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Power Quality GUIDE

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$15.95 CDN

Power Quality
REFERENCE GUIDE

6th Edition

Power Quality GUIDE

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Page 3

First Edition, October 1986


Second Edition, January 1987
Third Edition, April 1989
Fourth Edition, October 1990 (reprinted March 1992)
Fifth Edition, August 1992
Sixth Edition, October 1996

Co-ordinated by:
Kai M. Chan, P. Eng.
Coordinator

Neither Ontario Hydro, nor any person acting on its behalf, assumes any
liabilities with respect to the use of or for damages resulting from the use
of any information, equipment, product, method, or process disclosed in
this guide.

In-H ouse Energy Efficiency

Energy Savings are Good Business

Printed in Canada.
1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1996 Ontario Hydro

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to extend my appreciation to everyone who assisted in
reviewing this guide and to those who provided information and
diagrams. In particular, I thank the following individuals for their
assistance:
Alex McEachern

Basic Measuring Instruments

Mark F. McGranaghan

Electrotek Concepts, Inc.

David Murray

Datasphere Sales Ltd.

Gerald Park

Michigan State University

John E. Sullivan

Power Quality Consultant

Les Tokawa

Webster Instruments Ltd.

Maura C. Ryan P. Eng


Ontario Hydro
1989

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 - DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
2 - SIGNIFICANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
3 - STAKEHOLDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
4 - COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
5 - TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
6 - ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING . . . . . . . . .23
7 - ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
8 - HARMONIC DISTORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
9 - LOAD SENSITIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
10 - MITIGATION TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
11 - MEASUREMENT & MONITORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
12 - PREVENTION & TROUBLESHOOTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
13 - STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES . . . . . . . .157
14 - ONTARIO MANUFACTURERS & SUPPLIERS . . . . . . . . .165
15 - SUGGESTED READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
16 - GLOSSARY OF TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187

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1
DEFINITION

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DEFINITION

Power Quality is the degree to which both the utilization and


delivery of electric power affects the performance of
electrical equipment.

Any deviation to the magnitude or frequency of the ideal


sinusoidal voltage waveform can be regarded as a Power
Quality disturbance.

The best measure of power quality is the ability of electrical


equipment to operate in a satisfactory manner, given proper care
and maintenance. The load should be designed for compatibility
with the electrical system.

Performance measures and operating guidelines for electrical


equipment may be defined in standards, policies and procedures.

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5
SIGNIFICANCE

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SIGNIFICANCE

Power quality is becoming an increasingly important topic,


judging from the frequency of problems experienced by electrical
end-users.

Major contributing factors to the problems associated with power


quality are as follows:

Sensitive Loads

The electric utility system was designed to provide reliable,


efficient, bulk power that is suitable for running motors and other
traditional electrical equipment.

Highly sensitive devices such as personal computers and other


computerized equipment have been widely adopted by electrical
end-users. Some of these devices are very susceptible to power
line disturbances.

Disturbance-Producing Equipment

There is an increasing use of disturbance-producing equipment


such as solid state switching semiconductors, arc furnaces,
welders and electric variable speed drives.

Sensitive equipment can also generate disturbances.


Examples where power quality difficulties can produce significant
problems include:
essential public services (paramedics, hospitals, police, air
traffic control)
important business applications (banking, inventory control,
process control)
critical industrial processes (programmable process controls,
safety systems, monitoring devices).

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9
COSTS

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COSTS

11

The costs associated with solving or reducing power quality


problems can vary from the inexpensive, for example, checking
for loose wiring connections, to the very expensive, such as
purchasing and installing an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
or ensuring utility circuit compatibility. See Figure 9.1 for relative
equipment prices.

Costs associated with equipment sensitivity, emission of


disturbances, and installation should be factored into the
purchase of any electrical product.

Even if no power quality problems are experienced in a


customer's facility, steps should be taken to minimize the
propagation of disturbances which may originate there and
reflect back into the utility distribution system.

Some specific costs in addition to the purchase price, that should


be considered when purchasing any electrical product include
the following:
- site preparation (space requirements, air conditioning, etc.)
- installation
- maintenance
- operating costs, considering efficiency for actual
operating conditions
- parts replacement
- availability of service on equipment
- consulting advice (if applicable)
- mitigating equipment requirements

The cost of purchasing any mitigating equipment must be


weighed with the degree of protection required. In a non-critical
application, for instance, it would not be necessary to install a
UPS system to protect against power interruptions.

Ontario Hydro power supply agreements with customers specify


the responsibilities of both the utility and the customers with
regard to costs.

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13
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING

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ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING 15

A number of power quality problems are due to improper or


ineffective electrical distribution and grounding within the
customers site, according to surveys recently conducted in the
United States during the 1970s and 1980s.

Typical grounding and distribution problems result from the


following:
improper wiring due to a misunderstanding of the differentiation
between earth ground and safety ground
high impedance in the earth ground system
excessive levels of current in the grounding system, due to
wiring errors, leakage current, ground loops, and other
problems.

It must be realized that although mitigating equipment when


properly applied will resolve voltage quality problems, they will do
nothing to resolve problems arising from the site distribution and
grounding system.

It is essential that the site distribution and grounding system be


designed and installed properly and in accordance with the
Electrical Safety Code to ensure the safety of personnel and
proper equipment operation.

All electrical equipment used must be CSA approved or Ontario


Hydro inspected to ensure the safety of personnel.

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16 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING


Electrical Distribution

Electrical power is generated at various power stations and is


transmitted throughout the province at high voltage through the
bulk transmission system.

Power is taken from the bulk transmission system and is


transmitted regionally via the regional supply system.

Power is distributed locally through the distribution system and


municipal utilities.

The voltage of the distribution system is reduced to the


appropriate level and supplied to the customers service
entrance.

