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Power Quality
REFERENCE GUIDE
6th Edition
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Co-ordinated by:
Kai M. Chan, P. Eng.
Coordinator
Neither Ontario Hydro, nor any person acting on its behalf, assumes any
liabilities with respect to the use of or for damages resulting from the use
of any information, equipment, product, method, or process disclosed in
this guide.
Printed in Canada.
1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1996 Ontario Hydro
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to extend my appreciation to everyone who assisted in
reviewing this guide and to those who provided information and
diagrams. In particular, I thank the following individuals for their
assistance:
Alex McEachern
Mark F. McGranaghan
David Murray
Gerald Park
John E. Sullivan
Les Tokawa
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 - DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
2 - SIGNIFICANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
3 - STAKEHOLDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
4 - COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
5 - TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
6 - ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING . . . . . . . . .23
7 - ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
8 - HARMONIC DISTORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
9 - LOAD SENSITIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
10 - MITIGATION TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
11 - MEASUREMENT & MONITORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
12 - PREVENTION & TROUBLESHOOTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
13 - STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES . . . . . . . .157
14 - ONTARIO MANUFACTURERS & SUPPLIERS . . . . . . . . .165
15 - SUGGESTED READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
16 - GLOSSARY OF TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
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1
DEFINITION
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DEFINITION
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5
SIGNIFICANCE
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SIGNIFICANCE
Sensitive Loads
Disturbance-Producing Equipment
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9
COSTS
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COSTS
11
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13
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING
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Figure 4.1
Electrical Transmission and Distribution
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Figure 4.2
240/120v Single-phase Service
Figure 4.3
Typical 208v Three-phase Wye Connected Service
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Figure 4.4
Grounded WYE Connection
Site Distribution
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Figure 4.5
Typical Residential Service
Figure 4.6
Service with Branch Panelboards
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Figure 4.7
Typical Transformer Installation
Typically, the computer loads are fed from line to neutral, and
motors are fed from line to line supply.
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Figure 4.8
Motor and ADP Loads Supplied from the Same Feeder
Feeder has resistance of 0.075 ohms,
during a motor start the voltage drop along the feeder is:
V = IR
= 160A x 0.075
= 12v
Voltage at computer unit is 120 -12 =108v
Voltage at motor is 208 - ( 3 x 12) =187v
If the motor load and the computer load are supplied from
separate feeders then the voltage drop does not occur in the
feeder supplying the computer unit.
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Figure 4.9
Motor and Computer Loads Supplied from Separate Feeder
Figure 4.10
Isolation Transformer Added to Computer Feeder Supply
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Grounding
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The above are the only places where the neutral is connected to
the ground conductor and any other connections, either
intentional or unintentional, can be dangerous and can lead to
power quality problems.
Equipment Bonding
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These two points are directed toward personnel safety and can
be illustrated as follows:
Figure 4.11a
Equipment Without Proper Equipment Bonding
Figure 4.11b
Equipment With Proper Equipment Bonding
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Circuits are grounded to this point via the site distribution system
wiring.
Figure 4.12
Loads Connected in Series
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Figure 4.13
Schematic Representation of the Grounding of Series Loads
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This method costs more because it requires more wire and has
higher installation costs. It is not practical to wire an entire site
this way, but wiring sensitive circuits in this manner is practical.
Figure 4.14a
Parallel Connection of Loads
Figure 4.14b
Schematically Represented
The ground potential for each load at the connection point is the same as
they are connected to the same common ground point.
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Figure 4.15
Common Grounding Point for Equipment
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Figure 4.16
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The single point, parallel path, ground which made for a good
equipment ground makes for a poor high frequency signal
ground.
Figure 4.17
Equivalent Circuit of a Wire
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Figure 4.18
Zero Signal Reference Grid
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37
ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
39
Figure 5.1
Pure Sinusoidal AC Voltage Waveform
Figure 5.2
Elements of a Power Quality Problem
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
41
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
Voltage Limits
Single-Phase
120/240
240
480
600
106/212
212
424
530
110/220
220
440
550
125/250
250
500
625
127/254
254
508
635
Three-Phase
4-conductor
120/208Y
240/416Y
277/480Y
347/600Y
110/190
220/308
245/424
306/530
112/194
224/388
254/440
318/550
125/216
250/432
288/500
360/625
127/220
254/440
293/508
367/635
Three-Phase
3-conductor
240
480
600
212
424
530
220
440
550
250
500
625
254
508
635
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
43
See also Figure 7.3 (pg. 84) which provides information on the
voltage flicker curve used for the Ontario Hydro distribution
system.
