ct or an d V t h e pot en t ial
differ en ce acr oss it s en ds, t h en accor din g t o Oh m 's law

an d h en ce
V = RI

(E 1.1)

wh er e R is t h e con st an t of pr opor t ion alit y an d is t er m ed as t h e

elect r ical r esist an ce of t h e con du ct or . If V is expr essed in volt s an d I
in am per es, t h en R is expr essed in oh m s. Th e r esist an ce R, depen ds
u pon t h e m at er ial an d dim en sion s of t h e con du ct or . For a wir e of
u n ifor m cr oss-sect ion , t h e r esist an ce depen ds on t h e len gt h l an d
t h e ar ea of cr oss-sect ion A. It also depen ds on t h e t em per at u r e of
t h e con du ct or . At a given t em per at u r e t h e r esist an ce
l
A
wh er e is t h e specific r esist an ce or r esist ivit y an d is ch ar act er ist ic
of t h e m at er ial of wir e.
R=

(E 1.2)

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Com bin in g Eqs. (E 1.1) an d (E 1.2) we h ave

(E 1.3)

l
I
A

A linear relationship is obtained between V and

I, i.e. t h e gr aph bet ween V an d I will be a
st r aigh t lin e passin g t h r ou gh t h e or igin as
sh own in Fig. E 1.1. Th e slope of t h e gr aph is
1/ R fr om Eq. (E 1.1) (Equ ation of str aight line
passin g t h r ou gh or igin is y = mx wher e m is
the slope of graph).
Slope =
R =
Fi g. E 1 .1

Graph betw een current I and

potential difference, V

1
R

1
s lope

If l is the length of wir e then the r esistance per

u n it len gt h of t h e wir e

R .
l

ROCEDURE

Fi g. E 1 .2

24

1.

Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper
in or der t o r em ove an y in su lat in g coat in g on t h em .

2.

Connect variou s components - resistance, rheostat, battery, k ey,

volt m et er an d am m et er as sh own in Fig. E 1.2.
3.

Note whether pointers in milliammeter

and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark
on the m easu r ing scale. If it is not so,
adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero
mark by adju sting the screw provided
near the base of the needle using a screw
driver.

4.

Not e t h e r an ge an d least cou n t of t h e

given voltmeter and milliammeter.

5.

In ser t t h e k ey K an d slide t h e r h eost at

contact to one of its extreme ends, so that
cu r r en t passin g t h r ou gh t h e r esist an ce
wir e is m in im u m .

6.

Not e t h e m illiam m et er an d volt m et er

r eadin gs.

Circuit to find the relation betw een

current I and potential difference,
V for a given w ire

E X PERI M ENT 1
7.

Rem ove t h e k ey K an d allow t h e wir e t o cool, if h eat ed. Again

in ser t t h e k ey. Sh ift t h e r h eost at con t act sligh t ly t o in cr ease t h e
applied voltage. Note the m illiam m eter and voltm eter r eading.

8.

Repeat st ep 7 for fou r differ en t set t in gs of t h e r h eost at . Recor d

you r obser vat ion s in a t abu lar for m .

BSERVATIONS
1. Ran ge of am m et er = 0 ... m A t o ...m A
2. Least cou n t of am m et er = ... m A
3. Ran ge of volt m et er = 0 ... V t o ...V
4. Least cou n t of voltm eter = ...V
5. Least cou n t of m et r e scale = ... m
6. Len gt h of t h e given wir e, l = ...m
Table E 1 .1 : Volt m et er and m illiam m et er readings
Cu rrent flowing throu gh the wire
Sl. No. Applied pot en t ial differ en ce
[volt m et er r eadin g V (V)]
[m illiam m eter r eading I (m A)]
V

1
2
-6

ALCULATIONS
1.

Plot a gr aph bet ween t h e pot en t ial differ en ce acr oss t h e wir e (V)
an d t h e cu r r en t (I) flowin g t h r ou gh it as sh own in Fig. E 1.1.

2.

Det er m in e t h e slope of t h e gr aph . Th e r esist an ce of t h e given

wir e is t h en equ al t o t h e r ecipr ocal of t h e slope.
Fr om t h e gr aph R

3.

BC
AB

...

Resist an ce per u n it len gt h of given wir e =

R
= ... m -1
l

Error
R
R

V
V

I
I

= ...

(E 1.4)

25

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Her e, R is resistance per u nit length and R is estimated error. V an d
I are the least cou nt of the voltmeter and milliammeter respectively.

ESULT
1. Th e pot en t ial differ en ce acr oss t h e given wir e var ies lin ear ly wit h
t h e cu r r en t .
2. Th e r esi st an ce p er u n i t l en gt h of t h e w i r e i s (R R)
... m -1 ).
= (...

RECAUTIONS
1. Th e volt m et er sh ou ld be con n ect ed in par allel an d t h e am m et er
in series with the circu it. It shou ld be ensu red that cu rrent enters
at the positive ter m inal and leaves at the negative ter m inal.
2. Th e k ey sh ou ld be in ser t ed on ly wh ile t ak in g obser vat ion s, as
excessive flow of cu r r en t cau ses u n n ecessar y h eatin g of th e wir e.
3. Zer o er r or in m easu r in g in str u m en ts (voltm eter , am m eter , m etr e
scale) m u st be t ak en cogn izan ce of an d sh ou ld be elim in at ed in
case of am m et er an d volt m et er by adju st in g t h e poin t er wit h
t h e h elp of t h e scr ew pr ovided at t h e base of t h e n eedle, u sin g a
screw driver.

OURCES OF ERROR
1. Th e wir e u sed m ay n ot be of u n ifor m ar ea of cr oss-sect ion .
2. Th e len gt h of t h e r esist an ce wir e m easu r ed sh ou ld be bet ween
one terminal of voltmeter and the other. The lengths of ends wou nd
ar ou n d t h e t er m in als of volt m et er , if in clu ded, wou ld give er r or
in m easu r ed len gt h .

ISCUSSION
A r esist or obeys Oh m s law. However , n ot all con du ct in g devices
obey Oh m 's law e.g. diode, t h yr ist or et c. Th ese ar e called n on oh m ic r esist an ces.

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A volt m et er is always con n ect ed in par allel an d an am m et er in
ser ies wit h t h e cir cu it . Wh y? Will t h ey r ecor d t h e r espect ive
par am et er s if con n ect ed in opposit e m an n er ?

26

E X PERI M ENT 1
2. Wh y ar e copper wir es n or m ally u sed for con n ect in g differ en t
com pon en t s in an elect r ic cir cu it ?
3. What happens if the cu rrent is allowed to flow throu gh the circu it
con t in u ou sly for a lon g t im e? Wh y?
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EX PERI MENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES
1.

St u dy t h e effect of len gt h of wir e on it s r esist an ce wh en it s diam et er is k ept

constant.

2.

St u dy t h e effect of diam et er of wir e on it s r esist an ce wh en it s len gt h is k ept

constant by u sing different SWG (standard wire gau ge) wires available in the
m ar k et.

3.

Stu dy the resistivity of wires made u p of different materials. Is the resistivity

of all wir es sam e?

4.

Two u n ifor m wir es of t h e sam e m at er ial h ave t h e sam e len gt h . On e h as

cir cu lar cr oss sect ion of ar ea A wh ile t h e ot h er is n ot cir cu lar bu t h as t h e
sam e ar ea of cr oss section A. Will th eir r esistan ces be equ al?

5.

St u dy t h e volt age cu r r en t r elat ion sh ip for t h e filam en t of a t or ch bu lb.

6.

Set u p a cir cu it as sh own in Fig. E 1.3.

Fi g. E 1 .3
Not e the ammeter reading I by connecting the cr ocodile clip at 10, 20, 30
..... cm len gt h of wir e. Plot a gr aph bet ween 1/ I an d l . Fin d its slope an d
in t er pr et it s r esu lt . Can you u se t h e gr aph t o ch eck t h e h om ogen eit y of
t h e r esist an ce wir e?
7.

Fou r r esist an ces R1, R2, R3 an d R4 ar e con n ected togeth er as sh own in

Fig. E 1.4. Complete the electric circu it by connecting the combination of
r esist an ces t o a 6 V sou r ce, an am m et er an d a volt m et er . Explain , h ow
wou ld you m easu r e cu r r en t / volt age flowin g t h r ou gh each on e of t h e
r esistor s.

Fi g. E 1 .4

27

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

EXPERIMENT
AIM

To det er m in e t h e r esist an ce of a given wir e u sin g a m et r e br idge an d

h en ce det er m in e t h e r esist ivit y of t h e m at er ial of t h e wir e.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Met r e br idge, a wir e abou t 1m lon g (of m at er ial wh ose specific
r esi st an ce i s t o be det er m i n ed), a r esi st an ce box, a r h eost at ,
galvan om et er , a jock ey, on e-way k ey, a cell or bat t er y elim in at or ,
t h ick con n ect in g wir es, san d paper , scr ew gau ge.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
M et re bridge
It con si st s of on e m et r e l on g con st an t an wi r e AC of u n i for m
cr oss-sect ion al ar ea m ou n t ed on a wooden boar d wit h a scale
(Fig. E 2.1). Th e t wo en ds of t h e wir e ar e at t ach ed t o t er m in als A
an d C. Th ick m et al st r ips ben t at r igh t an gles ar e u sed t o pr ovide
t wo gaps E an d F t o con n ect r esist or s for m in g a Wh eat st on es

Fi g. E 2 .1 A metre bridge

28

E X PERI M ENT 2
br idge (Fig. E 2.2). Th e t er m in al B bet ween t h e gaps is u sed for
con n ect in g galvan om et er an d ot h er en d of t h e galvan om et er is
con n ect ed t o a jock ey J .

RINCIPLE
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstones bridge. As shown
in Fig. E 2.2, it consists of fou r resistors P, Q, R and S connected in the
form of a network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to two
terminals of a cell throu gh a k ey K 1. T erminals B and D are connected
to a sensitive galvanometer G throu gh a k ey K 2 .
If there is no deflection in the galvanometer G, then balance condition
for Wh eat st on es br idge is
P
Q

R
S

(E 2.1)

We u se t h is r elat ion (E 2.1) t o det er m in e S

if P, Q an d R ar e k n own .
Th e u n k n own r esist an ce S is con n ect ed in
th e gap E an d a r esistan ce box (R Box ) in gap
F of t h e m et r e br idge. Th e t er m in al B is
con n ec t ed t o on e t er m i n a l of t h e
galvan om et er G. Th e ot h er t er m in al of t h e
galvan om et er is con n ect ed t o a jock ey J
wh ich slides alon g th e wir e AC. A sou r ce of
dc cu r r en t is con n ect ed bet ween A an d C
throu gh a k ey K 1 so as to provide a constant
pot en t ial dr op alon g AC (Fig. E 2.1).
A r esist or (or wir e) of k n own r esist an ce is
i n ser t ed i n t h e gap F b y t ak i n g ou t
cor r espon di n g k ey fr om t h e r esi st an ce
box R B ox. Th e jock ey is m oved on t h e wir e
AC t o obt ain a con dit ion of n o-deflect ion
in t h e galvan om et er . It h appen s wh en t h e
jock ey is k ept at a poin t D called t h e n u ll
poin t . In t h is con dit ion ;
P
Q

R
S

Fi g.E 2 .2 The Wheatstones bridge

R es is ta nc e of w ire of le ngt h DC
R es is ta nce of w ire of le ngt h AD

(E 2.2)

Un k n own r esist an ce S of t h e wir e, h avin g u n ifor m cr oss-sect ion al

ar ea, is t h en given by
S

l
1 00

(E 2.3)

29

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Becau se, for a wir e of u n ifor m cr oss-sect ion al ar ea, r esist an ce is
pr opor t ion al t o len gt h .
Thu s, k nowing l and R, and u sing Eq. (E 2.3), the u nk nown resistance
S can be det er m in ed.
Resistivity
Th e specific r esist an ce or r esist ivit y
wir e is

of t h e m at er ial of t h e given

wh er e S is t h e r esist an ce of t h e wir e of len gt h L and a = r 2, (r bein g

t h e r adiu s) is t h e ar ea of cr oss-sect ion .

ROCEDURE
1. Fin d t h e aver age diam et er of t h e wir e wit h a scr ew gau ge. Fr om
t h is, obt ain t h e valu e of it s r adiu s r.
2 . Clean the insu lation at the ends of connecting wir es with a piece of
sand paper. Tighten all plu gs of the resistance box (RBOX) by pressing
each plu g.
3. Set u p the circu it as shown in Fig. E 2.1 with u nk nown resistance
wir e of k n own len gt h in gap E.
4. Next , in t r odu ce som e r esist an ce R i n t h e ci r cu i t fr om t h e
r esist an ce box. Br in g t h e jock ey J in con t act wit h t er m in al
A fi r st an d t h en w i t h t er m i n al C. Not e t h e d i r ect i on i n
wh i ch poi n t er of t h e gal van om et er get s defl ect ed i n each
case. M ak e su r e t h at j ock ey r em ai n s i n con t act wi t h t h e
wire for a fraction of a second. If the galvanometer shows deflection
on both sides of its zer o m ar k for these two points of contact
of the jock ey, nu ll point will be som ewher e on the wir e AC. If
i t i s n ot so, ad j u st r esi st an ce R so t h at t h e n u l l p oi n t
i s som ewh er e i n t h e m i ddl e of t h e wi r e AC, say, bet ween
30 cm and 70 cm .
5. If ther e is one-sided deflection, check the cir cu it again, especially
ju n ct ion s, for t h eir con t in u it y.
6. Repeat st ep 4 for fou r differ en t valu es of r esist an ce R.
7. In t er ch an ge t h e posit ion of t h e r esist an ces S an d R an d r epeat
st eps 4 t o 6 for t h e sam e five valu es of R. Wh ile in t er ch an gin g S
and R, en su r e t h at t h e sam e len gt h of wir e of r esist an ce S is n ow
in the gap F. The interchange tak es care of u naccou nted resistance
offer ed by t er m in als.

30

E X PERI M ENT 2

BSERVATIONS
1. Len gth of th e wir e of u n k n own r esistan ce, L = ...cm
2. Measu r em en t of diam eter of wir e of u n k n own r esistan ce
Least cou n t of t h e scr ew gau ge (L.C.) = ... m m
Zer o er r or of t h e scr ew gau ge = ...m m
Zer o cor r ect ion of t h e scr ew gau ge = ...m m
Table E 2 .1 : Diam et er of Wire
Sl.
No.

Readin g alon g on e
dir ect ion

Readin g alon g m u t u ally

per pen dicu lar dir ect ion

M ean
Diam et er

M ai n Coinciding Diameter M ai n Coinciding D i am et er

d=
scale ci r cu l ar
d1 =
d2 =
scale ci r cu l ar
d1 +d2
reading
p +n L . C . reading
scal e
scal e
p +n L . C .
2
p
division n
division n
p
(m m )
(m m )
(m m )
(m m )
(m m )
1
2
3

Mean diam et er (cor r ect ed for zer o er r or ) = ... m m

Radiu s of wir e r = ... m m
Table E 2 .2 : Unk nown resist ance

m
S

S2

S1

2
m

S2
S1

l
1 00
l
R
S2

(cm ) (cm ) (oh m )

M ean r esi st an ce

(oh m ) (cm )

Len gt h
D C = 100 l

l
1 00
R
S1

Len gt h
DC = 100 l

B al an ci n g
len gt h AD (l)

Posit ion of
balan ce poin t D

Resist an ce
R

(oh m ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm )

B al an ci n g
len gt h AD =l

S in t h e r igh t gap

Posit ion of
balan ce poin t D

S in t h e left gap

Sl.
No.

(oh m )

1
2
-5

Mean

31

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

ALCULATIONS
L = ... cm

S = ...

r = ... m m

Su b st i t u t i n g t h ese val u es i n = S

r 2
, cal cu l at e t h e val u e of
L

i n oh m - m .
Error
S
S

(E 2.4)

2 r
r

L
L

Errors r, L are the least cou nts of the measu ring instru ments and
er r or S is t h e m axim u m of t h e valu es obt ain ed by followin g
equ at ion s :
(E 2.5)

S1

(E 2.6)

S2

l
l

l
10 0

l
l

S1

l
1 00

S2

If it is pr esu m ed t h at r esist an ce offer ed by t h e r esist an ce box is t h e

sam e as t h at in dicat ed on it , t h en R = 0
Th er efor e, m axim u m er r or is S = S1 + S2 .

ESULT
1. Th e u n k n own r esist an ce of t h e given wir e is fou n d t o be
S + S = ... ...
2. Th e r esist ivit y of t h e m at er ial of t h e wir e is

= ... ... m

Here S an d ar e m ean valu es. S an d ar e m axim u m of t h e

five valu es of error.

RECAUTIONS
1. All t h e con n ect ion s an d plu gs sh ou ld be t igh t .
2. Jock ey sh ou ld be m oved gen t ly over t h e m et r e br idge wir e.
3. Th e plu g in t h e k ey (K 1 ) sh ou ld be in ser t ed on ly at t h e t im e of
t ak in g obser vat ion s.
4. Nu ll poin t s sh ou ld be in t h e m iddle of t h e wir e (30 cm t o 70 cm ).

32

E X PERI M ENT 2

OURCES OF ERROR
1. Th e m et r e b r i d ge w i r e m ay n ot b e of u n i f or m ar ea of
cr oss-section .
2. Effect of end r esistances du e to copper str ips, connecting scr ews,
m ay affect t h e m easu r em en t .
3. Th e len gt h L of t h e wir e sh ou ld n ot in clu de t h e len gt h s below t h e
t er m in als wh en placed in gap E or F.
4. Th e r esi st an ces of en d p i eces/ m et al st r i p s m ay n ot b e
n egl i gi b l e. Th e er r or i n t r od u ced b y i t can b e r ed u ced b y
in t er ch an gin g t h e k n own an d u n k n own r esist an ces in gaps
E an d F.
5. Th e l en gt h m easu r em en t s l an d l m ay h ave er r or i f t h e
m et r e b r i d ge wi r e i s n ot t au t an d al on g t h e scal e i n t h e
m et r e br idge.
6. Galvan om et er poin t er is expect ed t o be at zer o wh en n o cu r r en t
flows th r ou gh it. However , m an y tim es it is obser ved th at it is n ot
so. In su ch cases, poin t er h as t o be adju st ed t o zer o by gen t ly
m ovin g t h e scr ew below t h e scale wit h t h e h elp of a scr ew dr iver .
Ot h er wise n u ll poin t m u st be obt ain ed by t appin g t h e jock ey on
t h e wir e.

ISCUSSION
1. It i s gen er al l y pr efer r ed t h at R an d S com bi n at i on sh ou l d be
so ch osen t h at t h e bal an ce poi n t com es n ear t h e m i ddl e of
t h e m et r e br i dge wi r e. Wh y? Is t h e sen si t i vi t y of det ect i n g
b al an ce p oi n t b est w h en R a n d S h ave sam e or d er of
r esist an ce?
2. Th e accu r acy wit h wh ich t h e n u ll poin t can be det ect ed also
depen ds u pon t h e sen sit ivit y of t h e galvan om et er u sed. To
in vest igat e t h is, fin d t h e dist an ce t h r ou gh wh ich t h e jock ey
h as t o be m oved t o cau se a ju st per cept ible deflect ion of t h e
galvan om et er . How can t h e er r or du e t o t h is be m in im ised?
D oes i t h ave som et h i n g t o do wi t h t h e pot en t i al di ffer en ce
bet ween A an d C?
3. Th e len gt h l, th at is, th e position of th e jock ey, m ay be r ead u pto,
0.1 cm (say). How m u ch u n cer t ain t y will be in t r odu ced in t h e
r esu lt du e t o t h is er r or ?
4. It is advised that key shou ld be u nplu gged when readings are not
bein g t ak en t o avoid u n n ecessar y h eat in g of t h e wir e. Wh y? In
wh at way, will t h e h eat in g affect t h e n u ll poin t ? Will it be
significant?

33

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Th e br idge wir e m ay n ot be exact ly 100 cm lon g, so r ecor d it s
exact len gt h an d u se t h is in t h e calcu lat ion .
2. If t h e m et r e br idge wir e is n ot of u n ifor m ar ea of cr oss sect ion ,
h ow will it affect t h e obser vat ion s?

Fi g. E 2 .3 Defective scale of a metre bridge

3. If the metre bridge wire is not made of a material of u niform density,

h ow will it affect th e obser vation s?
4. If the same experiment is performed with AC = 50 cm wire instead
of 1 m , wh at ch an ges wou ld be t h er e in t h e r esu lt ?
5. Th e scale at t ach ed alon g t h e wir e m ay n ot in dicat e t h e exact
length as shown in Fig. E 2.3. How wou ld you minimise the error?
6. Wh y i s t h e m et r e b r i d ge n ot su i t ab l e for m easu r i n g ver y
h igh / ver y low r esist an ces?
7. Wh y is t h e m et r e br idge pr efer r ed for det er m in in g t h e r esist an ce
of a wir e over t h e Oh m s law cir cu it ?
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EX PERI M ENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES

34

1.

Det er m in e t h e r esist an ce of an elect r ic bu lb of given volt age an d power .

At t ach cr ocodile clips at t h e en d of t wo copper wir es. Use t h ese t o con n ect
t h e bu lb in t h e gap E as sh own in Fig. E 2.4. Wh y does t h e r esist an ce
obt ain ed by you differ fr om t h e t h eor et ical valu e?

2.

Mak in g u se of you r obser vat ion s plot a gr aph bet ween (100 l )/ l an d R.
Fin d t h e slope of t h e gr aph . Wh at does it r epr esen t ?

3.

Th e r esist an ce of a wir e ch an ges wit h t em per at u r e. You m ay st u dy t h is by

u sin g a m et r e br idge. You m ay u se a beak er wit h m u st ar d oil, a su it able
thermometer (0 - 300C) and resistance wire of known length. The experimental
set -u p sh own in Fig. E 2.5 m ay be u sed.