Figure 4.1
Electrical Transmission and Distribution

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ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING 17


Voltage Levels and Configurations

The power supplied to the customer by the utility will be either


single-phase or three-phase power.

Single-phase power is usually supplied to residential, small office


and small commercial buildings.

The typical voltage level for single-phase power is 120/240 volts.

Figure 4.2
240/120v Single-phase Service

Three-phase power is usually supplied to commercial,


agricultural and industrial customers.

Figure 4.3
Typical 208v Three-phase Wye Connected Service

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18 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING

Typical voltage levels for three-phase power supplied to


commercial and industrial customers is 208 or 600 volts
measured phase to phase.

Rotating equipment such as large motors and other large


equipment require three-phase power to operate, but many loads
require only single-phase power. Single-phase power is obtained
from a three-phase system by connecting the load between two
phases or from one phase to the neutral conductor.

Different connection schemes result in different voltage levels


being obtained.

Figure 4.4
Grounded WYE Connection

Some commercial and industrial equipment purchased from


American sources will require 480v ( - ) or 277v ( - N),
voltages common in the U.S. This type of equipment is typically
powered through a step-down transformer fed from a 600v
( - ) or 347v ( - N) circuit.

Site Distribution

Electrical power enters the customers premises via the service


entrance and then passes through the billing meter to the
panelboard (also referred to as the "fuse box", "breaker panel",
etc.).

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ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING 19

In many applications such as residential or commercial all


electrical circuits will be run from this panelboard.

Figure 4.5
Typical Residential Service

In larger distribution systems this power panelboard will supply


other panelboards which in turn supply circuits.

Figure 4.6
Service with Branch Panelboards

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20 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING

A transformer is used if a different voltage or isolation from the


rest of the distribution system is required.

The transformer effectively creates a new power supply system


and a new grounding point on the neutral.

Figure 4.7
Typical Transformer Installation

Distribution System Considerations for Sensitive Loads

The quality of the power supplying sensitive loads is very heavily


influenced by other loads within a customer's facility. If there are
"heavy" loads such as motors or heating, ventilating and air
conditioning systems being supplied, voltage drops and electrical
noise can be generated causing power quality problems for
sensitive loads such as computer loads.

As an illustration, consider the following distribution system


supplying both motor loads and computer loads.

Typically, the computer loads are fed from line to neutral, and
motors are fed from line to line supply.

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Figure 4.8
Motor and ADP Loads Supplied from the Same Feeder
Feeder has resistance of 0.075 ohms,
during a motor start the voltage drop along the feeder is:
V = IR
= 160A x 0.075
= 12v
Voltage at computer unit is 120 -12 =108v
Voltage at motor is 208 - ( 3 x 12) =187v

If the motor is a 10 HP motor, it will draw an inrush current in the


order of 160 A for a short period of time when starting.

The resistance of the feeders to the distribution panel supplying


the motor and computer load will cause a voltage drop of 12
volts while the motor is starting. Because of this voltage drop the
computer units will be supplied with only 108 volts which may be
too low for reliable operation. In addition to this, the current
drawn for the first one or two cycles while the motor's stator is
magnetizing is 2 to 3 times higher than the normal starting
current. This will supply the computer load with only 84v during
this time.

If the motor load and the computer load are supplied from
separate feeders then the voltage drop does not occur in the
feeder supplying the computer unit.

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22 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING

It is therefore desirable to supply sensitive loads from separate


feeders.

Figure 4.9
Motor and Computer Loads Supplied from Separate Feeder

An even better approach is to effectively create a new supply


system for the sensitive loads by using a transformer in addition
to a separate feeder.

Figure 4.10
Isolation Transformer Added to Computer Feeder Supply

A transformer establishes a power source and ground at the load


and is effective for reducing common mode noise from the supply
system. The transformer can be of the step-down type to reduce
the supply voltage to the utilization voltage of the equipment or

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ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING 23


an isolation transformer if the supply voltage is already at the
appropriate voltage.

Typical voltages for computer equipment are 120 volts single


phase and 120/208 volts three-phase wye.

The transformer should have a shield which isolates electrical


and magnetic noise coupling from the primary to the secondary
of the transformer. This shield is connected to ground.

The neutral on the secondary of the transformer must be


connected to ground. The ground should be connected to the
service entrance ground for best performance, not just connected
to the ground on the primary side of the transformer.

Grounding

Grounding is one of the most important aspects of an electrical


distribution system but often the least understood.

In Ontario the Electrical Safety Code sets out the legal


requirements for all electrical installations.

Section 10 of the Electrical Safety Code deals with the various


aspects of grounding.

The object of grounding is given in section 10-002:10-002


Object. Grounding as required by this Code shall be done in
such a manner as to efficiently serve the following purposes:
(a) To protect life from the danger of electric shock, and property
from damage; and
(b) To limit the voltage upon a circuit when exposed to higher
voltages than that for which the circuit is designed; and
(c) In general to limit ac circuit voltage-to-ground to 150 V or
less on circuits supplying interior wiring systems; and
(d) To facilitate the operation of electrical apparatus and
systems; and
(e) To limit the voltage on a circuit which might otherwise occur
through exposure to lightning.

In order to serve the above, effective earth grounding and


equipment grounding is required.

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24 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING


Earth Grounding

Earth grounding establishes the zero voltage reference for an


electrical distribution system and provides protection to the
electrical system and equipment from superimposed voltages
from lightning and contact with higher voltage systems. The earth
ground also prevents the build-up of potentially dangerous static
charge in a building.

The grounding electrode is most commonly a continuous


electrically conductive underground water pipe running from the
premises. Where this is not available the Safety Code describes
other acceptable grounding electrodes in section 10-700.

Grounding resistances as low as reasonably achievable will


improve the grounding system performance of the electrical
distribution system and will give improved protection to
personnel.