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
Figure 5.5
RMS Voltage and Current Produced when Starting a Motor
(Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
45
Figure 5.6
Relative Occurrence of Disturbances to Power
Systems Supplying Computers
Source: Goldstein and Speranza, "The Quality of U. S. Commercial
AC Power'; Proceedings of INTELEC Conference, 1982.
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
In 1991, the Canadian Electrical Association undertook a threeyear study of power quality in Canada called the National Power
Quality Survey*. Twenty-two utilities across the country
performed monitoring for a month at over 500 sites.
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
47
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
Figure 5.7
Example of a Repetitive Reclosure Operation
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
49
Type of Control
t1
t2
t3
hydraulic
electronic
<0.5
5-10
Figure 5.8
Effect of Multiple Reclosure Operation on Voltage
(Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)
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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES
The fact that most High Intensity Discharge (HID) lighting, which
is frequently used in industrial settings, can take 10-20 minutes
to come back on after a fault has cleared is a further example of
an apparent power supply problem that actually represents
normal operation of the utility distribution network. The lengthy
period of time before light is restored results from the
characteristics of the lighting system. Although special HID
systems are available that eliminate this problem, they do not
represent the majority that are currently used.
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63
HARMONIC DISTORTION
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
65
Definition
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
Figure 6.1
Superposition of Harmonic on Fundamental:
Initially In-Phase
In this example, the two waveforms begin in-phase with each other,
and produce a distorted waveshape with a flattened top.
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
67
Figure 6.2
Superposition of Harmonic on Fundamental:
Initially Out-of-Phase
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
Sector
Industrial
Sources
Variable speed drives,
welders, large UPS
systems, lighting systems
Common Problems
Overheating and fuse
blowing of power factor
correction capacitors
Overheating of
supply transformers
Tripping of overcurrent
protection
Commercial
Computers, electronic
office equipment,
lighting
Overheating of neutral
conductors and
transformers
Interference
Residential
Personal computers,
lighting, electronic
devices
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
69
Figure 6.3
Harmonics Produced by Three-Phase Controlled Loads
(Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)
Aside from solid state power converters, loads may also produce
harmonics if they have nonlinear characteristics, meaning that
the impedance of the device changes with the applied voltage.
Examples include saturated transformers, and gaseous
discharge lighting, such as fluorescent, mercury arc and high
pressure sodium lights.
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
Effects of Harmonics
The addition of power factor correction capacitors to harmonicproducing loads can worsen the situation, if they have parallel
resonance with the inductance of the power system. This results
in amplifying the harmonic currents producing high harmonic
voltages.
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
71
Table 6.2
Harmonic Effects on Equipment
EQUIPMENT
HARMONIC EFFECTS
RESULTS
Capacitors
(all; not just
those for
power factor
correction)
capacitor impedance
decreases with increasing
frequency, so capacitors
act as sinks where
harmonics converge;
capacitors do not,
however, generate harmonics
supply system inductance
can resonate with capacitors
at some harmonic frequency
causing large currents and
voltages to develop
dry capacitors cannot dissipate
heat very well, and are
therefore more susceptible to
damage from harmonics
breakdown of dielectric
material
capacitors used in computers
are particularly susceptible,
since they are often
unprotected by fuses or relays
heating of
capacitors due
to increased
dielectric
losses
short circuits
fuse failure
capacitor
explosion
Transformers
transformer
heating
reduced life
increased
copper and
iron losses
insulation stress
noise
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
Table 6.2 (Continued)
Harmonic Effects on Equipment
EQUIPMENT
HARMONIC EFFECTS
RESULTS
Motors
increased losses
harmonic voltages produce
magnetic fields rotating at a
speed corresponding to the
harmonic frequency
motor heating
mechanical
vibrations
and noise
pulsating
torques
increased
copper and iron
losses in stator
and rotor
windings, from
5-10%
reduced
efficiency
reduced life
voltage stress
on insulation of
motor windings
Circuit
Breakers
failure to
interrupt
currents
Electro mechanical
Induction Disk
Relays
additional torque
components are produced