E X PERI M ENT 2

Fi g. E 2 .4

Fi g. E 2 .5

35

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To det er m in e t h e in t er n al r esist an ce of a given pr im ar y cell u sin g
a potentiometer.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Potentiometer, Leclanche cell or dry cell, an ammeter, one resistance
box (RBOX 1 ) (abou t 0-50 ), 3 one way plu g k eys, galvanom eter , a
high resistance box (RBOX 2 ) (abou t 0-10 k ), a low resistance rheostat
of abou t 20 , jock ey, lead accu m u lator and connecting wir es.

PRINCIPLE
Wh en a r esist an ce R is con n ect ed acr oss a cell of em f E an d in t er n al
r esistance r, then the cu rrent I in th e cir cu it is
I

E
R

(E 5.1)

Th e pot en t i al di ffer en ce V (= RI ) acr oss t h e t wo t er m i n al s of t h e

cel l i s
V

E
R

Th u s

E
r
=1 +
V
R

or

r = 1 R
V

(E 5.2)

(E 5.3)

If l 0 and l ar e t h e dist an ces of t h e balan ce n u ll poin t fr om en d A of

t h e pot en t iom et er for an open an d a closed cir cu it r espect ively
(Fig. E 5.1), t h en E is pr opor t ion al t o l 0 an d V is pr opor t ion al t o l.
E
V

l0
l

(E 5.4)

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Fr om Eqs. (E 5.3) an d (E 5.4)

(E 5.5)

l0

l
l

ROCEDURE
1. Connect different electrical components
as shown in t h e cir cu it (Fig. E 5.1).
After check ing the circu it connections,
close k ey K 1 .
2. Wi t h k eys K 2 an d K 3 op en an d a
pr ot ect ive h igh r esist an ce P fr om the
RBOX 2 , fin d t h e posit ion of t h e balan ce
poin t . For fin al r eadin g, sh or t cir cu it
t h e r esist an ce P by closin g th e k ey K 3
an d fin d t h e balan ce len gt h l 0 .

Fi g. E 5 .1 Circuit to measure internal resistance

of a primary cell using a potentiometer

3. Tak e R = 10 (fr om RB OX 1 ), close t h e

k ey K 2 an d qu ick ly m easu r e t h e n ew
balan ce len gt h l . Open K 2 as soon as
t h is h as been don e.
4.

Keep t h e r eadin gs in t h e am m et er
con st an t t h r ou gh ou t t h e ab ove
observation.

5. Redu ce th e valu e of R in equ al steps of 1 and for each valu e of R

obtain th e balan ce len gth l.
6. At t h e en d of t h e exper im en t , open k ey K 2 an d r epeat st ep 2 t o
fin d l 0 again .

BSERVATIONS
l 0 = ... cm (in t h e begin n in g of t h e exper im en t )
l 0 = ... cm (at th e en d of th e exper im en t)
Mean l o= ... cm.
Table E 5 .1 : Balance lengt h

Sl. No.

1
2
-6

50

l cm

1 -1

1
cm -1
l

l0 l
R
l

r =

E X PERI M ENT 5

ALCULATIONS
1. Su bst it u t e t h e valu e of l 0 , l an d cor r espon din g valu e of R in
Eq. (E 5.5) an d calcu lat e t h e valu e of r, wh er e r =

l0 l
l

R.

2. Use graphical method also to obtain r. Note that Eq (E 5.5) can be

written as
1
R

(E 5.6)

l0 1
1

r l
r

It is an equ at ion of a st r aigh t lin e

(Fig. E 5.2).
3. Plot a graph between 1/ R and 1/ l, taking
1 on the x-axis and 1 on y-axis.
l
R

4. Dr aw a st r aigh t lin e as close t o t h e

p oi n t s p l ot t ed as y ou can . Th e
n egative in ter cept on th e y-axis gives
t h e valu e of 1/ r. Hen ce, obt ain t h e
valu e of r (Fig. E 5.2).

ESULT
Th e in ter n al r esistan ce of th e given cell r

Fi g. E 5 .2 Graph betw een 1/ R and 1/ l

(i) by calcu lat ion ...

(ii) by gr aph ...

RECAUTIONS
1. Th e pr im ar y cell wh ose in t er n al r esist an ce is t o be det er m in ed
shou ld not be distu rbed du ring the experiment or else its internal
resistance may change.
2. Th e em f of bat t er y E sh ou ld be m or e t h an t h e em f of t h e pr im ar y
cell, E 1.
3. Posit ive t er m in als of E an d E 1 bot h sh ou ld be con n ect ed at t h e
sam e point on the potentiom eter .
4. Always measu re length from point A i.e. the point at which positive
t er m in als of bat t er y ar e con n ect ed an d m easu r e t h is len gt h u pt o
the balance point.

51

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
5. In ser t K1 an d K 2 only when readings are tak en otherwise the wires
m ay get h eat ed u p du e t o con t in u ou s flow of cu r r en t an d m ay
also affect the internal resistance of the cell.

OURCES OF ERROR
1. Pot en t iom et er wir e m ay n ot be of u n ifor m cr oss - sect ion .
2. Br ass str ips at th e en ds m ay h ave a fin ite r esistan ce.
3. Em f of t h e au xili ar y bat t er y pr odu ci n g t h e dr op of pot en t i al
al on g t h e wi r e m ay n ot be con st an t t h r ou gh ou t t h e cou r se of
t h e exper i m en t .
4. H eat i n g of t h e pot en t i om et er wi r e by cu r r en t m ay i n t r odu ce
som e er r or .

ISCUSSION
1. Th e t h eor y of pot en t iom et er assu m es t h at t h er e is a st eady
cu r r en t in wir e AB du r in g t h e per iod of exper im en t . Th er efor e,
em f of t h e accu m u lat or sh ou ld be con st an t du r in g t h e cou r se
of t h e exper im en t .
2. Th e posit ion of t h e jock ey can be r ead wit h in t h e least cou n t of
t h e m easu r in g scale 0.1cm . Mor eover , t h e edge of t h e jock ey
m ay fu r t h er lim it t h is least cou n t . It is t h er efor e advised t o u se a
sh ar p edged jock ey.
3. Ther e m ay also be a zer o er r or in the m easu r em ent of l, du e to the
en d of t h e scale n ot bein g exact ly at t h e en d of t h e wir e.

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Al l t h e posi t i ve t er m i n al s of sou r ces of em f ar e j oi n ed at poi n t
A of pot en t i om et er , bu t i f al l t h e n egat i ve t er m i n al s of sou r ces
of em f ar e j oi n ed at poi n t A t h en h ow wi l l t h e bal an ce l en gt h
be affect ed?
2. Fin d t h e in t er n al r esist an ce of a fr esh ly pr epar ed Leclan ch e cell.
Does its in ter n al r esistan ce ch an ge with R ?
3. St at e t h e f act or s on w h i ch t h e i n t er n al r esi st an ce of a
cel l depen ds.
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EXPERI MENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES

52

1.

Fin d t h e in t er n al r esist an ce of dr y cells of differ en t m ak es.

2.

Can the internal resistance of a secondary cell be determined by this method?

Give r eason for you r an swer .

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To det er m in e t h e r esist an ce of a galvan om et er by h alf-deflect ion
m et h od an d t o fin d it s figu r e of m er it .

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A moving coil galvanometer, a battery or a battery eliminator (0 - 6 V),
on e r esist an ce box (RBOX 1 ) of r an ge 0 - 10 k, on e r esist an ce box
(RBOX 2) of r an ge 0 - 200 , t wo on e way k eys, volt m et er , con n ect in g
wir es an d a piece of san d paper .

RINCIPLE
Galvanom et er
Gal van om et er i s a sen si t i ve
device u sed t o det ect ver y low
cu r r en t . It s wor k in g is based on
t h e pr in ciple t h at a coil placed
i n a u n i for m m agn et i c fi el d
exper ien ces a t or qu e wh en an
electric current is set up in it. The
d ef l ect i on of t h e coi l i s
determined by a pointer attached
t o it , m ovin g on t h e scale.
Wh en a coil car r yin g cu r r en t I i s
placed in a radial magnetic field,
t h e coil exper ien ces a deflect ion Fi g. E 6 .1 Circuit for finding resistance of galvanometer
wh ich is r elat ed t o I as
I = k
where k is a con st an t of pr opor t ion alit y an d is t er m ed as figu r e of
merit of the galvanometer.
Th e cir cu it ar r an gem en t r equ ir ed for fin din g t h e r esist an ce G of t h e
galvan om et er by h alf deflect ion m et h od is sh own in Fig. E 6.1.

(E 6.1)

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
When a resistance R is introdu ced in the circu it, the cu rrent Ig flowing
t h r ou gh it is given by
(E 6.2)

Ig =

E
R +G

In t h is case, t h e k ey K 2 is k ept open . H er e E is t h e em f of bat t er y,

G is t h e r esist an ce of t h e galvan om et er wh ose r esist an ce is t o
be det er m in ed.
If t h e cu r r en t Ig pr odu ces a deflect ion in t h e galvan om et er , t h en
fr om equ at ion (E 6.1) we get
Ig = k

(E 6.3)

Com bin in g equ at ion s (E 6.2) an d (E 6.3) we get

E
=k
R +G

(E 6.4)

On k eep i n g b ot h t h e k eys K 1 an d K 2 cl osed an d b y ad j u st i n g

t h e v a l u e o f s h u n t r es i s t a n c e S, t h e d ef l ec t i o n o f t h e
1
(h al f ). As G an d S ar e i n
gal van om et er n eed l e b ecom es
2
par al l el com bi n at i on an d R i n ser i es wi t h i t , t h e t ot al r esi st an ce
of t h e ci r cu i t
(E 6.5)

R' = R +

GS
G +S

Th e t ot al cu r r en t , I du e t o t h e em f E in t h e cir cu it is given by
E

I=

(E 6.6)

R +

GS
G +S

I f I g i s t h e cu r r en t t h r ou gh t h e gal van om et er of r esi st an ce

G, t h en
G I g = S (I I g)
(E 6.7)

or,

Ig =

IS
G +S

Su bst it u t in g t h e valu e of I fr om Equ at ion (E 6.6), in equ at ion (E 6.7)

t h e cu r r en t I g is given by

54

E X PERI M ENT 6

IS
E
S
.
=
I g =

G + S R + GS G + S

G +S

Ig =

ES
R G S

(E 6.8)

GS

For galvanometer cu rrent I g, if the deflection throu gh the galvanometer

=

is r edu ced t o h alf of it s in it ial valu e

t h en

ES

I' g = k =
R (G + S ) + GS
2
On dividin g Eq. (E 6.2) by Eq. (E 6.8),
Ig
I' g

E
R ( G + S ) + GS

=2
R +G
ES

or, R (G + S) + GS = 2 S (R + G)

RG = RS + GS
G (R S) = RS
or, G =

RS
R S

(E 6.9)

By k nowing the valu es of R and S, the galvanom eter r esistance G can

be determined. Normally R is chosen very high (~ 10 k ) in comparison
t o S (~ 100 ) for wh ich
G

Th e figu r e of m er it (k) of t h e galvan om et er is defin ed as t h e cu r r en t

r equ ir ed for deflect in g t h e poin t er by on e division . Th at is
k

(E 6.10)

For det er m in in g t h e figu r e of m er it of t h e galvan om et er t h e k ey K 2 is

open ed in th e cir cu it ar r an gem en t.
Usin g Eqs. (E 6.2) an d (E 6.3) t h e figu r e of m er it of t h e galvan om et er
is given by
k

E
R

(E 6.11)

55

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
By k n owin g t h e valu es of E, R, G an d t h e figu r e of m er it of t h e
galvan om et er can be calcu lat ed.

ROCEDURE
1. Clean t h e con n ect in g wir es wit h san d paper an d m ak e n eat an d
t igh t con n ect ion s as per t h e cir cu it diagr am (Fig. E 6.1).
2. From the high resistance box (RBOX 1 ) (1-10 k), r em ove 5 k k ey
an d t h en close t h e k ey K 1. Adju st t h e r esist an ce R fr om t h is
r esistance box to get fu ll scale deflection on the galvanom eter dial.
Recor d the valu es of r esistance, R and deflection .
3. In ser t t h e k ey K 2 and k eep R fixed. Adju st t h e valu e of sh u n t
r esist an ce S t o get t h e deflect ion in t h e galvan om et er wh ich is
exact ly h alf of . Not e down S. Rem ove plu g K 2 aft er n ot in g down
t h e valu e of sh u n t r esist an ce, S.
4. Tak e five set s of obser vat ion s by r epeat in g st eps 2 an d 3 so t h at
is even n u m ber of division s an d r ecor d t h e obser vat ion s for R,
S, an d

in t abu lar for m .

2
5. Calcu lat e t h e galvan om et er r esist an ce G an d figu r e of m er it k of
galvan om et er u sin g Eqs. (E 6.9) an d (E 6.11) r espect ively.

BSERVATIONS
Em f of t h e bat t er y E = ... V
Nu m ber of division s on fu ll scale of galvan om et er = ...
Table E 6 .1 : Resist ance of galvanom et er

H i gh
Sl .
Resist
an ce
No.

R ()

Deflect ion in
the
gal van om et er

(division s)

Sh u n t
Half deflect ion
r esi st an ce
in t h e
gal van om et er
S ()

(division s)

G=
R .S
R S

()

k =
E
R

A/ divisions

1
2
-5

ALCULATIONS
Mean valu e of G (r esist an ce of galvan om et er ) = ...
Mean value of k (figu re of merit of galvanometer) = ... am per e/ division .

56

E X PERI M ENT 6

ESULT
1. Resist an ce of galvan om et er by h alf deflect ion m et h od, G = ...
2. Figu r e of m er it of galvanom eter , k = ...am per e/ division

RECAUTIONS
1 . Key K 1 sh ou l d be i n ser t ed on l y aft er h i gh val u e of R h as b een
t ak en ou t fr om r esi st an ce b ox ot h er wi se gal van om et er coi l
m ay b u r n .
2. Adju st R su ch t h at deflect ion in galvan om et er is of even division
so that / 2 is m or e con ven ien tly obtain ed.
3. Em f of t h e bat t er y sh ou ld be con st an t .
4. Use as high valu es of R as practically possible. This ensu res correct
valu e of G.
5. All t h e con n ect ion s an d plu gs in t h e r esist an ce box sh ou ld
be tight.

OURCES OF ERRORS
1. Plu gs in t h e r esist an ce boxes m ay be loose or t h ey m ay n ot
be clean.
2. Th e em f of t h e bat t er y m ay n ot be con st an t .

ISCUSSION
1. B y cl osi n g t h e k ey K 2 an d adj u st i n g t h e val u e of r esi st an ce i n
r esi st an ce b ox R B OX 2 , you get t h e d ef l ect i on / 2 i n t h e
gal van om et er . Th en t h e r esi st an ce S equ al s G, t h e r esi st an ce
of gal van om et er , becau se h al f of t h e cu r r en t passi n g t h r ou gh
R i s sh ar ed by S an d h al f by gal van om et er . It i s n ot ewor t h y
t h at R i s so l ar ge com par ed t o S or G t h at open i n g or cl osi n g
t h e k ey K 2 m ak es in sign ifican t differ en ce in t h e cu r r en t passin g
t h r ou gh R.
2. We define current sensitivity C of the galvanometer as the deflection
pr odu ced per u n it cu r r en t . Wit h K 2 open , t h e cu r r en t passin g
t h r ou gh it is
C
C

E
R
E
R

57

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
3. Fr om eq. E 6.9, RS = G (R S). Galvan om et er r esist an ce G can
also be det er m in ed fr om t h e slope of a gr aph plot t ed RS again st
(R S) wit h RS on y-axis an d (R S) on x-axis.

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How will you u se a galvan om et er for m easu r in g cu r r en t ?
2.

(a) Ou t of galvan om et er , am m et er an d volt m et er wh ich h as t h e

h igh est r esistan ce an d wh ich h as th e lowest? Explain .
(b) Which of the two meters has lower resistance a milliammeter
or a m icr oam m eter ?

3. What are the factors on which sensitivity of a galvanometer depends?

4. Inter nal r esistance of the cell is tak en to be zer o. This im plies that
we h ave t o u se a fr esh ly ch ar ged accu m u lat or in t h e exper im en t
or u se a good battery eliminator. If the internal resistance is finite,
h ow will it affect th e r esu lt?
5. Is it possible t o fin d t h e galvan om et er r esist an ce by t ak in g 1/ 3
deflect ion ? If so wh at ch an ges wou ld be r equ ir ed in t h e for m u la
for calcu lat ion of valu e of G.

SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EX PERI M ENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES

1.

Plot a gr aph between R an d

(R along x- axis). Use the gr aph to deter m ine

G an d k.

2.

Plot a gr aph of again st

E
R G

wit h on y-axis an d

E
R G

on x-axis.

How will you det er m in e k fr om t h e gr aph ?

58

3.

Use t h e val u es of G an d k t o cal cu l at e t h e val u e of sh u n t r esi st an ce

r equ i r ed t o con ver t t h e gi ven gal van om et er i n t o an am m et er of
0 - 3 A r an ge.

4.

Calcu lat e t h e valu e of ser ies r esist an ce r equ ir ed t o con ver t t h e given
galvan om et er in t o a volt m et er of 0 30 V r an ge.

E X PERI M ENT

EXPERIMENT

AIM
To con ver t th e given galvan om eter (of k n own r esistan ce an d figu r e of
merit) into (i) an ammeter of a desired range (say 0 to 30 mA) and (ii) a
volt m et er of desir ed r an ge (say 0 t o 3 V) an d t o ver ify t h e sam e.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A galvanometer of k nown resistance and figu re of merit, a constantan
or m an gan in wir e of 26 or 30 SWG, a bat t er y or a bat t er y elim in at or ,
on e way k ey, a r h eost at of r an ge 200 , an am m et er of 0-30 m A
r an ge, a volt m et er of 3 V r an ge, con n ect in g wir es an d san d paper .

(i) P

RINCIPLE (CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER)

A galvanom eter is a sensitive device which can detect the pr esence of

ver y sm all cu r r en t in a cir cu it of t h e or der of 100 m A. For m easu r in g
cu r r en t of t h e or der of an am per e, a low r esist an ce called sh u n t
r esist an ce S is con n ect ed in par allel acr oss t h e galvan om et er h avin g
r esistance G.
If I 0 is th e total cu r r en t in th e cir cu it for fu ll scale deflection , th en th e
cu rrent (I 0 I g) passes throu gh S, where Ig is cu rrent that flows throu gh
the galvanometer for fu ll scale deflection. The instru ment is calibrated
so as to read the cu rrent directly in ampere and then it can be u sed as
an am m et er . Sin ce G an d S ar e par allel t o each ot h er t h er efor e, t h e
potential differ ence acr oss both ar e sam e, hence,
Ig G

or

I0

Ig S

Ig G
I0

Ig

(E 7.1)
(E 7.2)

The figu re of merit of the galvanometer is represented by the symbol k

which represents the cu rrent corresponding to one scale division; thu s
if N is the total nu mber of divisions (on either side) of the galvanometer
scale, t h e valu e of cu r r en t Ig is given by

59

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Ig = k N
if n r epr esen t s t h e act u al deflect ion in t h e con ver t ed galvan om et er ,
t h en t h e t ot al cu r r en t will be

I=n

IO
.
N

ROCEDURE
1. Deter m in e th e galvan om eter r esistan ce G and figu r e of m er it k as
per t h e pr ocedu r e given in exper im en t 6.
2. Cou n t t h e t ot al n u m ber of division s N on eit h er side of zer o of t h e
galvanometer scale.
3. Cal cu l at e t h e cu r r en t I g f or f u l l scal e d ef l ect i on i n t h e
galvan om et er by u sin g t h e r elat ion Ig = Nk, wh er e k is t h e figu r e
of m er it of t h e galvan om et er .
4.

Calcu lat e t h e sh u n t r esist an ce S u sin g t h e

for m u la S

5.

Ig G
I0

Ig

Measu r e t h e r adiu s r of t h e wir e an d fr om

t h e given valu e of t h e specific r esist an ce ,
calculate the length of the wire l, for resistance
S [u se t h e for m u la l =

Fig. E 7 .1 Circuit to verify conversion of

galvanometer into an ammeter

6.

S r 2

].

Let t h e cal cu l at ed l en gt h of t h e wi r e be 10
cm . Th en cu t 3-4 cm ext r a an d pu t i t i n
par allel t o t h e galvan om et er an d com plet e
t h e ci r cu i t as sh own i n Fi g. E 7.1.

7. Adj u st t h e l en gt h of t h e wi r e so t h at wh en we see fu l l scal e

defl ect i on i n t h e gal van om et er , t h e cu r r en t i n t h e am m et er i s
30 m A.
8. Th u s t h e galvan om et er is n ow con ver t ed t o an am m et er wh ose
r an ge is 30 m A.
9. Now m easu r e t h e exact len gt h of t h e sh u n t wir e an d calcu lat e it s
r esist an ce by u sin g t h e pr eviou sly m easu r ed valu e of r adiu s an d
the k nown valu e of specific r esistance.
10. Compare the above valu e of resistance to the one calcu lated u sing
l
t h e for m u la S =
.
r 2

60

E X PERI M ENT 7

BSERVATIONS
1.

Galvan om eter r esistan ce, G (given ) = ...

2.

Figu re of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) = ... ampere/ division

3.

Nu m ber of division s on eit h er side of zer o of t h e galvan om et er

scale, N = ... division

4. Cu rrent requ ired for produ cing fu ll scale deflection of N divisions,

Ig = k N = ... am per e
5. Radiu s of wir e:
Least cou n t of t h e given scr ew gau ge = ... cm
Zer o er r or = ... cm
Zer o cor r ection = ... cm
Obser ved diam eter of the wir e:
(i)

... cm

(ii)

... cm

(iii)

... cm

(iv)

... cm

Mean obser ved diam eter , D = ... cm

Radiu s of th e wir e r =D/ 2 = ... cm

ALCULATIONS
1. Sh u n t r esist an ce = S

Ig G
I0

Ig

= ...