Connection of the electrical distribution system to the earth


grounding occurs at the service entrance.

The neutral of the distribution system is connected to ground at


the service entrance.

The neutral and ground are also connected together at the


secondary of a transformer in the distribution system.

Systems must be grounded if, when grounded, their maximum


voltage-to-ground does not exceed 150v, i.e.120/208v, 120/240v
circuits or if the system incorporates a neutral.

The above are the only places where the neutral is connected to
the ground conductor and any other connections, either
intentional or unintentional, can be dangerous and can lead to
power quality problems.

Equipment Bonding

Equipment bonding effectively interconnects all non-current


carrying conductive surfaces such as equipment enclosures,
raceways and conduits to earth ground.

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The purpose of equipment bonding is:


1) To minimize voltages on electrical equipment, thus providing
protection from shock and electrocution to personnel in
contact with the equipment.
2) To provide a low impedance path of ample current carrying
capability to insure the rapid operation of overcurrent devices
under ground fault conditions.

These two points are directed toward personnel safety and can
be illustrated as follows:

Figure 4.11a
Equipment Without Proper Equipment Bonding

Figure 4.11b
Equipment With Proper Equipment Bonding

If the equipment were properly bonded and grounded the


equipment enclosure would present no shock hazard and the
ground fault current would effectively operate the overcurrent
device.

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26 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING


Signal Grounding

Signal grounding provides a common reference point for circuits


of an electronic system. It is not intended to carry fault current or
protect equipment or personnel.

Because safety grounds and signal grounds perform quite


different functions they are ideally independent except at one
point where they are interconnected for safety reasons.

The AC power ground is a generally poor signal ground because


the potential difference at points on the power ground is often
several hundred millivolts or even several volts and can be quite
noisy. Also the AC power ground is generally of low impedance
only at low frequencies whereas the signal ground system often
operates with signals in the tens of megahertz range and even
higher.

If the signal ground system is connected to the AC power ground


system at more than one point, a ground loop is created and
noise from the AC power ground system can be coupled into the
signal ground system and cause interference. With computer
equipment this interference can cause errors in data
transmission and read/write errors on disk drives in addition to
many other problems that are often thought of as hardware or
software problems.

The signal grounding system within a piece of equipment is an


integral part of its design.

The signal ground is sometimes connected to the equipment


ground within the equipment and is connected to the AC power
supply ground when its power supply is connected.

This arrangement is fine when only one piece of equipment is


used, but when interconnected with other equipment the AC
power ground is relied upon for the signal ground path. This may
cause operational problems for reasons already mentioned.

The signal ground and safety ground connection to a piece of


equipment are often separate. With multiple equipment
installations the signal grounds of the various pieces of
equipment should be joined together at a single common ground
point. It is at this common ground point that the signal ground is
connected to the AC power ground to fulfill safety requirements.

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With this arrangement the possibility of AC power ground noise
being coupled into the signal ground system is greatly reduced.

Often it is not practical or possible to separate the signal and


safety ground systems for all equipment in an installation so the
AC power system ground is relied upon for the signal grounding
function. Whether or not this is the case there are some
techniques that should be used in the AC power grounding
system that will improve its performance when supplying
sensitive loads.

Grounding Systems for Sensitive Loads

The neutral/ground connection at the service entrance provides


the ground reference point for the distribution system.

Circuits are grounded to this point via the site distribution system
wiring.

Depending on how the system is wired, it will form a series or a


parallel connected ground system.

To illustrate this, the following shows how a number of loads may


be connected to a single circuit.

Figure 4.12
Loads Connected in Series

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28 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING

The grounding of this circuit is wired in series and can be


schematically shown as the following:

R 1, R2, R3 is the resistance of the conductor connecting


the loads to ground.
Any ground current flowing from the loads causes an
increase in potential along the ground wire connecting the loads.
Ground potential at points A, B and C by Ohms law is:
Potential A =(i1+i2+i3)xRl
Potential B = Potential A + (i2 +i3 x R2)
Potential C = Potential B + i3 x R3

Figure 4.13
Schematic Representation of the Grounding of Series Loads

It can be seen that this system does not provide an equipotential


ground to the loads.

This usually provides no problem to most loads and is the usual


way to wire circuits. However, this may pose problems to some
sensitive equipment operating with other equipment at a slightly
different ground potential.

In order to provide an equipotential ground, the circuits should be


wired in parallel so they share a common ground point.

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With parallel grounding, any ground current arising from a load


will not affect the ground potential of other loads to the same
extent.

This method costs more because it requires more wire and has
higher installation costs. It is not practical to wire an entire site
this way, but wiring sensitive circuits in this manner is practical.

Figure 4.14a
Parallel Connection of Loads

Figure 4.14b
Schematically Represented
The ground potential for each load at the connection point is the same as
they are connected to the same common ground point.

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30 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING

When computer equipment is located in one room, all equipment


could be grounded at one central point where the electrical
supply enters the room. This ensures that common equipment in
the room have a common ground connection at the same
potential.

Figure 4.15
Common Grounding Point for Equipment

Isolated Ground Outlets

An extension of the above grounding method is the isolated


ground outlet.

An isolated ground (IG) outlet as recognized by the Electrical


Safety Code is a receptacle, orange in colour or with an orange
triangle and marked "Isolated Ground", that is wired as an
individual branch circuit outlet. See Figure 4-16 (pg. 31).

This outlet has a separate green or green/yellow wire which runs


continuously from the ground conductor terminal to the first
panelboard where it is connected to the ground bus.

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Bonding of the conduit, boxes, etc. of the circuit is accomplished


by ordinary means, i.e., conduit or a separate ground wire. The
two grounds are connected only at the panelboard.

The advantage of this arrangement is that any ground current


arising from equipment other than the IG supplied equipment will
not cause as severe a potential rise on the ground to the IG
supplied equipment.