and may alter the time delay
characteristics of the relays
incorrect
tripping of
relays
incorrect
readings
Watt hour
Meters,
Overcurrent
Relays
harmonics generate
additional torque on the
induction disk which can
cause improper operation
since these devices are only
calibrated for accurate
operation on the fundamental
frequency
incorrect
readings
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
73
HARMONIC EFFECTS
electronic controls are often
dependent on the zero
crossing, or on the voltage
peak for proper control;
however, harmonics can
significantly alter these
parameters, thus adversely
affecting operation
RESULTS
maloperation
of control
and protection
equipment
premature
equipment
failure
erratic
static drives
and robots
Filters
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
Capacitors
Advantages
Disadvantages
low
to
relatively
vulnerable
incremental cost
power system
Place an inductor in
series with the
capacitor bank, and
tune their series
resonance below
the major harmonics
ability to
better
minimize
ease of tuning
harmonics
for
flexibility
changing load
conditions
changes
inductor
series
increases the
fundamental
frequency
voltage of the
capacitor;
therefore, a
higher rated
capacitor may
be required
Converters
By using converters with high pulse numbers, such as twelvepulse units, high-amplitude low order harmonics can be
significantly reduced. A similar effect occurs with pulse width
modulated converters.
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
75
Harmonic Study
Equipment Specifications
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
Other Methods
As a rule of thumb, the Short Circuit Ratio (see Section 13) can
be used to determine if harmonics produced by a rectifier will be
significant. If the resonant harmonic order is above 8.5 and the
Short Circuit Ratio is above 20, harmonics are probably not a
significant problem.
THD =
1/2
X 100 %
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HARMONIC DISTORTION
77
Dedicated
System Converter+
General
Power Systems
10%
5%
8%
5%
1.5%
1.5%
5%++
3%
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79
LOAD SENSITIVITY
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LOAD SENSITIVITY
81
Computers
Figure 7.1
DC Power: Voltage vs. Time
Although the curve in Figure 7.2 (pg. 82) is called the CBEMA
(Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association)
curve, no CBEMA member company is known to have made any
claim for product performance or disclaimer for non-performance
for their products when operated within or outside this curve.
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LOAD SENSITIVITY
Figure 7.2
Computer Susceptibility Profile
to Line Voltage Variations and Disturbances
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LOAD SENSITIVITY
83
Lighting
Incandescent lights:
product life varies inversely with applied voltage
light output increases with applied voltage
Fluorescent lights:
product life is not significantly affected by applied voltage,
although ballast may overheat with high applied voltage
light output is proportional to applied voltage
generally less susceptible to flicker
Motors
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LOAD SENSITIVITY
General
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85
MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
87
Dedicated Circuits
For improved operation of the circuit, the neutral and the ground
wires should be the same size as the current-carrying conductor.
Mitigating Equipment
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Power line
conditioner
SPS
MG
Set
Voltage line
regulator
Isolation
transformer
Transient
suppressor
Harmonic
filter
Type of Equipment
Figure 8.1
Relative Cost Comparison of Mitigating Equipment
Based on 100 kVA Rating
* Cost increases with kVA rating. Typical maximum relative costs
are shown for equipment rated at 100 kVA.
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
89
TRANSIENT SUPPRESSORS
Transient suppressors are energy diverters that pass the energy
contained in a transient to the ground. There are a variety of
designs available including gas discharge tubes, line clamps made
of semiconducting material, and hybrid designs which may contain
linear inductive or capacitive components. It is important to note
that transient suppressors do not provide voltage regulation or
isolation.
Lightning Arresters
Figure 8.2
Effect of Lightning Arrester During Overvoltage
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Figure 8.3
Effect of Line Clamp on Transient Voltages
120 Volt System
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
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Figure 8.4
Example of Impulses Not Clamped
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Uses
Disadvantages
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Examples of filters that are not tuned are the simple low pass
filter, and the simple high pass filter:
Figure 8.5
Examples of Untuned Filters
93
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Two important types of filters are series filters and parallel filters.