2. Given valu e of specific r esist an ce of t h e m at er ial of t h e wir e

= ... m
2
3. Requ ir ed len gt h of wir e, l = S r = ... cm

4. Obser ved len gth of th e sh u n t wir e for th e desir ed r an ge, l = ... cm

5. Shunt resistance from the observed length of the wire, S ' =

l '
= ...
r 2

ESULT
To con ver t t h e given galvan om et er in t o an am m et er of t h e r an ge,
0 to ... ampere

61

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
1.

t h e calcu lat ed r esist an ce of t h e sh u n t wir e, S = ...

2.

t h e obser ved r esist an ce of t h e sh u n t wir e, S = ...

RECAUTIONS
1.

Use the ammeter for verification which has the same range as the
r an ge of con ver sion .

2.

Cu t abou t 3 t o 4 cm ext r a t o t h e calcu lat ed len gt h of t h e wir e.

3.

Aft er adju st in g t h e len gt h of t h e wir e, m easu r e t h e len gt h of t h e

wir e bet ween t h e t wo plu gs car efu lly.

(ii) P

RINCIPLE (CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER)

By con n ect in g a h igh r esist an ce of su it able valu e in ser ies wit h a

galvan om et er , it is con ver t ed in t o a volt m et er . Volt m et er is always
con n ect ed in par allel wit h t h e elect r ical com pon en t acr oss wh ich
poten tial differ en ce is to be m easu r ed.
If a galvan om et er (h avin g r esist an ce G) sh ows a fu ll scale deflect ion
for a m axi m u m cu r r en t I g, t h e pot en t i al di ffer en ce acr oss t h e
galvanometer is I gG. If the converted galvanometer is desired to have a
r an ge Vo vol t , t h en t h e r esi st an ce t o be j oi n ed i n ser i es wi t h
galvan om eter , is given by R =

V0
G.
Ig

ROCEDURE

Fi g. E 7 .2 Circuit to verify conversion of

galvanometer into a voltmeter

62

1.

Calcu lat e t h e valu e of t h e ser ies r esist an ce

R for given valu es of V0 , I g an d G.

2.

Mak e the connections as shown in Fig. E 7.2

b y con n ect i n g a cel l a n d con ver t ed
galvanometer and the voltmeter of nearly the
same range in parallel, with a high resistance
r heostat Rh.

3.

Close t h e k ey K an d adju st t h e r h eost at so

t h at t h e volt age sh own in t h e volt m et er is
equ al t o t h e d esi r ed r an ge (say 3 V).
Sim u lt an eou sly, adju st t h e posit ion of t h e
slider of the rheostat and also the resistance
fr om t h e r esist an ce box so t h at wh en fu ll
s c a l e d ef l ec t i o n i s o b s er v ed o n t h e
galvanometer, the voltmeter shows 3 V. Note
th e total r esistan ce fr om th e r esistan ce box.

E X PERI M ENT 7

BSERVATIONS
1. Resistan ce of th e galvan om eter , G (given ) = ...
2 . Th e f i gu r e of m er i t of t h e gal van om et er , k (gi ven ) = . . .
am p er e/ d i vi si on
3. Nu mber of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale,
N = ... division
4. Cu r r ent r equ ir ed for pr odu cing fu ll scale deflection of N divisions,
Ig = k N = ... am per e
5. Tot al r esist an ce t ak en ou t fr om t h e r esist an ce box = ...

ALCULATIONS
Resistance to be connected in ser ies with the galvanom eter ,
R=

V0
G =. ..
Ig

ESULT
To con ver t th e given galvan om eter in to a voltm eter of th e r an ge,
0 t o ... V
1. Th e valu e of th e calcu lated ser ies r esistan ce, R = ...
2. Th e valu e of t h e obser ved ser ies r esist an ce, R = ...
3. Cu r r ent for fu ll scale deflection, Ig = ...am per e

RECAUTIONS
1. Th e r esist an ce box u sed sh ou ld be of h igh r esist an ce.
2. Th e r h eost at sh ou ld be u sed as pot en t ial divider .
3. H i gh r esi st an ce of t h e or der of 10 k fr om t h e r esi st an ce
box sh ou l d be u sed fi r st an d t h en t h e bat t er y k ey sh ou l d
be closed t o avoid an y dam age t o t h e galvan om et er .

OURCES OF ERROR
Th e wir e m ay be of n on -u n ifor m ar ea of cr oss sect ion .

63

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

ISCUSSION
1. If t h e ar ea of cr oss sect ion of t h e wir e is n on -u n ifor m , h ow will it
affect the obser vation?
2. Use a r h eostat as cu r r en t divider an d poten tial divider .
3. To check if friction in you r instru ment is small enou gh, measu re
in the same setting 5 to 10 times. If each time, the needle comes to
exactly the sam e point on the scale, fr iction in you r instr u m ent is
qu ite sm all.

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How can you in cr ease th e r an ge of th e con ver ted galvan om eter to
0-60 m A?
2. How can you decr ease the r ange of the conver ted galvanom eter to
0-20 m A?
3. If S << G, what is the order of resistance of converted galvanometer?
4. Wh y is an am m eter always con n ected in ser ies with th e cir cu it?
5. Wh y is a volt m et er always con n ect ed in par allel wit h t h e cir cu it ?
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EXPERI MENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES

64

1.

Calcu late the length of the wire of same material if the radiu s is dou bled.

2.

Calcu lat e t h e len gt h of t h e wir e if t h e r adiu s is sam e bu t m at er ial u sed is

copper.

3.

Change the range of ammeter and voltmeter and repeat the same procedu re
as followed in t h e above exper im en t .

4.

Use t h e con ver t ed am m et er / volt m et er for ver ificat ion wh ich h as t h e sam e
r an ge as t h e r an ge of con ver sion .

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer
and an electromagnet.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A sonometer with a soft iron wire stretched over it, an electromagnet,
a step-down transformer, slotted 1/2 kg weights hanger, a physical
balance, two sharp edge wedges and a weight box.

RINCIPLE
The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a stretched
string, fixed at two ends, is given by
n

(E 8.1)

1 T
2l m

Here l is the length of the vibrating string, T is the tension in the wire
and m is its mass per unit length.
If an alternating current is passed in the coil of the electromagnet, the
magnetisation produced in the core is proportional to instantaneous
value of the current. If the electromagnet is held close to the middle of
the sonometer wire, the wire will be attracted twice during each cycle
towards the electromagnet. The attractive force experienced by the
wire will be proportional to the magnetisation produced in the core of
the electromagnet. Since in each cycle, the wire will be pulled twice
and hence at resonance, it will vibrate with a frequency which is twice
the frequency of alternating current. Hence, if f is the frequency of the
alternating current, then
f

n
2

1
4l

4n2 l 2 m = T

T
m

(E 8.2)

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

or

4n m

A graph between T (taken on x-axis), and l 2 (taken on y-axis), would

be a straight line. The slope of this straight line would be
1
2

4n m

(E 8.3)

, so that

n2

1
4 m s lop e

1
1
2 m slope

The frequency of alternating current, f

n
2

1
4

1
m

s lop e

can be

determined using the value of the slope.

ROCEDURE

Fi g. E 8 .1

Set up for finding frequency of ac mains

using a sonometer

1.

Set up the sonometer and stretch

the wire AB by placing a load of
kg on the hanger (Fig. E 8.1).

2.

Support the electromagnet in

a stand and connect it to
the secondary of a stepdown
transformer. Adjust its position,
such that its one pole lies close
to the middle of the sonometer wire.

3.

Switch on the alternating current

supply and adjust the length of
vibrating portion of AB by sliding the
wedge W or W. Make this adjustment
until the amplitude of the vibrating
string is maximum.

4.

Measure the vibrating length and

note the tension in the string.

5.

Increase the load in steps of kg and

each time find the vibrating length.

6. Switch off the ac supply. Untie the

wire of the sonometer from its peg and find its mass in a physical
balance. Calculate mass of 100 cm sonometer wire. Hence find
the mass per unit length, m for the wire.

66

E X PERI M ENT 8

BSERVATIONS
1. Length of the wire = ...cm = ... m
2. Mass of the wire = ...g = ...kg
3. Mass per unit length, m = ... g/cm = ...kg/m
4. Acceleration due to gravity, g = ...ms-2
Table E 8 .1 : Resonant lengt h
Load (M)
Tenincluding sion
Sl.
mass of T = mg
No.
hanger
(N)
(kg)

Resonant length l

Mean l
in
(m)

1 T
2l m
(Hz)

First Second Mean

trial
trial
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
4

Mean

ALCULATIONS
1. For each set, calculate the value of n using the formula given
above. Find the mean of these values.
2. Plot a graph of l 2 against T with l 2 on y-axis and T on x-axis.
Determine the slope of the graph. Using the value of the slope
determine the frequency of alternating current.

ESULT
1. The graph between T and l 2 is a straight line.
2. Slope of the graph =

1
= ...
4m n 2

3. Frequency of ac supply f =

n
2

(i) from calculation ...Hz

(ii) from graph ...Hz

67

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

RECAUTIONS
1. Pulley should be as frictionless as possible.
2. Edges of the wedge should be sharp.
3. Tip of the electromagnetic pole should be close to the middle of the
sonometer wire.
4. After taking each of the observations, circuit should be switched
off for a few minutes.

OURCES OF ERROR
1. Friction of the pulley is the main source of error in the experiment.
Due to this, the value of tension acting on the wire is less than that
actually applied.
2. AC frequency may not be stable.

ISCUSSION
1. The frequency of alternating current is half that of the frequency of
the vibrating string.
2. Sonometer wire is made of soft iron for better results.

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How is ac different from dc?
2. What is the meaning of frequency of ac?
3. How does the wire vibrate? Identify and explain the rule with the
help of which you can determine the direction of force acting on
the wire.
4. What should be the property of the iron for making it a
good electromagnet?
5. Is there any relation between frequency and magnetism of the
electromagnet, and frequency of the alternating current?
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EXPERI MENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES
Perform the above experiment using a permanent horse shoe magnet and passing
the alternating current in the sonometer wire. In this case the resonant frequency
is equal to the frequency of the alternating current. Sonometer wire need not be
made of soft iron. You can use constantan or manganin wire for this purpose.

68

E X PERI M ENT

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of concave
mirror and to find the focal length.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench, two sharp-edged needles (pins), concave
mirror of less than 20 cm focal length, three uprights (with
clamps), index needle (may be a knitting needle), metre scale
and spirit level.

ERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Principal axis of a mirror is the line
passing through the centre of
curvature and pole of the mirror.
2. Principal focus is the point where
rays parallel to principal axis, focus
after reflection from the surface of
the mirror (Fig. E 9.1).
3. Geometrical centre of the mirror is
called pole, P.

Fi g. E 9 .1 Focal length of a concave mirror.

4. Focal length is the distance between

the pole, P and the focus, F.

NDEXCORRECTION
Usually the distance between concerned points of two elements is
not the same as the distance between their uprights as read on
the scale. For example, in Fig. E 9.2 the reading of two uprights
do not give the actual distance between the tip of the pin and the
pole of the mirror. A correction must, therefore, be applied. It is
called the index correction.

69

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

Fig. E 9 .2 Determination of Index correction

ARALLAX
This is employed in the location
of image of an object.
For example, as shown in the
Fig. E 9.3 (a) O and I are the
object and image points for a
mirror/lens.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fi g. E 9 .3 (a ),(b),(c) Locating the position of an image

on the optical bench by a pin

70

An object point O and its real

image I are conjugate points i.e.
any of the two may be considered
as object and the other as its
image. Thus it helps in accurate
adjustment to check for no
parallax at both the points.
If we say there is no parallax
between an object O (pin) and its
image I, then by moving the eye
through which we are observing,
to the left and then to the right,
object and its image both appear
to move together relative to the
lens/mirror. It implies that the
position of both are same on the
optical bench [Figs. E 9.3 (d) and
(e)]. If their positions are not same
then in one position they may
appear to coincide and in another
they will appear separate [Figs. E
9.3 (b) and (c)].
This method of locating the
position of an image on the optical
bench by a pin is called the
method of parallax.

E X PERI M ENT 9

(d)

(e)
Fi g. E 9 .3 (d), (e) Ray diagram for finding focal length of a concave mirror

IGN CONVENTION
1. All the distances are measured from the pole P of the mirror (or
the optical centre of a lens).
2. The distance measured in the direction of propagation of incident
rays are taken as positive and those measured in the opposite
direction are taken as
negative.
3. The heights measured
upwards (above the
principal axis of
the mirror/lens) are
taken as positive and
the heights measured
downwards are taken
as negative (Fig. E 9.4).
Not e: In the cartesian sign
convention, the object is
always placed to the left of
the mirror (or the lens).

Fi g. E 9 .4 The cartesian sign convention

71

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

AY TRACING IN SPHERICAL MIRRORS

To locate the image, we need to trace only a
few specific paths or rays (a minimum of two)
as shown in Fig. E 9.5.
Conveniently, any two rays can be taken to
locate the image.
1.

An incident ray parallel to the principal

axis of the mirror either passes through
the principal focus F (concave mirror)
or appears to be diverging from it
(convex mirror).

2.

An incident ray passing through the

centre of curvature C (concave mirror)
Fi g. E 9 .5 Ray tracing for image formation
or appearing to pass through it (convex
by a concave mirror
mirror), retraces its path i.e. reflected
back along its original path. You must note that this ray is
incident normal to the mirror.
3.

An incident ray passing through the principal focus F (concave

mirror) or appearing to pass through it (convex mirror) will be
reflected from the mirror parallel to the principal axis.

4.

An incident ray striking the pole P of the mirror is reflected at

an angle equal to the angle of incidence with the principal axis.

RINCIPLE
For an object placed at a distance u from the
pole of a concave mirror of focal length f , the
image is formed at a distance v from the pole.
The relation between these distances (for a
concave mirror) is

1 1 1
= +
f u v
or
Fi g. E 9 .6 Formation of image by a concave mirror.
Object is betw een the centre of curvature and principal focus F; real, inverted
and magnified image is betw een the
centre of curvature and infinity

f=

uv
u +v

If an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of the

reflecting surface of the concave mirror such
that the objects position lies in between the
principal focus of the mirror, F and the centre
of curvature C, then a real, inverted and
magnified image is formed in between the centre of curvature C of the
mirror and infinity (Fig. E 9.6).

72

E X PERI M ENT 9
Thus, the image formed in such a case would be clearer and easier to
be seen. The focal length of the mirror, using the above relation, can be
determined by placing the object in between the point 2F and focus F.

ROCEDURE
1.

Obtain approximate value of the focal length of concave mirror

by focusing the image of a distant object. Obtain bright and
clear image of a distant building or tree on a plane wall or a
sheet of paper and measure the distance between the mirror
and the image which gives the approximate focal length of the
concave mirror.

2.

Place the optical bench on a rigid table. Make it horizontal using

a spirit level and levelling screws.

3.

Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and mount it vertically

near one end of the optical bench. Move an object pin P1 on the
optical bench back and forth so that its image is formed at the
same height. Make slight adjustments of the height of the pin or
the mirror inclination. This procedure ensures that the principal
axis of the mirror is parallel to the optical bench.

4.

Place another vertically mounted sharp and bright pin P2 in front

of the reflecting surface of the concave mirror. Adjust the pins P1
and P2 so that the height of the tips of these pins become equal to
the height of the pole P of the mirror from the base of the optical
bench [Fig. E 9.3(e)].

5.

To determine index correction, a thin straight index needle is

placed so that its one end A1 touches the tip of the pin and the
other end B1 touches the pole P of the mirror. The positions of the
uprights are read on the scale. Their difference gives the observed
distance between tip of the pin and the pole of the mirror. Length
of the needle A1B1 is measured by placing it on the scale which is
the actual distance between the points in question. The difference
between the two gives the correction to be applied to the observed
distance. Find the index correction for both the pins P1 and P2 for
all measurements.

6.

Move the pin P1 away from the mirror and place it almost at 2F.
An inverted image of same size as the pin should be visible.

7.

Now place another pin P2 on the bench, adjust its height to be

almost the same as the earlier pin. Place a piece of paper on the
tip of one pin, take this as the object pin.

8.

Place the pin with paper at a distance lying between F and 2F.

9.

Locate the image of the pin using the other pin. Remember that
parallax has to be removed between the image and the pin.

73

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
10. Note the values of u and v i.e., the distances of the object and
image pins from the mirror respectively.
11. Repeat the experiment for at least five different positions of the
object and determine the corresponding values of v. Record your
observations in tabular form.
12. After doing index correction record the corrected values of u and
v. Find the value of focal length, f .

BSERVATIONS
1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror = ...cm
2. Actual distance of the object from the mirror using index needle,
l 0 = ... cm
3. Observed distance of the object from the mirror
= position of mirror upright position of object pin upright on the
scale, l0 ... c m
4. Index correction for object distance, e = actual distance observed
distance.
=l0 l0

... cm

Similarly for image pin

ei

l i li

... c m

Table E 9 .1 : Det erm inat ion of u, v and f

Sl.
No.

Position of

Observed Observed Corrected Corrected

u
u = u + e v = v + e
v
i
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)

uv
u v
(cm)

f
(cm)

Mirror Object Image

M pin P 1 pin P2
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
-6
Mean

ALCULATIONS
Calculate the corrected values of u and v and compute the value of f.
Tabulate them and find the mean value of the focal length of the given
concave mirror.

74

E X PERI M ENT 9
Error
Q

1
f

f
f

1
u
=

1
v

u
u

v
v2

u v
or f = f 2 2 + 2
v
u

ESULT
The focal length of the given concave (converging) mirror is
(f f) = ... ...cm
Here f denotes mean value of the focal length and f is maximum of
the six values of the error.

RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.
2. The object pin should be kept in between the centre of curvature
and the focus of the mirror.
3. The aperture of mirror should be small otherwise the image formed
will not be distinct.
4. Eye should be placed at a distance of distinct vision (25 cm) from
the image needle.
5. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin must touch the tip of
the image pin and must not overlap. It should be ensured while
removing the parallax.
6. The image and the object pins should not be interchanged during
the course of the experiment.
7. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in the
formula for calculating f and then a mean value of f should be
taken. Calculations for f must not be made using the mean values
of u and v.
8. A white screen or plane background may be used for seeing the
clear image of the pin.
9. Image of the Sun should not be seen directly as it may hurt
your eyes.

75

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

OURCES OF ERROR
1. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench
is not horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and pole of the
mirror are not at the same horizontal level.
2. The concave mirror should be front-coated, otherwise multiple
reflections will come from the reflecting surface of the mirror.

ISCUSSION
The image B of the point B (Fig. E 9.6) will be at the point where two
such rays either intersect or appear to be intersecting. The image of
the bottom of the object A (lying on the principal axis) will lie on the
principal axis itself such that the final image is perpendicular to the
axis as the object.

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A dentist uses concave mirror to see the tooth. In what way does it
help the dentist?
2. Can you determine the focal length of the concave mirror if u < f ?
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EXPERI MENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES

76

1.

Plot a graph of uv against u + v with uv on y-axis and u+v on x-axis.

Determine f from the slope of the graph.

2.

Using spherometer, determine the radius of curvature of the concave mirror

and calculate its focal length (f = R/ 2).

10

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To fin d t h e focal len gt h of a con vex len s by plot t in g gr aph s bet ween
u an d v or bet ween 1/ u an d 1/ v.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An op t i cal b en ch , t w o sh ar p - ed ged n eed l e (p i n s), con vex
len s of less t h an 20 cm focal len gt h , t h r ee u pr igh t s (wit h clam ps),
i n d ex n eed l e (m ay b e a k n i t t i n g n eed l e), m et r e scal e an d
spirit level.

ERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Principal axis of a lens is the line joining centre of cu rvatu re of the
two su rfaces.
2. Optical centre is the point, throu gh which a ray passes u ndeviated
thr ou gh the lens.
3. Principal focus is t h e poin t wh er e r ays par allel t o t h e pr in cipal
axis focu s aft er passin g t h r ou gh t h e len s (con vex) or appear t o
com e fr om after passin g th r ou gh th e len s (con cave).
4 . Foca l len gt h i s t h e d i st an ce b et ween op t i cal cen t r e of l en s
an d focu s.
5. Intercepts of a graph: If a gr aph cu t s x-axis an d y-axis, t h en
len gt h s bet ween or igin an d poin t s of in t er cept ion ar e in t er cept s
of t h e gr aph .

RAPHICAL METHOD FOR FINDING THE POSITION OF AN IMAGE FORMED

BY THIN LENSES
The image formed by a thin lens can be located u sing graphical method
by con sider in g r efr act ion of r ays em an at in g fr om each poin t on t h e
object . However , it is con ven ien t t o ch oose an y t wo of t h e followin g
t h r ee r ays (Fig. E 10.1).

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
1. A r ay fr om t h e t ip of t h e object par allel t o t h e pr in cipal axis of t h e
lens that passes throu gh the second principal focu s F (in a convex
lens) or appears to diverge (in a concave lens) from the first principal
focu s F after refraction.
2. A ray from the tip of the object incident at the optical centre, passes
t h r ou gh t h e len s u n deviat ed. Th is is becau se n ear it s cen t r e, t h e
len s beh aves lik e a t h in glass slab.
3. A ray of light from the same point on the object that passes throu gh
t h e fir st pr in cipal focu s F (for a con vex len s) or appear in g t o pass
th r ou gh F (for a con cave len s) em er ges par allel t o t h e pr in cipal
axis after refraction.

Fi g. E 1 0 .1 Ray tracing for locating the image formed by (a) convex lens and (b) concave lens.

RINCIPLE
For an object placed at a dist an ce u fr om t h e opt ical cen t r e of a t h in
con vex len s of focal len gt h f , a r eal an d in ver t ed im age is for m ed on
t h e ot h er side of t h e len s at a dist an ce v fr om t h e opt ical cen t r e. Th e
relation between these distances is:

(E 10.1)

1 1 1
=
v u
f
According to the new cartesian sign convention (see Physics Textbook,
NCERT, 2007, Class XII, Part-II p. 311,) u is n egat ive bu t v is positive
[Fig. E 10.2 (a) an d (b). Th er efor e t h e Eq. (E 10.1) t ak es t h e followin g
for m for m agn it u des of u and v.

(E 10.2)

78

1 1 1
= +
v u
f

E X PERI M ENT 1 0

or, f

uv
u v

(E 10.3)

In t h is r esu lt t h e posit ive valu es of u an d v ar e su bst it u t ed.