Figure 4.16

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32 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING


Notes on Isolated Ground Outlets

The outlet is grounded to the same ground as the electrical


distribution system. The only difference is that it is
connected to ground via a separate wire. The Electrical
Safety Code allows only one earthing ground.

The orange isolated ground outlet is the only recognized isolated


ground outlet.

Isolated grounds cannot extend from equipment other than


isolated ground receptacles.

The National Electrical Code in the United States allows the


green ground wire of an isolated ground outlet to pass through a
panelboard to be grounded at the main service panelboard. This
is not allowed by the Canadian Electrical Code.

The isolated ground wire must be terminated at the ground bus


of the first encountered panelboard.

High Frequency Grounding Considerations

Equipment grounding and the grounding of the electrical


distribution system provide a low impedance path to ground for
low frequencies (mainly 60 Hz).

Computers and microprocessor controlled equipment operate at


high frequencies (often over 10 MHz) and transfer data between
various pieces of equipment at high frequencies and low signal
levels. Because of this, they are very susceptible to electrical
noise and interference.

Noise which can affect the operation of sensitive equipment can


range in frequency from dc to the GHz range. In order to operate
correctly, these types of equipment need an effective means of
grounding for both low and high frequencies.

Effects of Frequency on Conductors

Wiring systems used within a building generally have low


impedance at low frequency, but as the frequency increases the
impedance increases.

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"Real" wiring can be modeled by a wire with resistance and


inductance and stray capacitance to ground distributed along its
length.

For a grounding conductor to be effective at high frequencies it


must be short to minimize the effects of stray capacitance and
distributed inductance along its length.

A rule of thumb is that the conductor should be shorter than


1/20th of the wavelength at that frequency. This means a length
shorter than 1.4 m at 10 MHz.

The single point, parallel path, ground which made for a good
equipment ground makes for a poor high frequency signal
ground.

In order to satisfy both equipment grounding and signal


grounding requirements, a hybrid system should be employed
This system is a combination of the parallel path single point
ground combined with a multipoint ground for good high
frequency performance.

One such method, described in FIPS Publication 94, is a zero


signal reference grid.

Figure 4.17
Equivalent Circuit of a Wire

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34 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION & GROUNDING


Zero Signal Reference Grid

A ground plane is a conducting surface that has low impedance


at high frequency. The ideal situation would be to have all
computer equipment located on a ground plane so short
connections could be made from the equipment to the plane.

While it is not practical to have a true ground plane, an effective


alternative is a grid of conductors spaced on approximately 50cm
centers, bonded at their intersections on the subfloor of the
room's raised floor.

Figure 4.18
Zero Signal Reference Grid

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The grid is grounded to the electrical system ground at the point


where the supply enters the room. All powered equipment is also
grounded at this point making the equipment grounding a single
point system.

Equipment is bonded to the reference grid via short conductors


creating a low impedance path to ground for high frequencies.

This hybrid system satisfies both equipment and high frequency


grounding requirements and complies with the Electrical Safety
Code.

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37
ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

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39

The voltage produced by utility electricity generators has a


sinusoidal waveform with a frequency of 60 Hz. This frequency is
called the fundamental frequency.

Figure 5.1
Pure Sinusoidal AC Voltage Waveform

Any variation to the voltage waveform, in magnitude or in


frequency, is called a power line disturbance, which can cause
problems with the operation of electrical equipment

Three elements are needed to produce a problematic power line


disturbance: a source, a coupling channel and a receptor. If a
receptor that is adversely affected by the power variation is not
present, no power quality problem is experienced.

Figure 5.2
Elements of a Power Quality Problem

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

The following are primary coupling methods:


Conductive coupling - disturbance is conducted through the
power lines into the equipment.
Coupling through common impedance - occurs when currents
from two different circuits flow through a common impedance
such as a common ground. The voltage drop across the
impedance for each circuit is influenced by the other.
Radiated electromagnetic fields - occurs unintentionally due to
arc welders, lightning and intermittent switching of contacts or by
intentional radiation such as that from broadcast stations and
radar transmitters.

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency


Interference (RFI) are terms that are often used interchangeably
to describe disturbances that can be conducted or radiated.
EMI/RFI is generally of high frequency (100 kHz), and can be
radiated in a manner similar to broadcast radio waves.
Unshielded power cables act like receiving antennas, passing
the RFI into the system.
EMI/RFI can also be either conductively coupled, or
capacitively or inductively coupled.

Some types of voltage variations such as electrical noise and


transients, can occur as either normal mode or common mode
disturbances.

A normal or transverse mode disturbance is an unwanted


potential difference between two current-carrying circuit
conductors. In a single-phase circuit it occurs between the hot
conductor and the neutral conductor.

A common mode disturbance is an unwanted potential


difference between all of the current-carrying conductors and the
grounding conductor or earth. In a single-phase circuit it occurs
on both the hot conductor and the neutral conductor
simultaneously, relative to the ground.

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Common mode disturbances include impulses and EMI/RFI


noise with respect to ground.

The severity of any power line disturbance depends on the


relative change in magnitude of the voltage, the duration and the
repetition rate of the disturbance, as well as the nature of the
application.