Figure 8.6
Examples Of Shunt Circuits
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
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Figure 8.7
Examples of Series Circuits
Uses
Simple low pass filters attenuate high frequencies, and have the
general characteristics most desired in filters for improved power
quality and noise attenuation.
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Special designs are used to attenuate harmonics. A shuntconnected tuned filter, which consists of an inductor, a capacitor
and a resistor, is tuned to eliminate a specific harmonic order by
providing a low impedance to the harmonic frequency and
shunting the harmonic energy to ground. A number of these
filters may be arranged in stages, with each stage selectively
filtering a given harmonic frequency.
Figure 8.8
Examples of Harmonic Filters
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
97
Disadvantages
Low pass series filters are seldom used for harmonic attenuation
since they must be rated for full line current making them
relatively expensive.
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS
Design and Operation
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Figure 8.9
Shielded Isolation Transformer
Uses
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
101
Disadvantages
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Uses
Disadvantages
Ferroresonant Transformers
Design and Operation
Voltage output is fixed by the size of the core and by the number
of turns.
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
103
Figure 8.10
Neutralizing Winding in Ferroresonant Transformer
Clips Voltage Transients and Normal Mode Noise
Uses
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Disadvantages
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
105
Figure 8.11
Tap Switching Transformer
Uses
Disadvantages
Power Conditioners
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
UPS SYSTEMS
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
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Figure 8.12
Configuration of UPS Maintenance Bypass Line
Mode of
Operation
Normal
Operation
Maintenance
Mode
Hazardous
Malfunction
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Figure 8.13
Square Wave Output of Simple Standby UPS
(Reproduced with permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)
The problem can be avoided by selecting a UPS system with a
synthesized sine wave.
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
109
Examples
Life safety
Communications networks
Monitoring systems
Money, property
UPS Components
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Two basic types of batteries that are used for UPS systems are
lead acid and sealed maintenance free. Lead acid batteries are
also now available in sealed versions for stationary applications.
When selecting a UPS battery, the cell size, cell life, required
voltage and manufacturer's warranty should be considered. It is
also important to note that battery discharge time as a function of
load is not a linear relationship
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
111
The most popular types of lead acid batteries are lead antimony,
lead calcium and lead Plante, or pure lead.
Typical
Warranty (yrs)
Life
Expectancy (yrs)
20
20-25
Lead
Antimony
15-20
20-22
Plante
(pure lead)
20-25
indefinite
(high)
Nickel Cadmium
(NICAD)
Lead Calcium
Gel Cells
25
Table 8.1
Comparison of UPS Batteries
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Rotary UPS
Design and Operation
Figure 8.14
On-Line Rotary UPS
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
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Uses
Disadvantage
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Figure 8.15
Continuous Static UPS
For smaller units (<100 kVA), pulse width modulated transistorbased inverters are often employed.
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
115
Uses
They are used for computer and process control systems that
require a period of time for performance of an orderly shutdown.
They are available for both small and large systems, from
0.8 kVA to 1,000 kVA.
Disadvantages
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Figure 8.16
Line Interactive Static UPS
Uses
It has the same uses as the continuous static UPS, and is useful
where noise and space are important considerations.
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117
The ride-through capability of the M-G set eliminates the need for
the inverter to turn on for brief AC power interruptions lasting less
than 200 to 500 ms, improving the efficiency of this power supply
system.
Figure 8.17
Rotary UPS System With Off-Line Inverter
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Uses
Disadvantages
Standby UPS
Design and Operation
The simple off-line static UPS has the same configuration as the
on-line version, but it only switches in when it senses a
fluctuation or interruption in the power supply. In other words, the
system operates on "bypass" during normal operation.
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119
Figure 8.18
Simple Static UPS
The simple off-line static system is the least expensive and the
least sophisticated UPS on the market.
Uses
Disadvantages
The simple static UPS is limited to small loads, under 10.0 kVA.
It provides no isolation or regulation. In normal mode operation,
AC line power is fed directly to the UPS output, and is not
regulated in any way.
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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
Like the off-line rotary UPS, the user will not know if the inverter,
which is the weakest link, fails until it is too late. In addition, the
combination of the response time of the system, a low battery
storage capability and lengthy battery recharging times may
render the system ineffective for extreme or repetitious
disturbance situations. However, for many applications, the
reliability of the system is acceptable.