1
1
versu s
graph is a straight line of negative
v
u
1
1
1
1
equ als zer o or
equ als zer o, t h en r espect ively
= f
slope. If
v
u
u
1
1
or
= f . Th e in t er cept s of
v
t h e gr aph on bot h axes ar e
1
f . Gr aph of u ver su s v is a
h yper bola. Wh en u = v , t h en
each equ als 2f. Eq. (E 10.3)
sh ows t h at valu es of u an d v
(a)
ar e in t er ch an geable.

Eq. (E 10.2) shows that

When an object (say, a pin) is

placed in front of a thin convex
lens at a distance equal to 2f , a
real and inverted image of same
size as t h at of t h e object is
formed at a distance equ al to
2f on the other side of the lens
(b)
[Fig. E 10.2(a)]. If the objects
position lies in between distance
Fig. E 1 0 .2 (a ), (b) Formation of image by a convex
2 f an d dist an ce f fr om t h e
lens (a) u = 2f and (b) 2f > u > f.
optical centre of the lens then a
real, inverted and magnified image is formed at a point beyond 2f from
the optical centre on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 10.2(b)].

Th u s, by m easu r in g t h e dist an ces u an d v, t h e focal len gt h of t h e

con vex len s can be deter m in ed u sin g Eq. (E 10.3). Th e focal len gth of
t h e len s m ay also be det er m in ed by plot t in g gr aph s bet ween u an d v
or bet ween 1/ u an d 1/ v.

ROCEDURE
1 . Obt ain appr oxim at e valu e of t h e focal len gt h of t h e t h in con vex
len s by focu sin g t h e im age of a dist an t object . It can be fou n d by
obt ain in g a sh ar p im age of t h e Su n or a dist an t t r ee on a scr een ,
say a plane wall, or a sheet of paper placed on the other side of the
len s an d m easu r in g t h e dist an ce bet ween t h e len s an d t h e im age
with a scale. Th is distan ce is a r ou gh estim ate of th e focal len gth ,
f of t h e con vex len s.
Not e: Do not look at the image of Su n directly as it may hu rt you r eyes.

79

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform, and u sing
the spirit level, mak e it horizontal with the help of levelling screws
pr ovided at t h e base of t h e ben ch .
3. Clamp the convex lens on an u pright and mou nt it vertically almost
near to the middle of the optical bench su ch that its principal axis
is par allel to th e optical ben ch . In th is position , th e len s wou ld lie
in a plan e per pen dicu lar t o t h e opt ical ben ch .
4. For t h e det er m in at ion of t h e in dex cor r ect ion , br in g a m ou n t ed
pin close t o t h e len s. Adju st t h e in dex n eedle (a sh ar p-edged
k n it t in g n eedle wou ld also ser ve t h e pu r pose) h or izon t ally su ch
that its one end tou ches one of the cu rved su rfaces of the lens and
t h e ot h er en d t ou ch es t h e t ip of t h e pin . Not e t h e posit ion s of t h e
t wo u pr igh t s on t h e scale pr ovided on t h e opt ical ben ch . Th e
differ en ce of t h e t wo wou ld give t h e observed length of t h e in dex
n eedle. Th e actual length bet ween t h e t ip of t h e pin an d opt ical
cen t r e O wou ld be len gt h of t h e in dex n eedle (as m easu r ed by a
scale) plu s half of the thick ness of the lens becau se optical centr e
of a dou ble con vex len s wit h su r faces of equ al cu r vat u r e is at it s
geom et r ical cen t r e. Th e differ en ce of t h e t wo len gt h s is t h e index
correction. Fin d in dex cor r ect ion for bot h t h e pin s.
5. Pl ace t h e ver t i cal l y m ou n t ed sh ar p pi n s P an d P (Fi g. E 10.3)
on l eft an d r i gh t h an d si des of t h e l en s
r espect ively. Adj u st t h e pi n s P an d P so
t h at t h e h ei gh t s of t h e t i ps of t h ese pi n s
becom e equ al t o t h e h ei gh t of t h e opt i cal
cen t r e O of t h e l en s fr om t h e base of t h e
opt i cal ben ch . Let t h e pi n P (pl aced on l eft
h an d si de of t h e l en s ) be t h e obj ect pi n
an d t h e pin P (lyin g on r igh t h an d side) be
t h e i m age pi n . Pu t a sm al l pi ece of paper
Fi g. E 1 0 .3 The ray diagram for finding the
on on e of t h e pi n s (say on i m age pi n P) t o
focal length of a convex lens.
di ffer en t i at e i t fr om t h e obj ect pi n P.
6. D i spl ace t h e obj ect pi n P (on l eft si de of t h e l en s) t o a di st an ce
sl i gh t l y l ess t h an 2 f fr om t h e op t i cal cen t r e O of t h e l en s
(Fig. E 10.3). Locate the position of the r eal and inver ted im age on
t h e ot h er side of t h e len s above t h e im age pin P.
7. Usin g t h e m et h od of par allax, adju st t h e posit ion of t h e im age
pi n P su ch t h at t h e im age of t h e object pin P coin cides wit h t h e
im age pin P.
Not e: As t h e valu e of u ch an ges fr om 2f t o f, v ch an ges fr om 2f t o
infinity. Since the valu es of u and v are interchangeable, i.e., the object
and image are two conju gate points, therefore it is clear that complete
r an ge of valu es for bot h u an d v between f an d in fin it y ar e obt ain ed
for a m ovem en t of t h e object pin over t h e r an ge 2f to f.

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E X PERI M ENT 1 0
8. Note the u pr ight position of the object pin, convex lens and im age
p i n on t h e op t i cal b en ch an d r ecor d t h e r ead i n gs i n an
obser vat ion t able.
9. Move the object pin P closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say
by 2 cm or 3 cm ). Repeat t h e exper im en t an d r ecor d at least six
set s of r eadin gs for var iou s dist an ces of object pin bet ween f an d
2 f fr om t h e len s.

BSERVATIONS
1. Appr oxim at e focal len gt h of t h e con vex len s = ... cm
2. Len gt h of t h e in dex n eedle as m easu r ed by t h e m et r e scale,
L0 =... cm
3. Th ick n ess of th e th in con vex len s (given ), t = ... cm
4. Act u al len gt h bet ween t h e opt ical cen t r e O of t h e len s an d t ip of
t h e pin , l 0 = L0 + t / 2 = ... cm
5. Obser ved len gt h of t h e in dex n eedle, l0 = Dist an ce bet ween t h e
cen t r e of con vex len s an d t ip of t h e object pin
=

Posit ion of len s u pr igh t posit ion of object pin u pr igh t on t h e

scale.

... cm ... cm =...cm

6. In dex cor r ect ion for object dist an ce, eo = l 0 l 0 = cm ; sim ilar ly
for im age pin , ei = l i l i = ...cm

uv
1
1
f
u
v
u
v
- 1 cm - 1
cm
cm

f (cm )

Cor r ect ed v
= Obser ved v + ei (cm )

Cor r ected u = Obser ved

u + eo (cm )

Obser ved
u = a b (cm )
Obser ved
v = a c (cm )

Len s u pr igh t
a (cm)

Sl .
No.

Object pin u pr igh t

b (cm )
Im age pin u pr igh t
c (cm )

Table E 1 0 .1 : Det erm inat ion of u, v and f

1
2
-6

Mean

81

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

ALCULATIONS
A. Calcu late th e cor r ected valu es of u an d v. Com pu te th e valu e of f .
u sin g Eq. (E 10.3). Tabu lat e t h em in t h e t able an d fin d t h e m ean
valu e of th e focal len gth of th e given con vex len s.
Error

1 1 1
= +
f u v
or

f u v
=
+
f 2 u 2 v2
u v
f = f 2 2 + 2
v
u
Maxim u m of six valu es of f is t o be r epor t ed wit h t h e r esu lt as
the experimental er r or.

ALCULATION OF FOCAL LENGTH BY PLOTTING GRAPHS

(A d et a iled met h od of plot t in g gr a ph s h a s been illu st r a t ed in
Chapter 1 Article 1.8 (p. no. 15).
B. u v Graph: Tak e u alon g x-axis an d v alon g y-axis. Scales of
x- and y-axis shou ld be same. Draw a hyperbola cu rve for variou s
valu es of u an d v (Fig. E 10.4). Not e t h at six set s of r eadin gs for u
b et w een f an d 2f , gi ve y ou 1 2 p oi n t s on t h e gr ap h b y
in t er ch an gin g valu es of u an d v.
Th e p oi n t u = 2 f ; v = 2 f i s sh ow n as p oi n t Z on
u v gr aph (Fi g. E 10.4). Th e poi n t Z i s t h e poi n t
of i n t er sect i on of a l i n e OZ b i sect i n g t h e an gl e
XOY wi t h h yper bol a. D r aw t wo l i n es AZ an d B Z
per pen di cu l ar t o Y- an d X-axi s, r espect i vel y. Th e
l en gt h s AZ an d B Z ar e bot h equ al t o di st an ce 2 f .
Th u s by pl ot t i n g t h e u v gr aph , t h e focal l en gt h
of t h e l en s can b e ob t ai n ed .
Dist an ce OA (= 2f ) on y-axis = ... cm
Dist an ce OB (= 2f ) on x-axis = ... cm
M ean focal len gt h of t h e con vex len s, f

Fi g. E 1 0 .4 u versus v graph for convex lens =

82

O A + OB
= ... cm
4

E X PERI M ENT 1 0
C. 1/ u 1/ v graph: Draw a straight
line graph by plotting 1/ u along
t h e X-axis an d 1/ v alon g t h e
Y-axis (Fig. E 10.5). Bot h t h e
in ter cepts OA (on y-axis) an d
OB (on X-axis) will be equ al t o
distan ce 1/ f.
Inter cept OA (= 1/ f ) on y-axis
=...cm 1
In t er cept OB (= 1/ f ) on x-axis
=...cm 1
Mean focal len gt h ( f ) of t h e con vex
lens =

2
=...cm.
O A' + O B'

Fi g. E 1 0 .5 1 / u versus 1 / v graph for a convex lens

(not to scale).

ESULT
Th e focal len gth of th e given con ver gin g th in con vex len s:
(i)

fr om cal cu l at i on s as sh ow n i n Ob ser vat i on Tab l e E1 0 .1

f f = ...cm (h er e f is m ean valu e of t h e focal len gt h )

(ii) from u v gr aph =...cm , an d

(iii) fr om 1 / u 1 / v gr aph =...cm .

RECAUTIONS
1. The u pr ights su ppor ting the optical elem ents shou ld be r igid and
m ou nted ver tically.
2. Th e aper t u r e of t h e len s sh ou ld be sm all ot h er wise t h e im age
for m ed will n ot be dist in ct .
3. Eye sh ou ld be placed at a dist an ce m or e t h an 25 cm fr om t h e
image needle.
4. An er r or m ay ar ise in t h e obser vat ion s if t h e t op of t h e opt ical
bench is not horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and optical
cen tr e of th e len s ar e n ot at th e sam e h or izon tal level.
5 . Th e i m age an d ob j ect n eed l es sh ou l d n ot b e i n t er ch an ged
d u r i n g t h e p er for m an ce of t h e ex p er i m en t , as t h i s m ay
cau se ch an ge i n i n d ex cor r ect i on s for ob j ect d i st an ce an d
i m age d i st an ce.
6. Th e t ip of t h e in ver t ed im age of t h e object n eedle m u st t ou ch t h e

83

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
t ip of t h e im age n eedle an d m u st n ot over lap. Th is sh ou ld be
en su r ed wh ile r em ovin g th e par allax.
7. Th e gen er al in st r u ct ion s t o be followed in all opt ical ben ch
experiments (as given in the description of optical bench) mu st be
tak en car e of.
8. Th e cor r ect ed valu es of t h e dist an ces u an d v m u st be pu t i n
t h e for m u la for calcu lat in g f an d t h en a m ean of f sh ou ld be
t ak en . Calcu lat ion s for f m u st n ot be m ade u sin g t h e m ean
valu es of u an d v.

OURCES OF ERROR
1. Th e u pr igh t s m ay n ot be ver t ical.
2. Par allax r em oval m ay n ot be per fect .
3. If t h e k n it t in g n eedle or in dex r od for fin din g in dex cor r ect ion is
n ot sh ar p lik e a n eedle, it s len gt h m ay n ot be accu r at ely fou n d
on scale.

ISCUSSION
In plottin g 1/ v ver su s 1/ u gr aph , if scales for t h e t wo axes ar e n ot
sam e, t h en t h e st r aigh t lin e gr aph m ay (r at h er will) n ot be at 45 t o
x-axis. This m ay r esu lt in confu sions and er r or in dr awing the gr aph.
Keeping the scale same and drawing the best fit graph at 45 to x-axis
is th e best m eth od. Th en , du e to in h er en t er r or s in m easu r em ent 1/ f
on bot h axes m ay be a bit t oo lar ge or a bit t oo sm all.

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Draw the ray diagram for image formation in case of a convex lens
for posit ion of object var yin g fr om in fin it y t o opt ical cen t r e.
2. Wh at ar e t h e differ en ces bet ween t h e im age for m ed by a con vex
len s an d a con cave len s?
3. How does the focal length of a thick convex lens differ fr om that of
a t h in len s?
4. How can you r ecogn ise a con vex len s, a cir cu lar glass slab an d a
con cave len s, wit h ou t t ou ch in g t h em ?
5. Wh er e does t h e cen t r e of cu r vat u r e of t h e plan e su r face of a
plan o-con vex len s lie?
6. Defin e t h e pr in cipal axis of a plan o-con vex len s?

84

E X PERI M ENT 1 0
7. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if it is dipped in
wat er ?
8. Wh at is th e r elation between focal len gth an d r adiu s of cu r vatu r e
of a plan o-con vex len s?
9. Can a vir t u al im age pr odu ced by a len s be in ver t ed?
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EX PERI MENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES
1.

Dr aw a gr aph by plot t in g u v alon g y-axis an d u + v alon g x-axis. Det er m in e

focal len gth f of th e con vex len s fr om th e slope.

2.

EFFECT OF M EDI UM ON FOCAL LENGTH

You h ave an aqu ar iu m , an open win dow at som e dist an ce fr om it , an d a
m agn ifyin g glass of 50 m m diam et er . Wit h you r 30 cm scale fin d t h e r ou gh
focal len gt h of t h e m agn ifyin g glass in air . Th en dip it in wat er by left h an d
an d a wh it e plast ic bag (folded wit h a 5 cm 5 cm car d in it t o m ak e a wh it e
scr een ) by r igh t h an d. Focu s im age of a dist an t object on t h e scr een by
adju sting the position of the screen. Is the rou gh focal length in water bigger
or sm aller t h an t h at in air ? Let a fr ien d m easu r e t h e focal len gt h in wat er
an d fin d t h e r at io of t h e t wo.

3.

MEASURI NG LENGTH OF THE FI LAMENT OF A CLEAR ELECTRI C LAMP

You cannot pu t the scale behind and in contact with the filament to measu re
it s len gt h . Of cou r se you can do t h is m easu r em en t by ver n ier m icr oscope.
Bu t can it be don e by a sim ple con vex len s an d a scale on ly? You can also
add t h in gs lik e clam p st an d et c, as per n eeds of t h e exper im en t . Can you
also m easu r e the dar k (cool) gap between adjacent segm ents of the filam ent
of th e lam p?

85

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

11

EXPERIMENT
AIM

To fin d t h e focal len gt h of a con vex m ir r or u sin g a con vex len s.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An opt ical ben ch wit h u pr igh t s for h oldin g len s, m ir r or an d t wo
needles, two needles (pins), a thin convex lens, a convex mirror, index
n eedle (m ay be a k n it t in g n eedle or a pen cil sh ar ply poin t ed at bot h
en ds), a m et r e scale an d a spir it level.

RINCIPLE
Fig. E 11.1 illu st r at es t h e for m at ion of im age of an object AB by a
con vex m i r r or M M (h avi n g a sm al l aper t u r e) i n t wo di ffer en t
sit u at ion s. Th e im age for m ed by a con vex m ir r or is vir t u al an d er ect .
Th er efor e, its focal len gth can n ot be deter m in ed dir ectly. However , it
can be determined by introdu cing a convex lens in between the object
an d t h e con vex m ir r or (Fig. E 11.2).

Fig. E 1 1 .1 (a ) Ob j ect i s a t i n f i n i t y . A h i gh l y
d i mi n i sh ed a n d poi n t i ma ge i s
l oca t ed a t t h e f ocu s b eh i n d
t h e con v ex m i r r or

Fi g. E 1 1 .1 (b) Object is in front of the mirror. A

d i m i n i s h ed v i r t u a l i m a ge i s
produced betw een the pole and
focus behind the mirror

An object AB is placed at poin t P in fr on t of a t h in con vex len s su ch

t h at it s r eal, in ver t ed an d m agn ified im age AB is for m ed at posit ion

86

E X PERI M ENT 1 1
C on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Now a convex m ir r or is
introdu ced between the convex lens and point C and so adju sted that
the r eal and inver ted im age AB coincides with the object AB at point
P [Fig. E 11.2 (a)]. Th is is possible if t h e ligh t r ays st ar t in g fr om t h e
t ip of t h e object , aft er passin g t h r ou gh t h e len s, fall n or m ally on t h e
r eflect in g su r face of t h e con vex m ir r or an d r et r ace t h eir pat h . An y
n or m al r ay (per pen dicu lar ) t o a sph er ical su r face h as t o be alon g t h e
r adiu s of t h at sph er e so t h at poin t C m u st be t h e cen t r e of cu r vat u r e
of t h e con vex m ir r or . Th er efor e, t h e dist an ce P C is t h e r adiu s of
cu r vat u r e R an d h alf of it wou ld be t h e focal len gt h of t h e con vex
mirror. That is,
f =

Fi g. E 1 1 .2

PC R
=
2
2

Image formed by (a) convex mirror and convex lens-image A B

coincides w ith the object A B at P(b) convex lens- image is inverted
and magnified

ROCEDURE
1.

In case, if t h e focal len gt h of t h e given t h in con vex len s is n ot

k n own t h en appr oxim at e valu e of it s focal len gt h sh ou ld be
estimated first.

87

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

88

2.

Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform. Using the

spir it level, m ak e it h or izon t al wit h t h e h elp of levellin g scr ews
pr ovided at t h e base of t h e ben ch .

3.

Place t h e u pr igh t s m ou n t ed wit h pin P1 (object pin ), con vex

len s LL, and convex m ir r or MM on the hor izontal optical bench
[Fig. E11.2(a)].

4.

Ch eck t h at t h e len s, m ir r or , an d pin P1 ar e ver t ically placed on

the optical bench. Also ver ify that the tip of the pin, optical centr e
O of t h e con vex len s LL, an d pole P of t h e con vex m ir or M M l i e
on the sam e hor izontal str aight line, par allel to the optical bench.

5.

Det er m in e t h e in dex cor r ect ion bet ween u pr igh t h oldin g of

t h e con vex m i r r or an d i m age p i n r esp ect i vel y, u si n g an
index needle.

6.

Place the object pin P1 from the convex lens LL at a distance slightly
gr eater than the focal length of the lens.

7.

Adju st t h e posit ion of t h e con vex m ir r or M M t ill t h e ligh t r ays

r eflect ed back fr om t h e m ir r or pass t h r ou gh t h e len s an d for m
a r eal an d in ver t ed im age coin cidin g wit h t h e object pin P1 , as
sh own in Fig.E 11.2 (a). Th is occu r s wh en t h e r ays st ar t in g fr om
t h e t ip of pin P1, aft er passin g t h r ou gh t h e len s st r ik e t h e m ir r or
n or m ally an d ar e r eflect ed back alon g t h eir or igin al pat h s.
Rem ove t h e par allax bet ween t h e im age an d object pin s.

8.

Read t h e posit ion of u pr igh t s h oldin g t h e object pin P1 , con vex

len s LL, an d con vex m ir r or MM an d r ecor d t h e obser vat ion s in
the obser vation table.

9.

Rem ove t h e con vex m i r r or fr om i t s u pr i gh t an d fi x i m age pi n

P2 on it . Adju st t h e h eigh t of pin su ch t h at t h e t ip of it also lies
on t h e pr in cipal axis of t h e len s. Th at is, t h e t ips of t h e pin s P1
an d P2 an d t h e opt i cal cen t r e O of t h e con vex l en s, al l l i e on a
st r ai gh t h or i zon t al l i n e par al l el t o t h e l en gt h of t h e opt i cal
ben ch .

10.

You may pu t a small piece of paper on image pin P2 to differentiate

it fr om t h e object pin P1.

11.

Usin g t h e m et h od of par allax an d wit h ou t ch an gin g t h e posit ion

of len s LL an d object pin P1 , adju st t h e posit ion of im age pin P2
on t h e ot h er side of t h e len s so t h at it coin cides wit h t h e r eal
an d in ver t ed im age of t h e object pin P1 for m ed by t h e con vex
len s [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Not e t h e posit ion of t h e im age pin .

12.

Repeat t h e exper im en t by ch an gin g t h e separ at ion bet ween t h e

pin P1 an d len s L L an d t h e m ir r or MM. In t h is m an n er , t ak e five
sets of observations.

E X PERI M ENT 1 1

BSERVATIONS
1. Focal len gt h of t h e con vex len s, f (est im at ed/ given ) = ... cm
2. Act u al len gt h of t h e in dex n eedle, l = ... cm
3. Obser ved len gt h of t h e in dex n eedle l
= Posit ion of m ir r or u pr igh t posit ion of pin u pr igh t on t h e scale
= ... cm
4. Index correction, e = Actu al length observed length (l l ) = ... cm

Table E 1 1 .1 : Det erm inat ion of radius of curvat ure of convex

m irror, R
Sl.
No.