Power line disturbances are usually classified as voltage


phenomena, with the exception of frequency variations. Voltage
disturbances can affect either the voltage waveform, or the
voltage magnitude. Their descriptions, causes and effects are
summarized in Table 5.1. (pg. 51)

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Voltage Limits

Recommended voltage variation limits applicable at service


entrance points are specified in the Ontario Hydro Customer
Service Reference Manual, Section 12, as follows:

Voltage Standards for Ontario Hydro


Supply to Rural or Retail Customers
Recommended Voltage Variation Limits For Circuits
Up to 1000 Volts at Service Entrances
Voltage Variation Limits Applicable at
Service Entrance Points
Nominal
System
Voltage

Extreme Operating Conditions


Favourable (Normal)
Operating Conditions

Single-Phase
120/240
240
480
600

106/212
212
424
530

110/220
220
440
550

125/250
250
500
625

127/254
254
508
635

Three-Phase
4-conductor
120/208Y
240/416Y
277/480Y
347/600Y

110/190
220/308
245/424
306/530

112/194
224/388
254/440
318/550

125/216
250/432
288/500
360/625

127/220
254/440
293/508
367/635

Three-Phase
3-conductor
240
480
600

212
424
530

220
440
550

250
500
625

254
508
635

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

43

These limits are in agreement with those specified in Canadian


Standard CAN3-C235-83.

In addition to these limits, the Electrical Safety Code specifies


the following constraints (Rule 8-102):
(1 ) The voltage drop in an installation shall:
be based upon the calculated demand load of the feeder
or branch circuit
not exceed 5% from the supply side of the consumer's
service (or equivalent) to the point of utilization
not exceed 3% in a feeder or branch circuit.
(2 )

The demand load on a branch circuit shall be the


connected load, if known, otherwise 80% of the rating of
the overload or overcurrent devices protecting the branch
circuit, whichever is smaller.

For voltages between 1000 V and 50 000 V, the maximum


allowable variation is 6% at the service entrance. There are no
comparable limits for the utilization point.

These voltage ranges exclude fault and temporary heavy load


conditions.

An example of a temporary heavy load condition is the startup of


a motor. Since motors draw more current when they start than
when they are running at their operating speed, a voltage sag
may be produced during the initial startup.

See also Figure 7.3 (pg. 84) which provides information on the
voltage flicker curve used for the Ontario Hydro distribution
system.

It is not feasible from an economic standpoint or from a practical


standpoint for the power utilized at every point on the electrical
system to be free of disturbances at all times. If a disturbancefree voltage waveform is required for the proper operation of an
electrical product, mitigation techniques should be employed.

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

Figure 5.5
RMS Voltage and Current Produced when Starting a Motor
(Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

45

Relative Frequency of Occurrence

Quite frequently, the source of a disturbance originates within a


customer's plant or building. Surveys conducted in the United
States indicate that over 90% of the causes of power quality
disturbances recorded, originate within the customer's or a
neighbour's facility, and are due to the use of disturbanceproducing equipment, improper wiring and grounding, or
misapplication of mitigating equipment.

Some disturbances can be caused by normal utility operations


such as fault clearing, capacitor switching, and line switching.
Although fewer in number than those generated on site, these
events can cause great difficulty for customers with equipment
incompatible with these normal operations.

Figure 5.6
Relative Occurrence of Disturbances to Power
Systems Supplying Computers
Source: Goldstein and Speranza, "The Quality of U. S. Commercial
AC Power'; Proceedings of INTELEC Conference, 1982.

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

In 1991, the Canadian Electrical Association undertook a threeyear study of power quality in Canada called the National Power
Quality Survey*. Twenty-two utilities across the country
performed monitoring for a month at over 500 sites.

By comparing primary and secondary metered sites, the survey


concluded that the average power quality provided by Canadian
utilities is very good, and the average quality experienced by
customers is good.

Results recorded at individual sites varied. The level of transient


activity was between 50 and 320 events per month. These
events mostly fell into the PQ Envelope (CBEMA curve) and thus
caused no problems for customers. These events appear to be
internally generated, since they were not prevalant on primary
metered sites.

Most sites experienced some internally generated sag activity,


while a few waveshape faults (one half cycle to 2 cycles)
recorded appeared to be the result of utility operations. Overall,
the long-term voltage across the country seemed to be on the
high side, with many sites spending some time in the CSA
Extreme Voltage Range.

There are considerable differences in the state of power quality


between sites or locations. This is because of the large number
of factors involved, such as customer equipment and wiring
practices, power quality effects of neighbouring customers, and
geographic and weather conditions.

Sites that have a small independent power source, or one utility


transformer that supplies a number of users, such as strip malls
and large buildings, are particularly prone to power quality
problems. This is because both disturbing and sensitive loads
share the same power supply. In addition, the individual loads
can represent a very large proportion of the total amount of
electricity supplied to the building, so that changes in voltage can
be very significant when one of these loads is turned on or off.

Frequently, customers unknowingly cause their own power


quality problems by operating disturbance-producing process
equipment in the same vicinity as computers.
*Canadian Electrical Association National Power Quality Survey,
CEA Report 220D 711A

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

47

Fault Protection in Utility Distribution Systems

Faults resulting in overvoltages and overcurrents may occur in


the utility system, typically due to lightning, construction,
accidents, high winds, icing and tree or animal intervention with
wires. These faults are normally detected by overcurrent relays
which initiate the operation of fault clearing by equipment.

Faults may be classified as temporary or permanent.

Permanent faults are those which result in repairs, maintenance


or equipment replacement before voltage can be restored.
Protection and control equipment automatically disconnects the
faulted portion of a system to minimize the number of customers
affected.

The utility distribution system includes a number of devices such


as circuit breakers and automatic circuit reclosers, and fused
cutouts which clear faults. Automatic reclosers and reclosing
breakers restore power immediately after temporary faults. Fused
cutouts that have operated must have their fuse replaced before
power can be restored.

These protective devices can reduce the number of customers


affected by a fault, reduce the duration of power interruptions
resulting from temporary faults, and assist in locating a fault,
thereby decreasing the length of interruptions.

Temporary faults may be caused by momentary contact with tree


limbs, lightning flashover, and animal contact.

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

Automatic reclosers and reclosing breakers open a circuit on


overcurrent to prevent any further current flow, and reclose it
after a short period of time.

If a fault does not disappear after one reclosure operation,


additional opening/reclosing cycles can occur.