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121
Figure 8.19
Ferroresonant UPS
Uses
Dlsadvantages
SUMMARY
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129
MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
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131
Measurement Techniques
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Analog Converters:
Digital Converters:
Page 132
Average Measurements
Peak Measurements
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133
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135
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137
PREVENTION AND TROUBLESHOOTING
10
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Keep the signal ground separate from the power ground except
for one common point for the whole system.
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2. Check wiring
and
grounding:
3. Analyze the
disturbance,
if applicable:
4. If required,
identify the
technology that
will mitigate
the problem:
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143
STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES 11
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Standards
CSA Standards
ANSI/IEEE Standards
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ANSI/IEEE C62.41. IEEE Guide for Surge Voltages in LowVoltage AC Power Circuits (formerly IEEE 587).
IEEE Standards
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IEEE Guidelines
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151
SUGGESTED READING
12
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SUGGESTED READING
153
General
AC Power Handbook: Problems & Solutions, 5th ed. San Diego:
RTE DELTEC,1984.
Clemmensen, J.M. and M.J. Samotyj. Electric Utility Options in
Power Quality Assurance. Public Utilities Fortnightly. June 11.
1987.
Douglas, J. "Quality Power in the Electronics Age" EPRI Journal
(November 1985): 3-13.
Dugan, R.C., McGranaghan and H.W. Beaty. Electrical Power
Systems Quality. McGraw-Hill: 1996.
Wright Hilbig, R. Power Quality Mitigation Reference Guide.
Toronto: Ontario Hydro, 1996.
Guideline on Electrical Power for ADP Installations, (FIPS
Publication 94) Washington: National Bureau of Standards,
1983.
Key. Thomas S. Diagnosing Power Quality-Related Computer
Problems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications IA-IS,
No. 4, July/Aug.1979.
Lawrie. Robert J.. ed. Electrical Systems for Computer
Installations, New York: McGraw Hill.1988.
Solutions to Power Problems in Computers & Other Critical
Equipment, An Executive Overview. Power Conditioning
Application Notes. Mentor. Ohio: Cyberex Inc., [n.d.]
Disturbances
Goldstein. M. and P.D. Speranza. "The Quality of US Commercial
AC Power". INTELEC International Telecommunications Energy
Conference. Washington (October 3-6.1982): 28-33.
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SUGGESTED READING
Mitigating Equipment
Computer Power Conditioners. New York: Electrical Construction
and Maintenance: A McGraw-Hill Publication. 1984.
How to Correct Power Line Disturbances. Edison. N.J.: Dranetz
Technologies Inc. 1985.
Monitoring
How to Identify Power Line Disturbances. Edison. N.J.: Dranetz
Technologies Inc. 1985.
Martzloff, Franois D. and Thomas M. Gruzs "Power Quality Site
Surveys: Facts, Fiction and Fallacies. IEEE Conference
Recording Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Technical Conference 1987. Nashville, Tn (May 4-7, 1987):
21-33.
Martzloff, Franois. Power Quality Measurement: Bringing Order
Out of Chaos. Proceedings from the 15th Energy Technology
Conference. Washington D.C. February 17-19, 1988.
McEachern, Alexander. Handbook of Power Signatures. Foster
City. Ca.: Basic Measuring Instruments, 1988.
McEachern. Alexander, "Approaching Power Problems
Systematically." Compute Electronic Service News (August
1986).
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SUGGESTED READING
155
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157
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
13
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
159
Capacitance:
Converter:
Faraday Shield:
Impedance:
Inductance:
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
I.T Product:
I.T
Joule:
measure of energy
Joule = power x time
1 kWh 3.6 x 106 joules
Nominal Voltage:
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
161
Power:
Power Factor:
Reactance:
Rectifier:
Resistance:
Resonance:
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
a type of thyristor
Thyristor:
1/2
X 100 %
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Page 4
COMMENTS:
For any changes, additions and/or comments call or write to:
Scott Rouse
Account Executive
Ontario Hydro
700 University Avenue, H10-F18
Toronto, Ontario
M5G 1X6
Telephone (416) 592-8044
Fax. (416) 592-4841
E-Mail
srouse@hydro.on.ca
1/9/01
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Ontario Hydro