Upr igh t posit ion of

Ob ser ved
R = c d
(cm )

Cor r ect ed
R
Obser ved
R + e
(cm )

Focal
len gt h
f

(cm )

(cm )

Object Con vex Con vex Im age

pin P 1 len s LL m ir r or pin P2
M M
a (cm ) b (cm ) c (cm ) d (cm )
1
2
-5

Mean

ALCULATIONS
Calcu late the m ean valu e of r adiu s of cu r vatu r e of the convex m ir r or ,
R, an d det er m in e it s focal len gt h u sin g t h e followin g r elat ion
f =

R
2

= ... cm

Error
f =

R + l (c d ) +(l l )
=
2
2

f c d l l
=
+
+ +
f
c
d
l
l

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L ABORATORY M ANUAL
wh en c, d , l an d l ar e t h e least cou n t s of t h e m easu r in g
in st r u m en t s. Maxim u m of t h e five valu es of f is t o be r epor t ed wit h
t h e r esu lt as t h e exper im en t al er r or .

ESULT
Th e focal len gt h of t h e given con vex m ir r or is (f f) ... ... cm .
Here f is m ean valu e of t h e focal len gt h .

RECAUTIONS
1. Th e u pr igh t s su ppor t in g t h e pin s, len s an d m ir r or m u st be r igid
an d m ou n t ed ver t ically.
2. Th e aper t u r es of t h e given con vex len s an d con vex m ir r or sh ou ld
be sm all, oth er wise th e im age for m ed will be distor ted.
3. Eye sh ou ld be placed at a dist an ce of abou t 25 cm or m or e fr om
t h e im age pin .
4. Opt ical ben ch sh ou ld be h or izon t al. Th e t ips of pin s, cen t r e of
con vex l en s an d pol e of t h e m i r r or sh ou l d be at t h e sam e
h or izon t al level.

OURCES OF ERROR
1. Th e t ip of t h e in ver t ed im age of t h e object pin sh ou ld ju st t ou ch
t h e t ip of t h e im age pin an d m u st n ot over lap. Th is sh ou ld be
en su r ed wh ile r em ovin g t h e par allax.
2. Per son al eye defect s m ay m ak e r em oval of par allax t ediou s.
3. Th e con vex m ir r or sh ou ld pr efer ably be fr on t -coat ed. Ot h er wise
m u lt iple r eflect ion s m ay t ak e place.

ISCUSSION
It may not be possible to perform this experiment with ju st any convex
len s. Th e focal len gt h of t h e len s u sed in t h is exper im en t sh ou ld
n eit h er be t oo sm all n or t oo lar ge. Wh y?

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. If focal length of the concave mirror is determined, by u sing convex
len ses of differ en t focal len gt h s, do you expect an y ch an ge in t h e
r esu lt ? If yes, wh at t ype of ch an ge? If n ot , wh y n ot ?

90

E X PERI M ENT 1 1
2. How will t h e r esu lt ch an ge if a con vex len s of differ en t r efr act ive
in dices wer e u sed?
3. If the convex lens selected for the experiment has focal length less
th an th at of th e con vex m ir r or , h ow wou ld th is selection lim it th e
experiment?
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EX PERI M ENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES
1.

Repeat t h e exper im en t by u sin g con vex len ses of differ en t focal len gt h s.
Com par e an d an alyse t h e r esu lt s.

2.

Repeat t h e exper im en t by u sin g con vex m ir r or s of differ en t focal len gt h s

wit h t h e h elp of t h e sam e con vex len s. Discu ss t h e r esu lt s.

91

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

12

EXPERIMENT
AIM

To fi n d t h e focal l en gt h of a con cave l en s wi t h t h e h el p of a

con vex len s.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with u prights for holding the lenses and two needles,
a t h in con cave len s, a con vex len s of focal len gt h (~15 cm ) sm aller
than that of the concave lens, index needle (may be a k nitting needle),
a m et r e scale an d a spir it level.

RINCIPLE
Figs. E 12.1 (a),(b),(c) an d (d) illu str ate th e for m ation of im age A B of
an object AB by a con cave len s. It is clear th at th e im age for m ed by a

Fi g. E 1 2 .1 (a ),(b),(c), (d) The images formed by a concave lens for different object positions

92

E X PERI M ENT 1 2

Fi g. E 1 2 .2 Formation of image (a) by a convex lens; and (b) by a combination of

convex lens and concave lens

con cave len s is always vir tu al an d er ect in th ese cases. Th er efor e, its
focal len gt h can n ot be det er m in ed dir ect ly. However , it can be
det er m in ed in dir ect ly by in t r odu cin g a con vex len s in bet ween t h e
object and the concave lens and produ cing a real image as illu strated
in Fig. E12.2.
A con vex len s L 1 con ver ges t h e ligh t r ays st ar t in g fr om t h e object AB
t o for m a r eal an d in ver t ed im age AB at posit ion I 1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)]. If
a con cave diver gin g len s L 2 is in ser t ed bet ween t h e len s L 1 an d poin t
I 1 as sh own in Fig. E 12.2 (b), for con cave len s L 2 im age A B beh aves
as vir t u al object . A r eal an d in ver t ed im age A B is for m ed at poin t
I 2 by the diver ging lens L 2 . Th u s, for th e con cave len s L2 the distances
O I 1 an d O I 2 wou ld be t h e dist an ces u an d v, r espectively. It is
im por t an t t o n ot e t h at t h e focal len gt h of con vex len s L 1 m u st be
sm aller t h an t h e focal len gt h of t h e con cave len s L 2 . Th e secon d
im age A B is for m ed on ly wh en t h e dist an ce bet ween len s L 2 an d
fir st im age AB is less t h an t h e focal len gt h of L 2 .
Th e focal len gt h of t h e con cave len s L 2 can be calcu lat ed fr om
th e r elation
1 1 1
= or f
f
v u

uv
u v

(E 12.1)

Her e for t h e con cave len s bot h dist an ces u an d v ar e posit ive an d
sin ce u will be fou n d t o be less t h an v, f will always be n egat ive.

ROCEDURE
1. In case, if t h e focal len gt h of t h e given t h in con vex len s is n ot
k n own t h en r ou gh val u e of i t s focal l en gt h (f L ) sh ou l d be
est im at ed fir st t o en su r e t h at it s focal len gt h is less t h an t h at of
t h e con cave len s.

93

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
2.

Place t h e opt ical ben ch on a r igid plat for m an d u sin g t h e spir it

level, mak e it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided
at th e base of th e ben ch .

3.

Place t h e u pr igh t s m ou n t ed wit h pin P1 (object pin ), con vex len s

L1 , an d an ot h er pin P2 (im age pin ) on t h e opt ical ben ch . You m ay
pu t a sm all piece of paper on im age pin P2 t o differ en t iat e it fr om
t h e im age of object pin P1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)].

4.

Check the collinearity of the tip of pin P1 , optical centre O of convex

lens L 1 , and the tip of image pin P2 along a horizontal straight line
which is parallel to the length of the optical bench. In this condition
t h e plan es of len s an d bot h t h e pin s wou ld be per pen dicu lar t o
the axis of the lens.

5.

For the determination of the index correction , b ring a mou nted

pin close to the concave lens L2 . Adju st the index needle (a sharpedged k nitting needle wou ld also serve the pu rpose) horizontally
su ch that its one end tou ches one of the cu rved su rfaces of the lens
and the other end tou ches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of
the two u prights on the scale provided on the optical bench. The
difference of the two wou ld give the observed length of the index
needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optical
centre O of the lens L2 wou ld be length of the index needle (as
measu red by a scale) plu s half of the thick ness of the lens at its
optical cen tr e. Th e differ en ce of th e two len gth s is th e in dex
correction.
(If the concave lens is thin at the centre, its thick ness at the centre
can be ign or ed).

94

6.

Separ at e t h e object pin P1 fr om t h e con vex len s by a dist an ce

sligh t ly gr eat er t h an t h e focal len gt h fL of the lens.

7.

Locat e it s r eal an d in ver t ed im age at poin t I 1 on t h e ot h er side of

t h e len s by r em ovin g t h e par allax bet ween t h e im age pin P2 and
im age of t h e object pin P1 [Fig. E 12.3(a)].

8.

Read the positions of the u prights holding the object pin P1 , convex
len s L1 , and image pin P2 (i.e. point I 1 ). Recor d these obser vations
in Table E 12.1.

9.

Fr om n ow on , do n ot ch an ge t h e posit ion of t h e con vex len s L 1

an d t h e posit ion of t h e object pin P1 . In ser t th e con cave len s L 2 in
bet ween t h e con vex len s L 1 an d im age pin P2 . Now t h e im age of
object pin will shift further from the convex lens L1 to a point I 2(say).
Adju st t h e posit ion of t h e con cave len s so t h at t h e poin t I 2 is
su fficien t ly away fr om t h e poin t I 1.

10.

In case the image formed by the combination of convex and concave

lenses is not distinctly visible, try to see it on moving the concave
lens nearer to the point I1 and to locate the image by u sing a pencil

E X PERI M ENT 1 2
Im a ge of
s t r a igh t p in P 1

I1
Ob ject
p in
P1

Im a ge p in P 2
L1
(a )

Fi g. E 1 2 .3 Focal length of concave lens w ith the help of convex lens

held in hand, and keeping the image pin P2 at point I 1 as a gu ide to

decide which way to shift the concave lens L 2. After having seen the
clear image at point I 2 and ensured that it lies within the range of the
optical bench, move image pin P2 to locate the image (or point I2 )
more accurately using the method of parallax [Fig. E 12.3(b)]. Since
the image forming at I 2 is qu ite enlarged, it can be blu rred.
11. Note the position of u pr ights holding the concave lens and im age
pin P2 , i.e., poin t I 2 . Not e t h e r eadin gs in t h e Obser vat ion Table.
12. Change the position of u pright holding the object pin P1 and repeat
t h e st eps 6 t o 10. Tak e five set s of obser vat ion s.

BSERVATIONS
1. Focal len gt h of t h e con vex len s, f L = ... cm
2. Len gt h of t h e in dex n eedle as m easu r ed by t h e scale, s = ... cm
3. Th ick n ess of t h e t h in con cave len s (given ) at it s opt ical cen t r e,
t = ... cm
4. Act u al len gt h bet ween t h e opt ical cen t r e O of t h e len s an d t ip of
t h e pin , l = s + t / 2 = ... cm
5. Obser ved len gt h of t h e in dex n eedle, l
= Dist an ce bet ween t h e pole of t h e len s an d t ip of t h e pin
= Posit ion of len s u pr igh t - posit ion of pin u pr igh t on t h e scale
= ... cm

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L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Table E 1 2 .1 : Det erm inat ion of u, v, and f of concave lens

f
(cm )

f = uv/ (u v) (cm )

Cor r ect ed v
= Obser ved v + e (cm)

Cor r ect ed u
= Obser ved u + e (cm )

Obser ved v
= g d (cm )

Obser ved u
= c d (cm )

Im age for m ed by L 1
an d L 2 , poin t I2 , g (cm )

Con cave len s L 2

u pr igh t , d (cm )

Im age for m ed by L 1 ,
point I 1, c (cm )

Con vex len s L 1

u pr igh t , b (cm )

Posit ion of

Object pin u pr igh t

P1, a (cm )

Sl.
No.

1
2
-5

Mean
6. In dex cor r ect ion , e = l l = ... cm

ALCULATIONS
Find the focal length of the concave lens u sing the for m u la f

uv
u v

Error
1 1 1
=
f v u
f
v u
+
2 =
f
v2 u 2
v

f = f 2 2 + 2
u
v
wher e u, v represent least cou nts of the measu ring scale. Valu es of
u, v, f ar e t o be t ak en fr om t h e Obser vat ion Table. Maxim u m of t h e
five valu es of t h e er r or f is t o be r epor t ed wit h t h e r esu lt as er r or .

96

E X PERI M ENT 1 2

ESULT

Th e focal len gt h of t h e given con cave len s is (f f ) = ... ...cm .

Here f is m ean valu e of t h e focal len gt h .

RECAUTIONS
1. Th e con cave len s m u st be placed n ear t h e con vex len s. In fact ,
t h e secon d im age I 2 is for m ed on ly wh en t h e dist an ce bet ween
con cave len s L 2 an d fir st im age I 1 (wh ich act s as vir t u al object for
th e con cave len s) is less th an th e focal len gth of th e con cave len s.
2. Sin ce t h e im age for m ed at I 2 is qu it e en lar ged, it can be blu r r ed.
Th er efor e, it wou ld be pr efer able t o u se a t h in an d sh ar p object
pin an d sh in e it wit h ligh t u sin g a ligh t ed elect r ic bu lb.
3. Th e con vex len s an d t h e pin P1 m u st n ot be dist u r bed du r in g t h e
secon d par t of t h e exper im en t .
4. A dim in ish ed, r eal an d in ver t ed im age of t h e im age pin P 2 m igh t
also be for m ed by t h e ligh t r ays r eflect in g fr om t h e con cave
su r face of t h e len s L 2. It sh ou ld n ot be con fu sed wit h t h e bold
an d br igh t im age for m ed by t h e com bin at ion of con vex an d
con cave len ses.
5. In dex cor r ect ion / ben ch cor r ect ion for u an d v sh ou ld be m ade.

OURCES OF ERROR
1. If t ip of object pin an d opt ical cen t r e of t h e len s ar e n ot align ed
pr oper ly (if n ot br ou gh t at t h e sam e h or izon t al level), im age t ip
an d im age of object pin t ip will n ot t ou ch each ot h er . Th er e m ay
be som e gap bet ween t h e t wo or t h er e cou ld be over lap bet ween
the two. In su ch situ ations, there can be error in removing parallax
an d it will lead t o er r or s in t h e r esu lt .
2. For gr eat er accu r acy we sh ou ld u se sh ar ply poin t ed object pin .

ISCUSSION
1. As concave lens diver ges the r ays, the im age for m ed by a concave
len s alon e will n ot be r eal an d can n ot be t ak en on a scr een . To
con ver ge t h ese diver gin g r ays t o for m a r eal im age, con vex len s
is u sed.
2. Diver ging r ays fr om concave lens can be m ade to fall nor m ally on
a con cave m ir r or t o get t h e r eal im age for m ed at t h e poin t wh er e
object is placed. Hence, the focal length of the concave lens can be
fou n d by u sin g a con cave m ir r or also.

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L ABORATORY M ANUAL
3. Since the image I2 is qu ite enlarged, it can get blu rred by chromatic
aber r at ion of t h e t wo len ses. Th u s it is bet t er t o pu t a scr een
beh in d object pin P1 an d t h u s do t h e en t ir e exper im en t wit h on e
colou r of light instead of with white light. For the same reason, pin
P1 sh ou ld be qu it e t h in an d sh ar p com par ed t o pin P2 .

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. In t h is exper im en t al set u p t h e com bin at ion of con cave len s an d
con vex len s separ at ed by a dist an ce d beh aves as a sin gle len s of
1
1
1
d
focal length F. Check the relation F = f + f f f for any one of
1
2
1 2
the obser vations.
2. Calcu lat e f by in t er ch an gin g t h e valu e of u an d v an d com par e it
wit h t h e exper im en t ally det er m in ed valu e of f.
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EX PERI M ENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES

98

1.

Pl ot a gr a p h of uv a ga i n st u v w i t h uv on y - a x i s a n d u v on
x-axis. Det er m in e f fr om t h e slope of t h e gr aph .

2.

Repeat the experiment by u sing concave and convex lenses of different focal
len gth s, com par e an d an alyse th e r esu lts.

E X PERI M ENT

13

EXPERIMENT
AIM
To det er m in e t h e an gle of m in im u m deviat ion for a given glass pr ism
by plot t in g a gr aph bet ween t h e an gle of in ciden ce an d t h e an gle of
deviat ion .

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

D r aw i n g b oar d , t r i an gu l ar gl ass p r i sm , m et r e scal e, al p i n s,
cellotape/ drawing pins, graph paper, protractor, white paper sheets.

RINCIPLE
A t r i an gu l ar pr i sm h as t h r ee
r ectangu lar lateral su rfaces and
t wo t r ian gu lar bases. Th e lin e
al on g w h i ch an y t w o f aces
(refracting su rfaces) of the prism
meet is the refracting edge of the
pr i sm an d t h e an gl e bet ween
them is the angle of the prism. For
this experiment , it is convenient
t o p l ace t h e p r i sm w i t h i t s
rectangular surfaces vertical. The
principal section ABC of the prism
is obtained by a horizontal plane
per pendicu lar to the r efr acting
edge (Fig. E 13.1).

Fi g. E 1 3 .1 Refraction of light through a glass prism

A r ay of ligh t PQ (fr om air t o glass) in ciden t on t h e fir st face AB at

an an gle i is r efr act ed at an an gle r alon g QR an d fin ally , em er ges
alon g RS. Th e dot t ed lin es in t h e figu r e r epr esen t t h e n or m al t o t h e
su r faces. Th e an gle of in ciden ce (fr om glass t o air ) at t h e secon d
face AC is r an d t h e an gle of r efr act ion (or em er gen ce) is e. Th e
an gle bet ween t h e dir ect ion of in ciden t r ay PQ (pr odu ced for war d)
an d t h e dir ect ion of em er gen t r ay RS (pr odu ced back war d) is t h e
an gle of deviat ion .

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L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Fr om geom etr ical con sider ation s we h ave

(E 13.1)

r + r = A

(E 13.2)

= (i r) + (e r ) = i + e A
At t h e posit ion of t h e pr ism for m in im u m deviat ion m, t h e ligh t r ay
passes t h r ou gh t h e pr ism sym m et r ically, i.e. par allel t o t h e base so
that when

= m , i = e wh ich im plies r = r .
The advantage of pu tting the pr ism in m inim u m deviation position is
th at th e im age is br igh test in th is position .

ROCEDURE
1.

Fix a wh it e sh eet of paper on a dr awin g boar d wit h t h e h elp of

cellot ape or dr awin g pin s.

2.

Draw a straight line XY, u sing a sharp pencil nearly in the middle
an d par allel to th e len gth of th e paper .

3.

Mar k poin t s O1 , O2 , O3. ., . . . . on t h e st r aigh t lin e XY at su it able

dist an ces of abou t 8 t o 10 cm an d dr aw n or m als N1 O1 , N2 O 2, N3
O3 . . . . on t h ese poin t s (Fig. E 13.2).

Fig. E 1 3 .2 Refraction of light through a glass prism for various angles of incidence

100

4.

Dr aw st r aigh t lin es, P1 O1, P 2 O2 , P 3 O3 , . . . cor r espon din g t o t h e

incident rays making angles of incidence at 35 , 40 , 45 , 50 , . . . 60
respectively with the normals, u sing a protractor. Write the valu es
of t h e an gles P1 O1 N1 , P2 O2 N 2 , P 3 O3 N 3,... on t h e wh it e
paper sh eet ( Fig. E 13.2).

5.

Place t h e pr ism wit h it s r efr act in g face AB on t h e lin e XY wit h

poin t O1 in t h e m iddle of AB as sh own in t h e figu r e. Dr aw t h e
bou n dar y of t h e pr ism wit h a sh ar p pen cil.

E X PERI M ENT 1 3
6 . Fi x t wo al pi n s P l an d Q 1 wi t h sh ar p t i p s ver t i cal l y ab ou t
10 cm apar t , on t h e in ciden t r ay lin e Pl Q l su ch t h at pin
Q 1 is close to point O1. Close one eye (say left) and look ing throu gh
the pr ism , br ing you r r ight eye in line with the im ages of the pins
Pl an d Q l. Fix alpins Rl and Sl abou t 10 cm apart vertically on the
white paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the images
of pins Pl an d Q l . In this way pins R1 and S1 will becom e collinear ,
wit h t h e im ages of pin s P1 and Q 1 .
7. Rem ove t h e pin s Rl an d Sl an d en cir cle t h eir pin pr ick s on t h e
wh it e paper sh eet wit h t h e h elp of a sh ar p pen cil. Rem ove t h e
pins P1 and Q 1 an d en cir cle t h eir pin pr ick s also.
8. J oin t h e poin t s ( or pin pr ick s) Rl an d Sl wit h t h e h elp of a sh ar p
pen cil an d scale, t o obt ain t h e em er gen t r ay Rl Sl . Pr odu ce it
back war ds t o m eet t h e in ciden t r ay Pl Q l (pr odu ced for war d) at
T 1. Dr aw ar r owh eads on P l Q l an d R1 S1 t o sh ow t h e dir ect ion of
t h e r ays.
9. Measu r e the angle of deviation l and the angle BAC (angle A) of
t h e pr ism (Fig. E 13.1) wit h a pr ot r act or an d wr it e t h e valu es of
t h ese an gles in dicat ed in t h e diagr am .
10. Repeat st eps 5 t o 9 for differ en t valu es of an gle of in ciden ce (40 ,
45 , 50 ...) an d m easu r e t h e cor r espon din g an gles of deviat ion
2 , 3... wit h t h e pr ot r act or , an d in dicat e t h em in t h e r espect ive
diagr am s.
11. Recor d obser vat ion s in t abu lar for m wit h pr oper u n it s an d
significant figu res.

BSERVATIONS
Least cou n t of th e pr otr actor = ...(degr ee)
An gle of t h e pr ism , A = ...(degr ee)
Table E 1 3 .1 : M easuring t he angle of incidence, i and angle of
deviat ion for a prism
Sl. No.

An gle of in ciden ce, i (degr ees)

An gle of deviat ion , (degr ees)

1
2
3
-10

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L ABORATORY M ANUAL
Plotting the graph betw een i and for the prism
Tak e an gle of in ciden ce i alon g x-axis an d an gle of deviat ion alon g
y-axis, u sing the observed valu es from Table E 13.1. Choose su itable
scales on th ese axes an d plot a gr aph between i and . Tak e car e that
you dr aw a fr ee h an d sm oot h cu r ve passin g pr act ically t h r ou gh all
t h e plot t ed poin t s on t h e gr aph (Fig. E 13.3).

Fi g. E 1 3 .3 Graph betw een angle of incidence and angle of deviation

ALCULATIONS
Dr aw t an gen t on t h e lowest poin t of t h e gr aph par allel t o x-axis,
r ead t h e an gle of m in im u m deviat ion m on t h e y-axis of t h e gr aph .
Expr ess t h e r esu lt with pr oper sign ifican t figu r es.