Figure 5.7
Example of a Repetitive Reclosure Operation

Normally a few seconds are required to detect a fault and


energize the appropriate circuitry for a reclosure.

The reclosing interval for a recloser is the open circuit time


between an automatic opening and the succeeding automatic
reclosure. In the above diagram, three intervals of duration `t' are
indicated.

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

49

Typical reclosing intervals for equipment on the distribution


system in Ontario are as follows:

Some hydraulic reclosers may also be able to provide


instantaneous (0.5 seconds), or four second reclosing intervals.
Reclosing Interval (Seconds)

Type of Control

t1

t2

t3

hydraulic

electronic

<0.5

5-10

In addition to these reclosers, low voltage circuit breakers at


transformer stations throughout Ontario are equipped with timers,
which allow a range of reclosing times to be selected. A
commonly available range is 0.2 to 2 seconds.

Figure 5.8
Effect of Multiple Reclosure Operation on Voltage
(Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)

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ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES

When a solid fault on a feeder is cleared, the voltage at the fault


point declines to near zero instantaneously. However, the time
constant in the detection circuitry results in the graph shown in
Figure 5.8. In this figure, small voltage rises indicate when
reclosure was attempted unsuccessfully due to the persistence of
the fault.

If a fault persists, the recloser or breaker may lock open, or a


fuse or sectionalizer will operate.

An autoreclosure on one feeder which is faulted can produce a


disturbance that travels on neighbouring feeders.

Customers frequently mistake the effects of a temporary


(0.5s - 2s) interruption, such as the loss of time-keeping abilities
of digital clocks, as evidence of a sustained power interruption.

The fact that most High Intensity Discharge (HID) lighting, which
is frequently used in industrial settings, can take 10-20 minutes
to come back on after a fault has cleared is a further example of
an apparent power supply problem that actually represents
normal operation of the utility distribution network. The lengthy
period of time before light is restored results from the
characteristics of the lighting system. Although special HID
systems are available that eliminate this problem, they do not
represent the majority that are currently used.

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63
HARMONIC DISTORTION

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65

Definition

Harmonics are sinusoidal currents and voltages with frequencies


that are integral multiples of the fundamental power line
frequency which is 60 Hz in North America.

Harmonics distort the supplied 60 Hz voltage and current


waveforms from their normal sinusoidal shapes.

Each harmonic is expressed in terms of its order. For example,


the second, third, and fourth order harmonics have frequencies
of 120 Hz,180 Hz, and 240 Hz, respectively.

As order, and therefore frequency, of the harmonics increases,


the magnitude normally decreases. Therefore, lower order
harmonics, usually the fifth and seventh, have the most effect on
the power system.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

The effect of a given harmonic on the power system can be seen


by superimposing the harmonic on the fundamental waveform, to
obtain a composite:

Figure 6.1
Superposition of Harmonic on Fundamental:
Initially In-Phase
In this example, the two waveforms begin in-phase with each other,
and produce a distorted waveshape with a flattened top.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

67

The composite waveform can be changed by adding the same


harmonic, initially out-of-phase with the fundamental, to obtain a
peaked effect:

Figure 6.2
Superposition of Harmonic on Fundamental:
Initially Out-of-Phase

Harmonics can be differentiated from transients on the basis that


transients occur at the natural frequency of the system and are
not steady state phenomena.

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Production and Transmission

Most harmonics result from the operation of customer loads, at


residential, commercial and industrial facilities.
Common Sources of Harmonics

Sector
Industrial

Sources
Variable speed drives,
welders, large UPS
systems, lighting systems

Common Problems
Overheating and fuse
blowing of power factor
correction capacitors
Overheating of
supply transformers
Tripping of overcurrent
protection

Commercial

Computers, electronic
office equipment,
lighting

Overheating of neutral
conductors and
transformers
Interference

Residential

Personal computers,
lighting, electronic
devices

Generally not a problem


However, high density of
electronic loads could
cause overheating of
utility transformers

They are caused by any device or equipment which has


nonlinear voltage-current characteristics. For example, they are
produced in electrical systems by solid state power converters
such as rectifiers that conduct the current in only a portion of
each cycle. Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) or thyristors are
examples of this type of power conversion device.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

69

The levels of harmonic current flowing across the system


impedance (which varies with frequency) determine the harmonic
voltage distortion levels.

Figure 6.3
Harmonics Produced by Three-Phase Controlled Loads
(Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)

Aside from solid state power converters, loads may also produce
harmonics if they have nonlinear characteristics, meaning that
the impedance of the device changes with the applied voltage.
Examples include saturated transformers, and gaseous
discharge lighting, such as fluorescent, mercury arc and high
pressure sodium lights.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

Harmonic currents flow through the electrical system, thereby


distorting the voltage seen by other electrical equipment. Since
the system impedances are usually low (except during
resonance), the magnitudes of the voltage harmonics, and the
extent of voltage distortion are usually lower than that for the
corresponding current distortion.

Harmonics represent a steady state problem, since they are


present as long as the harmonic generating equipment is in
operation. They tend to be of a steady magnitude.

Third harmonic currents are usually most apparent in the neutral


line. These components occur due to the operation of
single-phase nonlinear loads, such as power supplies for
electronic equipment. The third harmonic component produced
on each phase by these loads adds in the neutral. In some
cases, the neutral current can be significantly larger than the
phase currents due to these third harmonic components.

Even-ordered harmonics are not normally generated by


three-phase power converting equipment under balanced
conditions.

Pure (laboratory) sine waves are seldomly seen in the field.

Effects of Harmonics

In many cases, harmonics will not have detrimental effects on


equipment operation. If the harmonics are very severe, however,
or if loads are highly sensitive, a number of problems may arise.
Table 6.2 (pg. 71) lists the major problems associated with
harmonics flowing in the power system.