ESULT
An gle of m in im u m deviat ion , m = ... ... degr ee

RECAUTIONS
1. Alpin s sh ou ld be fixed ver t ically t o t h e plan e of paper .
2. Dist an ce PQ an d RS sh ou ld be abou t 10 cm in or der t o locat e
in ciden t an d em er gen t r ays with gr eater accu r acy.
3. Sam e an gle of pr ism sh ou ld be u sed for all obser vat ion s.
4. Posit ion of t h e pr ism sh ou ld n ot be dist u r bed for a given set of
obser vat ion s.

102

E X PERI M ENT 1 3

OURCES OF ERROR
1. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are
n ot equ al, t h en A + i + e.
2. Th er e m ay be an er r or in m easu r in g t h e valu es of t h e an gles.

ISCUSSION
1. It is su ggest ed t h at t h e valu e of an gle of in ciden ce be t ak en m or e
t h an 35. Th is is r equ ir ed for an gles less t h an 35 as t h er e is a
possibilit y of t ot al in t er n al r eflect ion in side t h e pr ism .
2. You m u st ch eck you r r ead i n gs b y ap p l yi n g t h e for m u l a
i + e = A + .
3. The i cu r ve t h at is obt ain ed in t h is exper im en t is a n on -lin ear
cu r ve. In su ch sit u at ion s, m or e r eadin gs sh ou ld be t ak en in t h e
m in im u m deviat ion r egion t o be able t o obt ain t h e valu e of an gle
of m in im u m deviat ion accu r at ely. For exam ple, if r eadin gs ar e
t ak en in it ially at 35, 40, 45 an d 50 an d if t h e i dat a poin t s
ar e sit u at ed as sh own in Fig. E 13.3 t h en a few m or e r eadin gs
n eed t o be t ak en for valu es of i in t h e r an ge 45 to 55 say, at a
differ en ce of 1 or 2.
Tak ing m or e r eadings in this region will help in drawing a smooth
cu r ve. Th is will en able you t o locat e t h e posit ion of t h e lowest
poin t on t h e gr aph m or e accu r at ely.
4. In t h e con d i t i on of m i n i m u m d evi at i on , t h e r efr act ed r ay
in side t h e pr ism becom es par allel t o it s base so as t o sat isfy t h e
con dit ion r = r .
5. Th e gr aph does n ot sh ow a sh ar p m in im u m . We h ave sam e
deviation for a range of angle of incidence near minimu m deviation.
Th er efor e ext r a car e sh ou ld be t ak en in dr awin g t an gen t ial lin e
t o t h e i gr aph at m in im u m deviat ion .

ELF ASSESSMENT
1. In t er pr et t h e gr aph bet ween i an d .
2. If t h e exper im en t is per for m ed wit h an gle of em er gen ce t ak en as
angle of incidence, will there be any change in the valu es? If yes,
wh y? If n ot , wh y n ot ?
3. Wh at will h appen if you go on decr easin g t h e an gle of in ciden ce?
If you t h in k t h er e is a m in im u m , t r y t o fin d it s expr ession
t h eor et ically. Wh at h appen s wh en i is less t h an t h e m in im u m
angle of incidence?

103

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
SUGGESTED ADDI TI ONAL EXPERI MENTS/ ACTI VI TI ES
1.

Use the following equ ation to calcu late refractive index of the material of the
pr ism fr om t h e m easu r ed valu e of t h e an gle A and m det er m in ed fr om t h e
graph.
n =

104

Sin i
S in r

Sin [(A+ m )/ 2 ]
Sin (A/ 2 )

2.

Measu r e t h e an gle of em er gen ce e cor r espon din g t o t h e valu e of each an gle

of in ciden ce i an d an gle of deviation you h ave obser ved. Com pu t e t h e
valu es of (i + e) and (A + ) an d see h ow th ey com par e.

3.

Dr aw par allel h or izon t al lin es cu t t in g t h e i cu r ve, you h ave dr awn , at

var iou s valu es of i and e. Fin d ou t t h e m id poin t s of t h ese h or izon t al lin es
an d join t h ese m id poin t s. Wh at is t h e sh ape of t h e cu r ve so obt ain ed? If
you find that this shape r esem bles that of a str aight line, find its (i) slope (ii)
y-intercept and (iii) x-intercept.

4.

Det er m in e t h e r efr act ive in dex of differ en t liqu ids u sin g a h ollow pr ism by
plot t in g i gr aph .

5.

Measu re r an d r an d e fr om the figu r es you have dr awn. Find the r efr active
in dex of t h e m at er ial of t h e pr ism fr om t h e valu es of i and r an d e an d r .

DATA SECTION
TABLE D S1 .1 : Som e im port ant const ant s

Nam e

Symbol

Speed of ligh t in vacu u m

Ch ar ge of elect r on
Gr avit at ion al con st an t
Plan ck con st an t
Bolt zm an n con st an t
Avogadr o n u m ber
Un iver sal gas con st an t
Mass of elect r on
Mass of n eu t r on
Mass of pr ot on
Elect r on -ch ar ge t o m ass r at io
Far aday con stan t
Rydber g con st an t
Boh r r adiu s
St efan -Bolt zm an n con st an t
Wien s con st an t
Per m it t ivit y of fr ee space
Per m eabilit y of fr ee space

Value

c
e
G
h
k
NA
R
me
mn
mp
e/ m e
F
R
a0

b
0

2.9979 10 8 m s1
1.602 10 19 C
6.673 10 11 N m 2 k g 2
6.626 10 34 J s
1.381 10 23 J K 1
6.022 10 23 mol 1
8.314 J m ol 1 K1
9.110 10 31 k g
1.675 10 27 k g
1.673 10 27 k g
1.759 10 11 C/ k g
9.648 10 4 C/ mol
1.097 10 7 m1
5.292 10 11 m
5.670 10 8 W m 2 K 4
2.898 10 3 m K
8.854 10 12 C2 N 1 m 2

1/ 40

8.987 10 9 N m 2 C 2

4 107 T m A1
1.257 10 6 Wb A1 m 1

TABLE DS 1 .2 : Ot her useful cont st ant s

Nam e
Mech an ical equ ivalen t of h eat
Stan dar d atm osph er ic pr essu r e
Absolu t e zer o
Elect r on volt
Un ified At om ic m ass u n it
Elect r on r est en er gy
En er gy equ ivalen t of 1 u
Volu m e of ideal gas (0 C an d 1 at m )
Acceler at ion du e t o gr avit y
(sea level, at equ at or )

Symbol
J
1 at m
0K
1 eV
1u
mc 2
1 u c2
V
g

Value
4.186 J cal 1
1.013 10 5 Pa
273.15 C
1.602 10 19 J
1.661 10 27 k g
0.511 MeV
931.5 MeV
22.4 L m ol 1
9.78049 m s2

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
TABLE D S 2 : E. M .F. of cells
Cell

E.M.F. (V)

Cell

E.M.F. (V)

Dan iell

1.08 1.09

Cadm iu m at 20C

1.018 54

Gr ove

1.8

Lead accu m u lat or

1.9 2.2

Lech lan ch e

1.45

Edison cell

1.45

Volt aic

1.01

Clar k e

1.43

Bu n sen

1.95

Ni-Fe

1.20

1.9

TABLE D S 3 : Refract ive index of subst ances : For sodium light = 5 8 9 6 1 01 0 m

Solid

Refract ive index

Liquid

Refract ive I ndex

Diam on d

2.417

Can ada balsam

1.53

Glass (cr own )

1.48 1.61

Wat er

1.333

Glass (flin t )

1.53 1.96

Alcoh ol (et h yl)

1.362

Glass(soda)

1.50

An i l i n e

1.595

Ben zen e

1.501

Ice

1.31

Cedar oil

1.516

Mica

1.56 1.60

Ch lor ofor m

1.450

Rock -salt

1.54

Et h er

1.350

Glycer ine

1.47

Qu ar t z (O - Ray)

1.5443

Olive oil

1.46

Qu ar t z (E - Ray)

1.5534

Par affin oil

1.44

Qu ar t z (fu sed)

1.458

Ker osen e oil

1.39

Tu r pen tin e oil

1.44

TABLE D S 4 : Wavelengt h of spect ral lines : (in , 1 = 10 1 0 m )

[The visible spect rum colours are indicat ed r , o, y, g, b, i , v ]
Hydrogen

Helium

M ercury

Neon

Sodium

3970 v

3889 v

4047 v

5765 y

(D 2) 5890 o

4102 v

4026 v

4078 v

5853 y

(D 1) 5896 o

4340 b

4471 b

4358 v

5882 o

4861 gb

5876 y

4916 b, g

6597 r

6563 r

6678 r

4960 g

7245 r

7065 r

5461 g
5770 y
5791 y
6152 o
6322 o

288

D ATA SECTI ON
TABLE D S 5 : Elect rom agnet ic spect rum (wavelengt h)

Range

Wavelengt h

Wir eless waves

5 m an d above

Infra-red

3.0

10 4 m

to

7.5

10 7 m

Visible Red

7.5

10 7 m

to

6.5

10 7 m

Visible Or an ge

6.5

10 7 m

to

5.9

10 7 m

Visible Yellow

5.9

10 7 m

to

5.3

10 7 m

Visible Gr een

5.3

10

to

4.9

10 7 m

Visible Blu e

4.9

10 7 m

to

4.2

10 7 m

Visible In digo

4.2

10 7 m

to

3.9

10 7 m

Ult r a Violet

3.9

10

to

1.8

10 7 m

Soft X-Rays

2.0

10 7 m

to

1.0

10 7 m

Har d X-Rays

1.0

10 10 m

to

1.0

10 11 m

5.0

11

to

5.0

10 12 m

Gam m a Rays

10

TABLE D S 6 : St andard Wire Gauges (S.W.G.) and resist ances for a m et re lengt h of
const ant an and m anganin
S.W.G.

Resist ance (
)

Diam et er

No.

(m m )

Copper

Const ant an
(60% Cu , 40% Ni)

10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46

3.25
2.64
2.03
1.63
1.22
0.914
0.711
0.559
0.457
0.374
0.315
0.274
0.234
0.193
0.152
0.122
0.102
0.081
0.061

0.0021
0.0032
0.0054
0.0083
0.0148
0.0260
0.0435
0.070
0.105
0.155
0.222
0.293
0.404
0.590
0.950
1.48
2.10
3.30
5.90

0.057
0.086
0.146
0.228
0.405
0.722
1.20
1.93
2.89
4.27
6.08
8.02
11.1
16.2
26.0
40.6
58.5
91.4
162.5

Manganin
(84% Cu , 4% Ni, 12% Mn )
0.051
0.077
0.131
0.204
0.361
0.645
1.07
1.73
2.58
3.82
5.45
7.18
9.9
14.5
23.2
36.3
53.4
81.7
145.5

289

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
TABLE D S 7 : Dielect ric Const ant s of Com m on M at erials
M at erial

T em perat ure

Frequency

Dielect ric

(C)

(H z)

Const ant

Amber
Amber

20
20

106
3 109

2.8
2.6

Soda glass

20

106

20

Fu sed qu ar t z

Liqu id par affin (Medical Gr ade) 20

7.5

10 t o 10

3.8

103

2.2

Tr an sfor m er oil (Class B)

Marble

20
20

10
106

2.2
8

San d (dr y)

20

106

20

10

10

con den ser t issu e)

Mica

20
20

103
10 3 t o 10 8

2.3
5.4 t o 7

Epoxy r esin (e.g. Ar aldit e)

20

106

3.3

Cellu lose Acet at e

20

106

3.5

Vin yl Acet at e (Plast icised)

20

10

Vin yl Ch lor ide (P.V.C.)

Ebon it e (Pu r e)

20
20

106
106

4
3

Ru bber (Vu lcan ised soft )

20

106

3.2

20

2.5

San dst on e
Paper (Oil im pr egn at ed

Ru bber , Syn t h et ic
Par affin wax

2.2

10

Su lphu r
Waln u t wood (dr y)

20
20

3 10
107

3.4
2.0

Waln u t (17% m oist u r e)

20

107

Vacuum

NA

an y

Air

20

Upt o 3

1.00000
109

1.00054

Por celain
Bar iu m titan ate

20
20

10
106

5.5
1200

Ru t ile gr ou p

20

10 6 t o 10 9

40 t o 80

Wat er

20

109

80

Wat er

290

20

10

20

10

10

64

D ATA SECTI ON
TABLE DS 8 : Typical object s wit h elect rost at ic charge
1

Object

Balloon of 20cm diam et er r u bbed all

r ou n d by n ylon cloth

11 pF

200 V

2.2 n C

0.22 J*

Met al sph er e on in su lat ed st an d

r u bbed by silk (dia 9 cm )

5 pF

500 V

2.5 nC

0.62 J*

Met al sph er e ch ar ged by a sch ool t ype

Van -de-Gr aaff gen er at or

5 pF

0.25 MV

1.25 C

0.16 J

Boy on an in su lat ed st ool r epeat edly

ch ar ged by elect r oph or u s

50 pF

3000 V

150 n C

225 J*

30 cm 30 cm im pr ovised capacit or
wit h wax soak ed t issu e paper
dielect r ic (K = 2.7, A = 700 cm an d
d = 0.4 m m ) an d ch ar ged by a 9 V
bat t er y.

4 nF

9V

36 nC

162 nJ*

6.

-do- plat es separ at ed t o 2 cm apar t .

80 pF

450 V

36 nC

8.1 J*

7.

Flash gu n capacit or s (pr ofession al

type)

500 pF

400 V

0.2 nC

40 J

10 8 V t o
10 9 V

20 C

10 9 t o 1010 J

0.4 MV

5.7

0.4 MV

1800 C/ s

7 10 8 J / s

10 pF

3000 V

30 nC

45 J*

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

8.

9.

Aver age ligh t in g bet ween ear t h an d

clou d (h = 1 t o 5 k m )
(a) Ear t h an d ion ised air of h igh
con du ct ivit y at t op of st r at osph er e
(h = 50 k m )
(b) Ion isat ion cu r r en t bet ween ear t h
an d ion osph er e in fair weat h er .

10. Ch ar ged plat e of good elect r oph or ou s

(diam et er 20 t o 30 cm ) in dr y weat h er ,
aft er lift in g it u p.

Energy E =

10 5 C

C V2

10 11 J

*Th ese bodies in you r sch ool labor at or y ar e n ot dan ger ou s t o t ou ch .

291

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
TABLE DS 9 : Elect rical resist ivit ies of t ypical m et als and alloys
Resist ivit y (1 0 8 ohm m et re)

M at erial

0 C

1 0 0 C

3 0 0 C

7 0 0 C

Tem perat ure coefficient at

0 C (over range 0 C-1 0 0 C
(1 0 4 )

Alu m in iu m

2.45

3.55

5.9

24.7

Chr om iu m
Copper

12.7
1.56

16.1
2.24

25.2
3.6

47.2
6.7

43

Ir on

8.9

14.7

31.5

85.5

65

50

107.6

42

45

Lead

19.0

27.0

Gold

2.04

2.84

Mercury
Nick el

94.0766*
6.14

103.5
10.33

128
22.5

Plat in u m

9.81

13.65

21.0

19.0

22.0

15.6

18.7

21.8

16.6

40
10
68
34.3

39.2

Plat in u m Rh odiu m
(87/ 13)
Plat in u m Rh odiu m
(90/ 10)
Plat in u m Iridiu m
(90/ 10)

24.8

28.0

Silver

1.51

2.13

Ti n
Tu n gsten
Zi n c

13
3.42

6.5

41

11.5(20C) 15.8

50

60

46

4.9

7.3

12.4

24

48

5.5

7.8

13.0

37(500C)

42

Mer cu r y at 0C is u sed as a secon dar y st an dar d t o r ealise t h e st an dar d u n it of r esist an ce, oh m .

292

D ATA SECTI ON
TABLE D S 1 0 : Elect rical resist ivit ies of com m on insulat ors and sem iconduct ors

Subst ance

Resist ivit y
(ohm m et re)

Subst ance

(Resist ivit y
(ohm m et re)

Diam on d

10 10 t o 10 11

Car bon 0C

3.5

10 5

Ebon it e

10 14

Car bon 500C

2.7

10 5

Glass (Soda lim e)

Car bon 1000C

2.1

10 5

Glass (Pyr ex)

10 12

10 9

Glass (con du ct in g)

10

Mica

10 11

Car bon 2000C

1.1

10 5

Car bon 2500C

0.9

10 5

10 15

Ger m an iu m 0C

0.46

Silicon 0C

2300

10

10

Par affin wax

10

14

Por celain

10 10 to 10 13

Su lph u r (r h om bic)

Paper (dr y)

10 2 1

TABLE D S : 1 1 Dat a for int rinsic and ext rinsic sem iconduct ors
M at erial

Energy
Gap
(eV)

No. densit y per

m 3 * elect ronhole pairs at
300 K

0.76

10 1 9

15

Mobilit y
Elect rons
(m 2 V 1 s1 )

Mobilit y
holes
(m 2 V 1 s1 )

Conduct ivit y

0.39

0.19

2.18

Densit y
(k g m 3 )

(S m 1 )

Sem icon du ct or s
Ger m an iu m
Si l i con

1.12

10

Doped Si wit h P
wit h In su lat or s

0.045

2.5

Diam on d

6 t o 12

107

10

21

5320

0.135

0.048

4.4

10

0.135

...

2.5

10

2300
2300

*Valu es ar e appr oxim at e, t h ey give an idea abou t or der of m agn it u de on ly.

293

L ABORATORY M ANUAL
TABLE D S 1 2 : Alloys of high resist ance
Alloy

Resist ivit y 2 0 C
(1 0

ohm m et re)

Tem perat ure coefficient

M ax. Operat ing t em p-

in range 0 -1 0 0 C (1 0 )

erat ure (C)

Con st an t an
(58.8% Cu , 40%
Ni,1.2% Mn )

44 t o 52

0.4 t o + 0.1

500

Ger m an Silver
(65% Cu , 20%
Zn , 15% Ni)

28 t o 35

+ 0.4

150 t o 200

Man gan in (85%

Cu , 12% Mn ,
3% Ni)

42 t o 48

0.3

100

Nick elin e (54%

Cu , 20% Zn ,
26% Ni)

39 t o 45

0.2

150 - 200

100 t o 110

2.0

1000

Nich r om e (67.5%
Ni, 15% Cr , 16%
Fe, 1.5% Mn )

TABLE DS 1 3 : Transit ion t em perat ure t o t he superconduct ing st at e

Subst ance

Transit ion

Subst ance

t em perat ure (K)

Met a ls:

294

Transit ion
t em perat ure (K)

Compounds:

Cadm iu m

0.6

Ni B i

4.2

Zi n c

0.8

PbSe

5.0

Alu m in iu m

1.2

NbB

6.0

Uraniu m

1.3

Nb 2C

9.2

Ti n

3.7

nBC

10.1 t o 10.5

Mercury

4.7

nBN

15 t o 16

Lead

7.3

Nb 3Sn

18

Niobiu m

9.2

YBa2Cu3 O7

90

D ATA SECTI ON

LOGARI THMS
TABLE I
N

10

0000 0043

0086

0128

0170

11

0414 0453

0492

0531

0569

5
0212

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

0792 0828
1139 1173
1461 1492
1761 1790
2041 2068
2304 2330
2553 2577
2788 2810

0864
1206
1523
1818
2095
2355
2601
2833

0899
1239
1553
1847
2122
2380
2625
2856

0253 0294 0334

0374

5
4

13
12

17
16

21
2O

26
24

30
28

34 38
32 36

8
7

12
11

16
15

20
18

23
22

27
26

31 35
29 33

0607

0645 0682 0719

0755

4
4

0969

1004 1038 1072 1106

3
3

7
7

11
10

14
14

18
17

21
20

25
24

28 32
27 31

1303

1335 1367 1399

1430

3
3

6
7

10
10

13
13

16
16

19
19

23
22

26 29
25 29

1614

1644 1673 1703

1732

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

15
14

19
17

22
20

25 28
23 26

1903

1931 1959 1987

2014

3
3

6
6

9
8

11
11

14
14

17
17

20
19

23 26
22 25

2175

2201 2227 2253

2279

3
3

6
5

8
8

11
10

1 4 16
13 1 6

19
18

22 24
21 23

2430

2455 2480 2504

2529

3
3

5
5

8
8

10
10

13
12

15
15

18
17

20 23
20 22

2672

2695 2718 2742

2765

2
2

5
4

7
7

9
9

12 14
11 1 4

17
16

19 21
18 21

2900

2923 2945 2967

2989

2
2

4
4

7
6

9
8

11
11

13
13

16
15

18 20
17 19

0934
1271
1584
1875
2148
2405
2648
2878

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

3010
3222
3424
3617
3802
3979
4150
4314
4472
4624

3032
3243
3444
3636
3820
3997
4166
4330
4487
4639

3054
3263
3464
3655
3838
4014
4183
4346
4502
4654

3075
3284
3483
3674
3856
4031
4200
4362
4518
4669

3096
3304
3502
3692
3874
4048
4216
4378
4533
4683

3118
3324
3522
3711
3892
4065
4232
4393
4548
4698

3139
3345
3541
3729
3909
4082
4249
4409
4564
4713

3160
3365
3560
3747
3927
4099
4265
4425
4579
4728

3181
3385
3579
3766
3945
4116
4281
4440
4594
4742

3201
3404
3598
3784
3962
4133
4298
4456
4609
4757

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1

4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3

6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
4

8
8
8
7
7
7
7
6
6
6

11
10
10
9
9
9
8
8
8
7

13
12
12
11
11
10
10
9
9
9

15
14
14
13
12
12
11
11
11
10

17
16
15
15
14
14
13
13
12
12

19
18
17
17
16
15
15
14
14
13

30
31
32
33
34

4771
4914
5051
5185
5315

4786
4928
5065
5198
5328

4800
4942
5079
5211
5340

4814
4955
5092
5224
5353

4829
4969
5105
5237
5366

4843
4983
5119
5250
5378

4857
4997
5132
5263
5391

4871
5011
5145
5276
5403

4886
5024
5159
5289
5416

4900
5038
5172
5302
5428

1
1
1
1
1

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

6
6
5
5
5

7
7
7
6
6

9
8
8
8
8

10
10
9
9
9

11
11
11
10
10

13
12
12
12
11

35
36
37
38
39

5441
5563
5682
5798
5911

5453
5575
5694
5809
5922

5465
5587
5705
5821
5933

5478
5599
5717
5832
5944

5490
5611
5729
5843
5955

5502
5623
5740
5855
5966

5514
5635
5752
5866
5977

5527
5647
5763
5877
5988

5539
5658
5775
5888
5999

5551
5670
5786
5899
6010

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

4
4
3
3
3

5
5
5
5
4

6
6
6
6
5

7
7
7
7
7

9
8
8
8
8

10
10
9
9
9

11
11
10
10
10

40
41
42
43
44

6021
6128
6232
6335
6435

6031
6138
6243
6345
6444

6042
6149
6253
6355
6454

6053
6160
6263
6365
6464

6064
6170
6274
6375
6474

6075
6180
6284
6385
6484

6085
6191
6294
6395
6493

6096
6201
6304
6405
6503

6107
6212
6314
6415
6513

6117
6222
6325
6425
6522

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

6
6
6
6
6

8
7
7
7
7

9
8
8
8
8

10
9
9
9
9

45
46
47
48
49

6532
6628
6721
6812
6902

6542
6637
6730
6821
6911

6551
6646
6739
6830
6920

6561
6656
6749
6839
6928

6471
6665
6758
6848
6937

6580
6675
6767
6857
6946

6590
6684
6776
6866
6955

6599
6693
6785
6875
6964

6609
6702
6794
6884
6972

6618
6712
6803
6893
6981

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
4
4

6
6
5
5
5

7
7
6
6
6

8
7
7
7
7

9
8
8
8
8

295

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

LOGARI THMS
TABLE 1 (Continued)

296

50
51
52
53

6990
7076
7160
7243

6998
7084
7168
7251

7007
7093
7177
7259

7016
7101
7185
7267

7024
7110
7193
7275

7033
7118
7202
7284

7042
7126
7210
7292

7050
7135
7218
7300

7059
7143
7226
7308

7067
7152
7235
7316

1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2

3
3
2
2

3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5

6
6
6
6

7
7
7
6

8
8
7
7

54

7324 7332

7340

7348

7356

7364

7372 7380 7388

7396

55
56
57
58
59

7404
7482
7559
7634
7709

7412
7490
7566
7642
7716

7419
7497
7574
7649
7723

7427
7505
7582
7657
7731

7435
7513
7589
7664
7738

7443
7520
7597
7672
7745

7451
7528
7604
7679
7752

7459
7536
7612
7686
7760

7466
7543
7619
7694
7767

7474
7551
7627
7701
7774

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

6
6
6
6
6

7
7
7
7
7

60
61
62
63
64

7782
7853
7924
7993
8062

7789
7860
7931
8000
8069

7796
7768
7938
8007
8075

7803
7875
7945
8014
8082

7810
7882
7952
8021
8089

7818
7889
7959
8028
8096

7825
7896
7966
8035
8102

7832
7903
7973
8041
8109

7839
7910
7980
8048
8116

7846
7917
7987
8055
8122

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

6
6
6
5
5

6
6
6
6
6

65
66
67
68
69

8129
8195
8261
8325
8388

8136
8202
8267
8331
8395

8142
8209
8274
8338
8401

8149
8215
8280
8344
8407

8156
8222
8287
8351
8414

8162
8228
8293
8357
8420

8169
8235
8299
8363
8426

8176
8241
8306
8370
8432

8182
8248
8312
8376
8439

8189
8254
8319
8382
8445

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

6
6
6
6
6

70
71
72
73
74

8451
8513
8573
8633
8692

8457
8519
8579
8639
8698

8463
8525
8585
8645
8704

8470
8531
8591
8651
8710

8476
8537
8597
8657
8716

8482
8543
8603
8663
8722

8488
8549
8609
8669
8727

8494
8555
8615
8675
8733

8500
8561
8621
8681
8739

8506
8567
8627
8686
8745

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

6
5
5
5
5

75
76
77
78
79

8751
8808
8865
8921
8976

8756
8814
8871
8927
8982

8762
8820
8876
8932
8987

8768
8825
8882
8938
8993

8774
8831
8887
8943
8998

8779
8837
8893
8949
9004

8785
8842
8899
8954
9009

8791
8848
8904
8960
9015

8797
8854
8910
8965
9020

8802
8859
8915
8971
9025

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

80
81
82
83
84

9031
9085
9138
9191
9243

9036
9090
9143
9196
9248

9042
9096
9149
9201
9253

9047
9101
9154
9206
9258

9053
9106
9159
9212
9263

9058
9112
9165
9217
9269

9063
9117
9170
9222
9274

9069
9122
9175
9227
9279

9074
9128
9180
9232
9284

9079
9133
9186
9238
9289

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

85
86
87
88
89

9294
9345
9395
9445
9494

9299
9350
9400
9450
9499

9304
9355
9405
9455
9504

9309
9360
9410
9460
9509

9315
9365
9415
9465
9513

9320
9370
9420
9469
9518

9325
9375
9425
9474
9523

9330
9380
9430
9479
9528

9335
9385
9435
9484
9533

9340
9390
9440
9489
9538

1
1
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

5
5
4
4
4

90
91
92
93
94

9542
9590
9638
9685
9731

9547
9595
9643
9689
9736

9552
9600
9647
9694
9741

9557
9605
9652
9699
9745

9562
9609
9657
9703
9750

9566
9614
9661
9708
9754

9571
9619
9666
9713
9759

9576
9624
9671
9717
9763

9581
9628
9675
9722
9768

9586
9633
9680
9727
9773

0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

95
96
97
98
99

9777
9823
9868
9912
9956

9782
9827
9872
9917
9961

9786
9832
9877
9921
9965

9791
9836
9881
9926
9969

9795
9841
9886
9930
9974

9800
9845
9890
9934
9978

9805
9850
9894
9939
9983

9809
9854
9899
9943
9987

9814
9859
9903
9948
9997

9818
9863
9908
9952
9996

0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
3

4
4
4
4
4

D ATA SECTI ON

ANTI LOGARI THMS

TABLE II
N

00
.0 1
.0 2
.0 3
.0 4
.0 5
.0 6
.0 7
.0 8
.0 9

1000
1023
1047
1072
1096
1122
1148
1175
1202
1230

1002
1026
1050
1074
1099
1125
1151
1178
1205
1233

1005
1028
1052
1076
1102
1127
1153
1180
1208
1236

1007
1030
1054
1079
1104
1130
1156
1183
1211
1239

1009
1033
1057
1081
1107
1132
1159
1186
1213
1242

1 012
1035
1059
1084
1109
1135
1161
1189
1216
1245

1014
1038
1062
1086
1112
1138
1164
1191
1219
1247

1016
1040
1064
1089
1114
1140
1167
1194
1222
1250

1019
1042
1067
1091
1117
1143
1169
1197
1225
1253

1021
1045
1069
1094
1119
1146
1172
1199
1227
1256

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3

.1 0
.1 1
.1 2
.1 3
.1 4
.1 5
.1 6
.1 7
.1 8
.1 9

1259
1288
1318
1349
1380
1413
1445
1479
1514
1549

1262
1291
1321
1352
1384
1416
1449
1483
1517
1552

1265
1294
1324
1355
1387
1419
1452
1486
1521
1556

1268
1297
1327
1358
1390
1422
1455
1489
1524
1560

1271
1300
1330
1361
1393
1426
1459
1493
1528
1563

1274
1303
1334
1365
1396
1429
1462
1496
1531
1567

1276
1306
1337
1368
1400
1432
1466
1500
1535
1570

1279
1309
1340
1371
1403
1435
1469
1503
1538
1574

1282
1312
1343
1374
1406
1439
1472
1507
1542
1578

1285
1315
1346
1377
1409
1442
1476
1510
1545
1581

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3

2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

.2 0
.2 1
.2 2
.2 3
.2 4

1585
1622
1660
1698
1738

1589
1626
1663
1702
1742

1592
1629
1667
1706
1746

1596
1633
1671
1710
1750

1600
1637
1675
1714
1754

1603
1641
1679
1718
1758

1607
1644
1683
1722
1762

1611
1648
1687
1726
1766

1614
1652
1690
1730
1770

1618
1656
1694
1734
1774

0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

1
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
4
4

.2 5
.2 6
.2 7
.2 8
.2 9

1778
1820
1862
1905
1950

1782
1824
1866
1910
1954

1786
1828
1871
1914
1959

1791
1832
1875
1919
1963

1795
1837
1879
1923
1968

1799
1841
1884
1928
1972

1803
1845
1888
1932
1977

1807
1849
1892
1936
1982

1811
1854
1897
1941
1986

1816
1858
1901
1945
1991

0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

2
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

.3 0
.3 1
.3 2
.3 3
.3 4
.3 5
.3 6
.3 7
.3 8
.3 9

1995
2042
2089
2138
2188
2239
2291
2344
2399
2455

2000
2046
2094
2143
2193
2244
2296
2350
2404
2460

2004
2051
2099
2148
2198
2249
2301
2355
2410
2466

2009
2056
2104
2153
2203
2254
2307
2360
2415
2472

2014
2061
2109
2158
2208
2259
2312
2366
2421
2477

2018
2065
2113
2163
2213
2265
2317
2371
2427
2483

2023
2070
2118
2168
2218
2270
2323
2377
2432
2489

2028
2075
2123
2173
2223
2275
2328
2382
2438
2495

2032
2080
2128
2178
2228
2280
2333
2388
2443
2500

2037
2084
2133
2183
2234
2286
2339
2393
2449
2506

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5

4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5

.4 0
.4 1
.4 2
.4 3
.4 4
.4 5
.4 6
.4 7
.4 8

2512
2570
2630
2692
2754
2818
2884
2951
3020

2518
2576
2636
2698
2761
2825
2891
2958
3027

2523
2582
2642
2704
2767
2831
2897
2965
3034

2529
2588
2649
2710
2773
2838
2904
2972
3041

2535
2594
2655
2716
2780
2844
2911
2979
3048

2541
2600
2661
2723
2786
2851
2917
2985
3055

2547
2606
2667
2729
2793
2858
2924
2992
3062

2553
2612
2673
2735
2799
2864
2931
2999
3069

2559
2618
2679
2742
2805
2871
2938
3006
3076

2564
2624
2685
2748
2812
2877
2944
3013
3083

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6

5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

.4 9

3090 3097

3105

3112

3119

3126

3133 3141 3148

3155

297

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

ANTI LOGARI THMS

TABLE I I (Continued)

298

.5 0
.5 1
.5 2
.5 3
.5 4

3162
3236
3311
3388
3467

3170
3243
3319
3396
3475

3177
3251
3327
3404
3483

3184
3258
3334
3412
3491

3192
3266
3342
3420
3499

3199
3273
3350
3428
3508

3206
3281
3357
3436
3516

3214
3289
3365
3443
3524

3221
3296
3373
3451
3532

3228
3304
3381
3459
3540

1
1
1
1
1

1
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4

4
5
5
5
5

5
5
5
6
6

6
6
6
6
6

7
7
7
7
7

.5 5
.5 6

3548 3556
3631 3639

3565
3648

3573
3656

3581
3664

3589
3673

3597 3606 3614

3681 3690 3698

3622
3707

1
1

2
2

2
3

3
3

4
4

5
5

6
6

7
7

7
8

.5 7
.5 8
.5 9

3715 3724
3802 3811
3890 3899

3733
3819
3908

3741
3828
3917

3750
3837
3926

3758
3846
3936

3767 3776 3784

3855 3864 3873
3945 3954 3963

3793
3882
3972

1
1
1

2
2
2

3
3
3

3
4
4

4
4
5

5
5
5

6
6
6

7
7
7

8
8
8

.6 0
.61
.6 2
.6 3
.6 4
.6 5
.6 6
.6 7
.6 8
.6 9

3981
4074
4169
4266
4365
4467
4571
4677
4786
4898

3990
4083
4178
4276
4375
4477
4581
4688
4797
4909

3999
4093
4188
4285
4385
4487
4592
4699
4808
4920

4009
4102
4198
4295
4395
4498
4603
4710
4819
4932

4018
4111
4207
4305
4406
4508
4613
4721
4831
4943

4027
4121
4217
4315
4416
4519
4624
4732
4842
4955

4036
4130
4227
4325
4426
4529
4634
4742
4853
4966

4046
4140
4236
4335
4436
4539
4645
4753
4864
4977

4055
4150
4246
4345
4446
4550
4656
4764
4875
4989

4064
4159
42S6
4355
4457
4560
4667
4775
4887
5000

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7

6
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8

7
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9

8
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10

.7 0 5012
.7 1 5129
.72 5248
.73 5370
.7 4 5495
.7 5 5623
.7 6 5754
.7 7 5888
.78 6026
.7 9 6166

5023
5140
5260
5383
5508
5636
5768
5902
6039
6180

5035
5152
5272
5395
5521
5649
5781
5916
6053
6194

5047
5164
5284
5408
5534
5662
5794
5929
6067
6209

5058
5176
5297
5420
5546
5675
5808
5943
6081
6223

5070
5188
5309
5433
5559
5689
5821
5957
6095
6237

5082
5200
5321
5445
5572
5702
5834
5970
6109
6252

5093
5212
5333
5458
5585
5715
5848
5984
6124
6266

5105
5224
5346
5470
5598
5728
5861
5998
6138
6281

5117
5236
5358
5483
5610
5741
5875
6012
6152
6295

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7

7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
9

8
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10

9 11
10 11
10 11
10 11
10 12
10 12
11 12
11 12
11 13
11 13

.8 0
.8 1
.8 2
.8 3
.8 4

6310
6457
6607
6761
6918

6324
6471
6622
6776
6934

6339
6486
6637
6792
6950

6353
6501
6653
6808
6966

6368
6516
6668
6823
6982

6383
6531
6683
6839
6998

6397
6546
6699
6855
7015

6412
6561
6714
6871
7031

6427
6577
6730
6887
7047

6442
6592
6745
6902
7063

1
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3

4
5
5
5
5

6
6
6
6
6

7
8
8
8
8

9
9
9
9
10

10
11
11
11
11

12 13
12 14
12 14
131 4
13 15

.8 5
.8 6
.8 7
.8 8
.8 9

7079
7244
7413
7586
7762

7096
7261
7430
7603
7780

7112
7278
7447
7621
7798

7129
7295
7464
7638
7816

7145
7311
7482
7656
7834

7161
7328
7499
7674
7852

7178
7345
7516
7691
7870

7194
7362
7534
7709
7889

7211
7379
7551
7727
7907

7228
7396
7568
7745
7925

2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
4
4

5
5
5
5
5

7
7
7
7
7

8
8
9
9
9

10
10
10
11
11

12
12
12
12
13

13 15
13 15
14 16
14 16
14 16

.9 0
.9 1
.9 2
.9 3
.9 4

7943
8128
8318
8511
8710

7962
8147
8337
8531
8730

7980
8166
8356
8551
8750

7998
8185
8375
8570
8770

8017
8204
8395
8590
8790

8035
8222
8414
8610
8810

8054
8241
8433
8630
8831

8072
8260
8453
8650
8851

8091
8279
8472
8670
8872

8110
8299
8492
8690
8892

2
2
2
2
2

4
4
4
4
4

6
6
6
6
6

7
8
8
8
8

9
9
10
10
10

11
11
12
12
12

13
13
14
14
14

15 17
15 17
15 17
16 18
16 18

.9 5
.9 6
.9 7
.9 8
.9 9

8913
9120
9333
9550
9772

8933
9141
9354
9572
9795

8954
9162
9376
9594
9817

8974
9183
9397
9616
9840

8995
9204
9419
9638
9863

9016
9226
9441
9661
9886

9036
9247
9462
9683
9908

9057
9268
9484
9705
9931

9078
9290
9506
9727
9954

9099
9311
9528
9750
9977

2
2
2
2
2

4
4
4
4
5

6
6
7
7
7

8
8
9
9
9

10
11
11
11
11

12
13
13
13
14

15
15
15
16
16

17 19
17 19
17 20
18 20
18 20

D ATA SECTI ON

NATURAL SI NES
TABLE I
0'

6'

12'

18'

24'

30'

36'

42'

48'

54'

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

M ean
Differences
1'

2'

3'

4'

5'

.0000

0017

0035

0052

0070

0087

0105

0122

0140

0157

12

15

.0175

0192

0209

0227

0244

0262

0279

0297

0314

0332

12

15

2
3

.0349
.0523

0366
0541

0384
0558

0401
0576

0419
0593

0436
0610

0454
0628

0471
0645

0488
0663

0506
0680

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

15
15

.0698

0715

0732

0750

0767

0785

0802

0819

0837

0854

12

15

.0872

0889

0906

0924

0941

0958

0976

0993

1011

1028

12

14

6
7

.1045
.1219

1063
1236

1080
1253

1097
1271

1115
1288

1132
1305

1149
1323

1167
1340

1184
1357

1201
1374

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

14
14

.1392

1409

1426

1444

1461

1478

1495

1513

1530

1547

12

14

9
10

.1564
.1736

1582
1754

1599
1771

1616
1788

1633
1805

1650
1822

1668
1840

1685
1857

1702
1874

1719
1891

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

14
14

11

.1908

1925

1942

1959

1977

1994

2011

2028

2045

2062

11

14

12
13

.2079
.2250

2096
2267

2113
2284

2130
2300

2147
2317

2164
2334

2181
2351

2198
2368

2215
2385

2232
2402

3
3

6
6

9
8

11
11

14
14

14

.2419

2436

2453

2470

2487

2504

2521

2538

2554

2571

11

14

15

.2588

2605

2622

2639

2656

2672

2689

2706

2723

2740

11

14

16
17

.2756
.2924

2773
2940

2790
2957

2807
2974

2823
2990

2840
3007

2857
3024

2874
3040

2890
3057

2907
3074

3
3

6
6

8
8

11
11

14
14

18

.3090

3107

3123

3140

3156

3173

3190

3206

3223

3239

11

14

19
20

.3256
.3420

3272
3437

3289
3453

3305
3469

3322
3486

3338
3502

3355
3518

3371
3535

3387
3551

3404
3567

3
3

5
5

8
8

11
11

14
14

21

.3584

3600

3616

3633

3649

3665

3681

3697

3714

3730

11

14

22

.3746

3762

3778

3795

3811

3827

3843

3859

3875

3891

11

14

23
24

.3907
.4067

3923
4083

3939
4099

3955
4115

3971
4131

3987
4147

4003
4163

4019
4179

4035
4195

4051
4210

3
3

5
5

8
8

11
11

14
13

25

.4226

4242

4258

4274

4289

4305

4321

4337

4352

4368

11

13

26
27

.4384
.4540

4399
4555

4415
4571

4431
4586

4446
4602

4462
4617

4478
4633

4493
4648

4509
4664

4524
4679

3
3

5
5

8
8

10
10

13
13

28

.4695

4710

4726

4741

4756

4772

4787

4802

4818

4833

10

13

29
30

.4848
.5000

4863
5015

4879
5030

4894
5045

4909
5060

4924
5075

4939
5090

4955
5105

4970
5120

4985
5135

3
3

5
5

8
8

10
10

13
13

31

.5150

5165

5180

5195

5210

5225

5240

5255

5270

5284

10

12

32

.5299

5314

5329

5344

5358

5373

5388

5402

5417

5432

10

12

33
34

.5446
.5592

5461
5606

5476
5621

5490
5635

5505
5650

5519
5664

5534
5678

5548
5693

5563
5707

5577
5721

2
2

5
5

7
7

10
10

12
12

35

.5736

5750

5764

5779

5793

5807

5821

5835

5850

5864

10

12

36
37

.5878
.6018

5892
6032

5906
6046

5920
6060

5934
6074

5948
6088

5962
6101

5976
6115

5990
6129

6004
6143

2
2

5
5

7
7

9
9

12
12

38

.6157

6170

6184

6198

6211

6225

6239

6252

6266

6280

11

39
40

.6293
.6428

6307
6441

6320
6455

6334
6468

6347
6481

6361
6494

6374
6508

6388
6521

6401
6534

6414
6547

2
2

4
4

7
7

9
9

11
11

41

.6561

6574

6587

6600

6613

6626

6639

6652

6665

6678

11

42

.6691

6704

6717

6730

6743

6756

6769

6782

6794

6807

11

43
44

.6820
.6947

6833
6959

6845
6972

6858
6984

6871
6997

6884
7009

6896
7022

6909
7034

6921
7046

6934
7059

2
2

4
4

6
6

8
8

11
10

299

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

NATURAL SI NES
TABLE I (Continued)

300

0'

6'

12'

18'

24'

30'

36'

42'

48'

54'

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

M ean
Differences
1'

2'

3'

4'

5'