The addition of power factor correction capacitors to harmonicproducing loads can worsen the situation, if they have parallel
resonance with the inductance of the power system. This results
in amplifying the harmonic currents producing high harmonic
voltages.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

71

Harmonics may show up at distant points from their source, thus


causing problems for neighbouring electrical end-users, as well
as for the utility. In flowing through the utility supply source
impedance, harmonic currents produce distortion in the utility
feeder voltage.

Table 6.2
Harmonic Effects on Equipment
EQUIPMENT

HARMONIC EFFECTS

RESULTS

Capacitors
(all; not just
those for
power factor
correction)

capacitor impedance
decreases with increasing
frequency, so capacitors
act as sinks where
harmonics converge;
capacitors do not,
however, generate harmonics
supply system inductance
can resonate with capacitors
at some harmonic frequency
causing large currents and
voltages to develop
dry capacitors cannot dissipate
heat very well, and are
therefore more susceptible to
damage from harmonics
breakdown of dielectric
material
capacitors used in computers
are particularly susceptible,
since they are often
unprotected by fuses or relays

heating of
capacitors due
to increased
dielectric
losses
short circuits
fuse failure
capacitor
explosion

Transformers

current harmonics cause


higher transformer losses

transformer
heating
reduced life
increased
copper and
iron losses
insulation stress
noise

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Table 6.2 (Continued)
Harmonic Effects on Equipment

EQUIPMENT

HARMONIC EFFECTS

RESULTS

Motors

increased losses
harmonic voltages produce
magnetic fields rotating at a
speed corresponding to the
harmonic frequency

motor heating
mechanical
vibrations
and noise
pulsating
torques
increased
copper and iron
losses in stator
and rotor
windings, from
5-10%
reduced
efficiency
reduced life
voltage stress
on insulation of
motor windings

Circuit
Breakers

blowout coils may not


operate properly in the
presence of harmonic
currents

failure to
interrupt
currents

Electro mechanical
Induction Disk
Relays

additional torque
components are produced
and may alter the time delay
characteristics of the relays

incorrect
tripping of
relays
incorrect
readings

Watt hour
Meters,
Overcurrent
Relays

harmonics generate
additional torque on the
induction disk which can
cause improper operation
since these devices are only
calibrated for accurate
operation on the fundamental
frequency

incorrect
readings

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

73

Table 6.2 (Continued)


Harmonic Effects on Equipment
EQUIPMENT
Electronic and
Computer Controlled
Equipment

HARMONIC EFFECTS
electronic controls are often
dependent on the zero
crossing, or on the voltage
peak for proper control;
however, harmonics can
significantly alter these
parameters, thus adversely
affecting operation

RESULTS
maloperation
of control
and protection
equipment
premature
equipment
failure
erratic
static drives
and robots

In addition to electrical conduction, harmonics can be coupled


inductively or capacitively, thus causing interference on
telecommunication systems. For example, humming on
telephones can be caused by induced harmonic distortion.

A power harmonic analysis can be used to compare distortion


levels against limits of acceptable distortion.

The operation of some solid state devices will produce a notched


effect on the voltage waveform.

Harmonic Prevention and Reduction

It is very important when selecting an electrical system, or


retrofitting an existing one, to take as many precautions as
necessary to minimize possible harmonic problems. This requires
advanced planning and probably additional capital. The whole
electrical environment must be considered.

Filters

Harmonic filters can be used to reduce the amplitude of one or


more harmonic currents or voltages.

Filters may either be used to protect specific pieces of


equipment, or to eliminate harmonics at the source.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

Since harmonic filters are relatively large, space requirements


may have to be budgeted for.

In some situations, improperly tuned filters may shift the resonant


frequencies close to the characteristic harmonics of the source.
The current of the high harmonics could excite the resonant
circuit and produce excessive voltages and attract high
oscillating harmonic currents from elsewhere in the system.

Capacitors

Harmonic amplification due to resonance associated with


capacitor banks can be prevented by the following methods:
Method

Advantages

Disadvantages

Change the size of


the capacitor bank
to shift the resonant
point away from the
major harmonic

low
to
relatively
vulnerable
incremental cost
power system

Place an inductor in
series with the
capacitor bank, and
tune their series
resonance below
the major harmonics

ability to
better
minimize

ease of tuning
harmonics
for
flexibility
changing load
conditions

changes

inductor
series
increases the
fundamental
frequency
voltage of the
capacitor;
therefore, a
higher rated
capacitor may
be required

Converters

By using converters with high pulse numbers, such as twelvepulse units, high-amplitude low order harmonics can be
significantly reduced. A similar effect occurs with pulse width
modulated converters.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

75

Six-pulse rectifiers can be changed into twelve-pulse devices by


connecting their DC side with a phase shift of 30 between input
AC voltages.

Twelve-pulse units are said to provide an optimum tradeoff


between harmonic reduction and costliness.

Telephone Line Interference

Telephone interference can be reduced by the foregoing


prevention and reduction methods and by rerouting the
telephone lines, improved shielding and balance of telephone
cables, grounding telephone cables properly, or by reducing the
harmonic levels on the power line. The degree of telephone
interference can be expressed in terms of the Telephone
Interference Factor (TIF).

The degree of interference with communication circuits is


measured by the I.T. product; see Section 13.

Harmonic Study

Single calculation of resonant frequencies, transient network


analysis, and digital simulation are among the techniques
available today to perform harmonic studies. These tools could
be used to accurately model the power network and the
harmonic sources, and perform the harmonic analysis in the
same manner as traditional load flow, short circuit and transient
stability studies are conducted. Experienced consultants may be
approached to conduct or assist in a harmonic study.

Equipment Specifications

Consider the effect on your power system when ordering


harmonic producing equipment. Large projects may require a
pre-installation harmonic study. Be prepared for filtering
requirements if necessary to ensure compatibility with the power
system.