45

.7071

7083

7096

7108

7120

7133

7145

7157

7169

7181

10

46

.7193

7206

7218

7230

7242

7254

7266

7278

7290

7302

10

47

.7314

7325

7337

7349

7361

7373

7385

7396

7408

7420

10

48
49

.7431
.7547

7443
7558

7455
7570

7466
7581

7478
7593

7490
7604

7501
7615

7513
7627

7524
7638

7536
7649

2
2

4
4

6
6

8
8

10
9

50

.7660

7672

7683

7694

7705

7716

7727

7738

7749

7760

51

.7771

7782

7793

7804

7815

7826

7837

7848

7859

7869

52
53

.7880
.7986

7891
7997

7902
8007

7912
8018

7923
8028

7934
8039

7944
8049

7955
8059

7965
8070

7976
8080

2
2

4
3

5
5

7
7

9
9

54

.8090

8100

8111

8121

8131

8141

8151

8161

8171

8181

55
56

.8192
.8290

8202
8300

8211
8310

8221
8320

8231
8329

8241
8339

8251
8348

8261
8358

8271
8368

8281
8377

2
2

3
3

5
5

7
6

8
8

57

.8387

8396

8406

8415

8425

8434

8443

8453

8462

8471

58
59

.8480
.8572

8490
8581

8499
8590

8508
8599

8517
8607

8526
8616

8536
8625

8545
8634

8554
8643

8563
8652

2
1

3
3

5
4

6
6

8
7

60

.8660

8669

8678

8686

8695

8704

8712

8721

8729

8738

61

.8746

8755

8763

8771

8780

8788

8796

8805

8813

8821

62
63

.8829
.8910

8838
8918

8846
8926

8854
8934

8862
8942

8870
8949

8878
8957

8886
8965

8894
8973

8902
8980

1
1

3
3

4
4

5
5

7
6

64

.8988

8996

9003

9011

9018

9026

9033

9041

9048

9056

65
66

.9063
.9135

9070
9143

9078
9150

9085
9157

9092
9164

9100
9171

9107
9178

9114
9184

9121
9191

9128
9198

1
1

2
2

4
3

5
5

6
6

67

.9205

9212

9219

9225

9232

9239

9245

9252

9259

9265

68

.9272

9278

9285

9291

9298

9304

9311

9317

9323

9330

69
70

.9336
.9397

9342
9403

9348
9409

9354
9415

9361
9421

9367
9426

9373
9432

9379
9438

9385
9444

9391
9449

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

71

.9455

9461

9466

9472

9478

9483

9489

9494

9500

9505

72
73

.9511
.9563

9516
9568

9521
9573

9527
9578

9532
9583

9537
9588

9542
9593

9548
9598

9553
9603

9558
9608

1
1

2
2

3
3

3
3

4
4

74

.9613

9617

9622

9627

9632

9636

9641

9646

9650

9655

75
76

.9659
.9703

9664
9707

9668
9711

9673
9715

9677
9720

9681
9724

9686
9728

9690
9732

9694
9736

9699
9740

1
1

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
3

77

.9744

9748

9751

9755

9759

9763

9767

9770

9774

9778

78

.9781

9785

9789

9792

9796

9799

9803

9806

9810

9813

79
80

.9816
.9848

9820
9851

9823
9854

9826
9857

9829
9860

9833
9863

9836
9866

9839
9869

9842
9871

9845
9874

1
0

1
1

2
1

2
2

3
2

81

.9877

9880

9882

9885

9888

9890

9893

9895

9898

9900

82
83

.9903
.9925

9905
9928

9907
9930

9910
9932

9912
9934

9914
9936

9917
9938

9919
9940

9921
9942

9923
9943

0
0

1
1

1
1

2
1

2
2

84

:9945

9947

9949

9951

9952

9954

9956

9957

9959

9960

85
86

.9962
.9976

9963
9977

9965
9978

9966
9979

9968
9980

9969
9981

9971
9982

9972
9983

9973
9984

9974
9985

0
0

0
0

1
1

1
1

1
1

87

.9986

9987

9988

9989

9990

9990

9991

9992

9993

9993

88

.9994

9995

9995

9996

9996

9997

9997

9997

9998

9998

89
90

.9998
1.000

9999

9999

9999

9999

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

D ATA SECTI ON

NATURAL COSI NES

TABLE II
0'

6'

12'

18'

24'

30'

36'

42'

48'

54'

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

M ean

1'

2'

3'

4'

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

.9999

9999

9999

9999

1
2

.9998
.9994

9998
9993

9998
9993

9997
9992

9997
9991

9997
9990

9996
9990

9996
9989

9995
9988

9995
9987

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
1

0
1

.9986

9985

9984

9983

9982

9981

9980

9979

9978

9977

4
5

.9976
.9962

9974
9960

9973
9959

9972
9957

9971
9956

9969
9954

9968
9952

9966
9951

9965
9949

9963
9947

0
0

0
1

1
1

1
1

1
2

.9945

9943

9942

9940

9938

9936

9934

9932

9930

9928

7
8

.9925
.9903

9923
9900

9921
9898

9919
9895

9917
9893

9914
9890

9912
9888

9910
9885

9907
9882

9905
9880

0
0

1
1

1
1

2
2

2
2

.9877

9874

9871

9869

9866

9863

9860

9857

9854

9851

10

.9848

9845

9842

9839

9836

9833

9829

9826

9823

9820

11
12

.9816
.9781

9813
9778

9810
9774

9806
9770

9803
9767

9799
9763

9796
9759

9792
9755

9789
9751

9785
9748

1
1

1
1

2
2

2
3

3
3

13

.9744

9740

9736

9732

9728

9724

9720

9715

9711

9707

14
15

.9703
.9659

9699
9655

9694
9650

9690
9646

9686
9641

9681
9636

9677
9632

9673
9627

9668
9622

9664
9617

1
1

1
2

2
2

3
3

4
4

16

.9613

9608

9603

9598

9593

9588

9583

9578

9573

9568

17
18

.9563
.9511

9558
9505

9553
9500

9548
9494

9542
9489

9537
9483

9532
9478

9527
9472

9521
9466

9516
9461

1
1

2
2

3
3

3
4

4
5

19

.9455

9449

9444

9438

9432

9426

9421

9415

9409

9403

20

.9397

9391

9385

9379

9573

9367

9361

9354

9348

9342

21
22

.9336
.9272

9330
9265

9323
9259

9317
9252

9311
9245

9304
9239

9298
9232

9291
9225

9285
9219

9278
9212

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
6

23

.9205

9198

9191

9184

9178

9171

9164

9157

9150

9143

24
25

.9135
.9063

9128
9056

9121
9048

9114
9041

9107
9033

9100
9026

9092
9018

9085
9011

9078
9003

9070
8996

1
1

2
3

4
4

5
5

6
6

26

.8988

8980

8973

8965

8957

8949

8942

8934

8926

27

.8910

8902

8894

8886

8878

8870

8862

8854

28
29

.8829
.8746

8821
8738

8813
8729

8805
8721

8796
8712

8788
8704

8780
8695

8771
8686

30

.8660

8652

8643

8634

8625

8616

8607

31
32

.8572
.8480

8563
8471

8554
8462

8545
8453

8536
8443

8526
8434

8517
8425

33

.8387

8377

8368

8358

8348

8339

34
3S

.8290
.8192

8281
8181

8271
8171

8261
8161

8251
8151

8241
8141

36

.8090

8080

8070

8059

8049

37

.7986

7976

7965

7955

7944

38
39

.7880
.7771

7869
7760

7859
7749

7848
7738

40

.7660

7649

7638

41
42

.7547
.7431

7536
7420

7524
7408

43

.7314

7302

44

.7193

7181

Differences
5'

8918

8838

8763
8678

8755
8669

1
1

3
3

4
4

6
6

7
7

8599

8590

8581

8508
8415

8499
8406

8490
8396

2
2

3
3

5
5

6
6

8
8

8329

8320

8310

8300

8231
8131

8221
8121

8211
8111

8202
8100

2
2

3
3

5
5

7
7

8
8

8039

8028

8018

8007

7997

7934

7923

7912

7902

7891

7837
7727

7826
7716

7815
7705

7804
7694

7793
7683

7782
7672

2
2

4
4

5
6

7
7

9
9

7627

7615

7604

7593

7581

7570

7559

7513
7396

7501
7385

7490
7373

7478
7361

7466
7349

7455
7337

7443
7325

2
2

4
4

6
6

8
8

10
10

7290

7278

7266

7254

7242

7230

7218

7206

10

7169

7157

7145

7133

7120

7108

7096

7083

10

301

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

NATURAL COSI NES

TABLE I I (Continued)

302

0'

6'

12'

18'

24'

30'

36'

42'

48'

54'

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

M ean

1'

2'

3'

4'

5'

45
46

.7071
.6947

7059
6934

7046
6921

7034
6909

7022
6896

7009
6884

6997
6871

6984
6858

6972
6845

6959
6833

2
2

4
4

6
6

8
8

10
11

47

.6820

6807

6794

6782

6769

6756

6743

6730

6717

6704

11

48
49

.6691
.6561

6678
6547

6665
6534

6652
6521

6639
6508

6626
6494

6613
6481

6600
6468

6587
6455

6574
6441

2
2

4
4

7
7

9
9

11
11

50

.6428

6414

6401

6388

6374

6361

6347

6334

6320

6307

11

51

.6293

6280

6266

6252

6239

6225

6211

6198

6184

6170

11

52
53

.6157
.6018

6143
6004

6129
5990

6115
5976

6]01
5962

6088
5948

6074
5934

6060
5920

6046
5906

6032
5892

2
2

5
5

7
7

9
9

11
12

54

.5878

5864

5850

5835

5821

5807

5793

5779

5764

5750

12

55
56

.5736
.5592

5721
5577

5707
5563

5693
5548

5678
5534

5664
55]9

5650
5505

5635
5490

5621
5476

5606
5461

2
2

5
5

7
7

10
10

12
12

57

.5446

5432

5417

5402

5388

5373

5358

5344

5329

5314

10

12

58
59

.5299
.5150

5284
5135

5270
5120

5255
5105

5240
5090

5225
5075

5210
5060

5195
5045

5180
5030

5165
5015

2
3

5
5

7
8

10
10

12
13

60

.5000

4985

4970

4955

4939

4924

4909

4894

4879

4863

10

13

61

.4848

4833

4818

4802

4787

4772

4756

4741

4726

4710

10

13

62
63

.4695
.4540

4679
4524

4664
4509

4648
4493

4633
4478

4617
4462

4602
4446

4586
4431

4571
4415

4555
4399

3
3

5
5

8
8

10
10

13
13

64

.4384

4368

4352

4337

4321

4305

4289

4274

4258

4242

11

13

65
66

.4226
.4067

4210
4051

4195
4035

4179
4019

4163
4003

4147
3987

4131
3971

4115
3955

4099
3939

4083
3923

3
3

5
5

8
8

11
11

13
14

67

.3907

3891

3875

3859

3843

3827

3811

3795

3778

3762

11

14

68

.3746

3730

3714

3697

3681

3665

3649

3633

3616

3600

11

14

69
70

.3584
.3420

3567
3404

3551
3387

3535
3371

3518
3355

3502
3338

3486
3322

3469
3305

3453
3289

3437
3272

3
3

5
5

8
8

11
11

14
14

71

.3256

3239

3223

3206

3190

3173

3156

3140

3123

3107

11

14

72
73

.3090
.2924

3074
2907

3057
2890

3040
2874

3024
2857

3007
2840

2990
2823

2974
2807

2957
2790

2940
2773

3
3

6
6

8
8

11
11

14
14

74

.2756

2740

2723

2706

2689

2672

2656

2639

2622

2605

11

14

75
76

.2588
.2419

2571
2402

2554
2385

2538
2368

2521
2351

2504
2334

2487
2317

2470
2300

2453
2284

2436
2267

3
3

6
6

8
8

11
11

14
14

77

.2250

2233

2215

2198

2181

2164

2147

2130

2113

2096

11

14

78

.2079

2062

2045

2028

2011

1994

1977

1959

1942

1925

11

14

79
80

.1908
.1736

1891
1719

1874
1702

1857
1685

1840
1668

1822
1650

1805
1633

1788
1616

1771
1599

1754
1582

3
3

6
6

9
9

11
12

14
14

81

.1564

1547

1530

1513

1495

1478

1461

1444

1426

1409

12

14

82
83

.1392
.1219

1374
1201

1357
1184

1340
1167

1323
1149

1305
1132

1288
1115

1271
1097

1253
1080

1236
1063

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

14
14

84

.1045

1028

1011

0993

0976

0958

0941

0924

0906

0889

12

14

85
86

.0872
.0698

0854
0680

0837
0663

0819
0645

0802
0628

0785
0610

0767
0593

0750
0576

0732
0558

0715
0541

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

15
15

87

.0523

0506

0488

0471

0454

0436

0419

0401

0384

0366

12

15

88

.0349

0332

0314

0297

0279

0262

0244

0227

0209

0192

12

15

89
90

.0175
.0000

0157

0140

0122

0105

0087

0070

0052

0035

0017

12

15

Differences

D ATA SECTI ON

NATURAL TANGENTS
TABLE III
0'

6'

12'

18'

24'

30'

36'

42'

48'

54'

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

M ean

1'

2'

3'

4'

5'

.0000

0017

0035

0052

0070

0087

0105

0122

0140

0157

12

15

1
2

.0175
.0349

0192
0367

0209
0384

0227
0402

0244
0419

0262
0437

0279
0454

0297
0472

0314
0489

0332
0507

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

15
15

.0524

0542

0559

0577

0594

0612

0629

0647

0664

0682

12

15

4
5

.0699
.0875

0717
0892

0734
0910

0752
0928

0769
0945

0787
0963

0805
0981

0822
0998

0840
1016

0857
1033

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

15
15

.1051

1069

1086

1104

1122

1139

1157

1175

1192

1210

12

15

7
8

.1228
.1405

1246
1423

1263
1441

1281
1459

1299
1477

1317
1495

1334
1512

1352
1530

1370
1548

1388
1566

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

15
15

.1584

1602

1620

1638

1655

1673

1691

1709

1727

1745

12

15

10

.1763

1781

1799

1817

1835

1853

1871

1890

1908

1926

12

15

11
12

.1944
.2126

1962
2144

1980
2162

1998
2180

2016
2199

2035
2217

2053
2235

2071
2254

2089
2272

2107
2290

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
12

15
15

13

.2309

2327

2345

2364

2382

2401

2419

2438

2456

2475

12

15

14
15

.2493
.2679

2512
2698

2530
2717

2549
2736

2568
2754

2586
2773

2605
2792

2623
2811

2642
2830

2661
2849

3
3

6
6

9
9

12
13

16
16

16

.2867

2886

2905

2924

2943

2962

2981

3000

3019

3038

13

16

17
18

.3057
.3249

3076
3269

3096
3288

3115
3307

3134
3327

3153
3346

3172
3365

3191
3385

3211
3404

3230
3424

3
3

6
6

10
10

13
13

16
16

19

.3443

3463

3482

3502

3522

3541

3561

3581

3600

3620

10

13

16

20

.3640

3659

3679

3699

3719

3739

3759

3779

3799

3819

10

13

17

21
22

.3839
.4040

3859
4061

3879
4081

3899
4101

3919
4122

3939
4142

3959
4163

3979
4183

4000
4204

4020
4224

3
3

7
7

10
10

13
14

17
17

23

.4245

4265

4286

4307

4327

4348

4369

4390

4411

4431

10

14

17

24
25

.4452
.4663

4473
4684

4494
4706

4515
4727

4536
4748

4557
4770

4578
4791

4599
4813

4621
4834

4642
4856

4
4

7
7

11
11

14
14

18
18

26

.4877

4899

4921

4942

4964

4986

5008

5029

5051

5073

11

15

18

27

.5095

5117

5139

5161

5184

5206

5228

5250

5272

5295

11

15

18

28
29

.5317
.5543

5340
5566

5362
5589

5384
5612

5407
5635

5430
5658

5452
5681

5475
5704

5498
5727

5520
5750

4
4

8
8

11
12

15
15

19
19

30

.5774

5797

5820

5844

5867

5890

5914

5938

5961

5985

12

16

20

31
32

.6009
.6249

6032
6273

6056
6297

6080
6322

6104
6346

6128
6371

6152
6395

6176
6420

6200
6445

6224
6469

4
4

8
8

12
12

16
16

20
20

33

.6494

6519

6544

6569

6594

6619

6644

6669

6694

6720

13

17

21

34
35

.6745
.7002

6771
7028

6796
7054

6822
7080

6847
7107

6873
7133

699
7159

6924
7186

6950
7212

6976
7239

4
4

9
9

13
13

17
18

21
22

36

.7265

7292

7319

7346

7373

7400

7427

7454

7481

7508

14

18

23

37

.7536

7563

7590

7618

7646

7673

7701

7729

7757

7785

14

18

23

38
39

.7813
.8008

7841
8127

7869
8156

7898
8185

7926
8214

7954
8243

7983
8273

8012
8302

8040
8332

8069
8361

5
5

9
10

14
15

19
20

24
24

40

.8391

8421

8451

8481

8511

8541

8571

8601

8632

8662

10

15

20

25

41
42

.8693
.9004

8724
9036

8754
9067

8785
9099

8816
9131

8847
9163

8878
9195

8910
9228

8941
9260

8972
9293

5
5

10
11

16
16

21
21

26
27

43

.9325

9358

9391

9424

9457

9490

9523

9556

9590

9623

11

17

22

28

44

.9657

9691 9725

9759

9793

9827

9861

9896

9930

9965

11

17

23

29

Differences

303

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

NATURAL TANGENTS
TABLE I I I (Continued)

304

0'

6'

12'

18'

24'

30'

36'

42'

48'

54'

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

M ean
Differences
1'

2'

3'

4'

5'

4 5 1 .0 0 0 0

0035

0070

0105

0141

0176

0212

0247

0283

0319

12

18

24

46

1 .0 3 5 5

0392

0428

0464

0501

0538

0575

0612

0649

0686

12

18

25

47

1- 0724

0761

0799

0837

0875

0913

0951

0990

1028

1067

13

19

25

32

48
49

1- 1106
1 .1 5 0 4

1145
1544

1184
1585

1224
1626

1263
1667

1303
1708

1343
1750

1383
1792

1423
1833

1463
1875

7
7

13
14

20
21

27
28

33
34

50

1- 1918

1960

2002

2045

2088

2131

2174

2218

2261

2305

14

22

29

35

51
52

1 .2 3 4 9
1 .2 7 9 9

2393
2846

2437
2892

2482
2938

2527
2985

2572
3032

2617
3079

2662
3127

2708
3175

2753
3222

8
8

15
16

23
24

30
31

38
39

53

1 .3 2 7 0

3319

3367

3416

3465

3514

3564

3613

3663

3713

16

25

33

41

54

1 .3 7 6 4

3814

3865

3916

3968

4019

4071

4124

4176

4229

17

26

34

43

55

1- 4281

4335

4388

4442

4496

4550

4605

4659

4715

4770

18

27

36

45

56

1- 4826

4882

4938

4994

5051

5108

5166

5224

5282

5340

10

19

29

38

48

57

1 .5 3 9 9

5458

5517

5577

5637

5697

5757

5818

5880

5941

10

20

30

40

50

58
59

1 .6 0 0 3
1 .6 6 4 3

6066
6709

6128
6775

6191
6842

6255
6909

6319
6977

6383
7045

6447
7113

6512
7182

6577
7251

11
11

21
23

32
34

43
45

53
56

60

1- 7321

7391

7461

7532

7603

7.675

7747

7820

7893

7966

12

24

36

48

60

61
62

1 .8 0 4 0
1 .8 8 0 7

8115
8887

8190
8967

8265
9047

8341
9128

8418
9210

8495
9292

8572
9375

8650
9458

8728
9542

13
14

26
27

38
41

51
55

64
68

63

1 .9 6 2 6

9711

9797

9883

9970

2 .0 0 5 7 2 .0 1 4 5 2 .0 2 3 3 2 .0 3 2 3 2 .0 4 1 3 1 5

29

44

58

73

64

2 .0 5 0 3

0594

0686

0778

0872

0965

1060

1155

1251

1348

16

31

47

63

78

65
66

2 .1 4 4 5
2 .2 4 6 0

1543
2566

1642
2673

1742
2781

1842
2889

1943
2998

2045
3109

2148
3220

2251
3332

2355
3445

17
18

34
37

51
55

68
73

85
92

67

2 .3 5 5 9

3673

3789

3906

4023

4142

4262

4383

4504

4627

20

40

60

79

99

68
69

2 .4 7 5 1
2 .6 0 5 1

4876
6187

5002
6325

5129
6464

5257
6605

5386
6746

5517
6889

5649
7034

5782
7179

5916
7326

22
24

43
47

65
71

87
95

108
119

70

2 .7 4 7 5

7625

7776

7929

8083

8239

8397

8556

8716

8878

26

52

78

104

131

71
72

2 .9 0 4 2
3 .0 7 7 7

9208
0961

9375
1146

9544
1334

9714
1524

9887
1716

3 .0 0 6 1 3 .0 2 3 7 3 .0 4 1 5 3 .0 5 9 5 2 9
1910
2106
2305
2500
32

58
64

87
96

116
129

145
161

73

3 .2 7 0 9

2914

3122

3332

3544

3759

3977

4197

4420

4646

36

72

108

144

180

74

3 .4 8 7 4

5105

5339

5576

5816

6059

6305

6554

6806

7062

41

811 2 2

163

204

75
76

3 .7 3 2 1
4 .0 1 0 8

7583
0408

7848
0713

8118
1022

8391
1335

8667
i653

8947
1976

9232
2303

9520
2635

9812
2972

46
53

9 3 139
107 160

186
213

232
267

77

4 .3 3 1 5

3662

4015

4374

4737

5107

5483

5864

6252

6646

78
79

4 .7 0 4 6
5 .1 4 4 6

7453
1929

7867
2422

8288
2924

8716
3435

9152
3955

9594
4486

5 .0 0 4 5 5 .0 5 0 4 5 .0 9 7 0 M ean differ en ces cease

5026
5578
6140
t o be su fficien t ly accu r at e.

80

5 .6 7 1 3

7297

7894

8502

9124

9758

6 .0 4 0 5 6 .1 0 6 6 6 .1 7 4 2 6 .2 4 3 2

81
82

6 .3 1 3 8
7 .1 1 5 4

3859
2066

4596
3002

5350
3%2

6122
4947

6912
5958

7720
6996

83

8 .1 4 4 3

2636

3863

5126

6427

7769

9152

9 .0 5 7 9 9 .2 0 5 2 9 .3 5 7 2

84

9 .5 1 4 4

9.677

9.845

10.02

10.20

10.39

10.58

10.78

10.99

11-20

85
86

1143
14.30

11.66
14.67

11.91
15.06

12.16
15.46

12.43
15.89

12.71
16.35

13.00
16.83

13.30
17.34

13.62
17.89

13.95
18.46

87

19.08

19.74

20.45

21.20

22.02

22.90

23.86

24.90

26.03

27.27

88
89

28.64
57.29

30.14
63.66

31.82
71.62

33.69
81.85

35.80
95.49

38.19
114.6

40.92
143.2

44.07
191.0

47.74
286.5

52.08
573.0

90

n ot defin ed

8548
8062

9395
9158

7 .0 2 6 4
8 .0 2 8 5

30
31

D ATA SECTI ON

Not es

305

L ABORATORY M ANUAL

Not es

306