If an harmonic filter is required, a description of the power


system should be considered in its design, including:
fault level at the service entrance

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

rating and impedance of transformers between the service


entrance and the input to the power conditioning equipment
details of all capacitor banks in the facility.

Other Methods

Other effective techniques include the use of individual branch


circuits to separate sensitive loads from harmonic-producing
loads, or the use of mitigating equipment; see Section 8 for a
more detailed discussion.

Harmonic Distortion Guidelines

Harmonic distortion standards and guidelines are needed to:


ensure consumers are provided with a suitable voltage supply
limit distortion to levels that system components can tolerate
prevent the power system from interfering with the operation of
other systems.

As a rule of thumb, the Short Circuit Ratio (see Section 13) can
be used to determine if harmonics produced by a rectifier will be
significant. If the resonant harmonic order is above 8.5 and the
Short Circuit Ratio is above 20, harmonics are probably not a
significant problem.

IEEE Standard 519 specifies voltage limits for harmonic


distortion. Power utility companies across Canada may have
more stringent or relaxed requirements as enforcement varies
among jurisdictions.

In order to compare levels of conducted harmonic distortion in a


power system, the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is used, and
defined as follows:

THD =

(Sum of Squares of RMS Magnitudes of all Harmonics*)


(Square of RMS Magnitude of Fundamental)

1/2

X 100 %

IEEE Standard 519-1992 refers to the Distortion Factor (DF)


which equals the THD. However, THD is the preferred term in
this guide, as it is more common in usage.

* This does not include the fundamental.

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HARMONIC DISTORTION

77

Specified harmonic voltage distortion limits, expressed in percent


of the fundamental frequency voltage magnitude, are as follows:
Power System
Voltage Level

Dedicated
System Converter+

General
Power Systems

Low Voltage IEEE


Guideline for 460 V
Systems

10%

5%

IEEE Guideline for


2.4 - 69 kV

8%

5%

IEEE Guideline for


115 kV & above

1.5%

1.5%

Ontario Hydro DES


typically under 50 kV

5%++

3%

IEEE Standard 519-1992 includes harmonic current limits for


individual customers, in addition to general system voltage
distortion levels.

The following harmonic limits which relate to telephone line


interference are presently in use in Ontario and are intended as a
guide for customers; see Section 13 for definitions:
I.T. Balanced per phase
<5,000 amperes
I.T. Residual
<250 amperes

+ This refers to a system that only serves converters or loads not


affected by voltage distortion.
++This refers to a dedicated feeder that feeds one customer.

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79
LOAD SENSITIVITY

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LOAD SENSITIVITY

81

Computers

Computers and other microprocessor-based equipment are more


sensitive to power line disturbances than most other electrical
equipment.

The circuits in this equipment operate on direct current (DC)


power. The source is an internal DC power supply which
converts, or rectifies, the AC power supplied by the utility to the
various DC voltage levels required.

Figure 7.1
DC Power: Voltage vs. Time

Although the DC power supply should protect equipment from


voltage disturbances, this does not always happen.

The computer susceptibility profile to line voltage variations,


which was published in the IEEE Orange Book, illustrates
suggested design goals of power conscious computer
manufacturers. Although not an industry standard, it is useful for
system design purposes. For example, most computers could
withstand a swell of 100% above their rated voltage (200% rated
voltage) for up to 1 ms.

Although the curve in Figure 7.2 (pg. 82) is called the CBEMA
(Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association)
curve, no CBEMA member company is known to have made any
claim for product performance or disclaimer for non-performance
for their products when operated within or outside this curve.

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LOAD SENSITIVITY

Figure 7.2
Computer Susceptibility Profile
to Line Voltage Variations and Disturbances

Some customers have mistakenly attempted to use the CBEMA


curve as a utility power supply performance curve. This was not
the intent of this curve. It is a manufacturing design guideline, not
a utility standard.

The susceptibility profile implies that computers can tolerate slow


variations from -13% to + 5.8%, and greater amplitude
disturbances can be tolerated as their durations become shorter.
This range has been adopted for office machines (ANSI X4.111973), and is consistent with the voltage limits given in Section 5.

Voltage thresholds that are generally accepted as causing


computer system problems include:
sags greater than -20% RMS
spikes greater than 100 % peak
swells greater than + 10% RMS

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LOAD SENSITIVITY

83

Different types of computer equipment have different degrees of


sensitivity, for example:
magnetic disk drives are susceptible to long term sags and
swells, and to changes in line frequency
semiconductor memories and processors and peripheral
controllers are very sensitive to high frequency noise and
transients

As the operating speed of a computer increases, so does the


product's sensitivity to voltage variations.

It is important to match the tolerances of sensitive equipment to


the characteristics of the electrical system.

Lighting

There are three major effects of voltage deviations on lighting:


change in life
change of intensity or output (voltage flicker)
turn off and restart periods

Incandescent lights:
product life varies inversely with applied voltage
light output increases with applied voltage

High Intensity discharge lights:


product life varies inversely with number of starts
light output increases with applied voltage
may take considerable time to restart

Fluorescent lights:
product life is not significantly affected by applied voltage,
although ballast may overheat with high applied voltage
light output is proportional to applied voltage
generally less susceptible to flicker

Motors

Voltages above the motor's rated value, as well as voltage phase


imbalance, can cause increased starting current.

Reduced voltages cause increased full-load temperatures and


reduced starting torques.

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LOAD SENSITIVITY

General

Ontario Hydro's voltage flicker curve indicates the acceptable


magnitude and frequency of voltage fluctuations on the
distribution system based on the effect on incandescent lighting.
It should be used as a guideline when considering the use of any
sensitive equipment.

Figure 7.3 : Ontario Hydros Voltage Flicker Curve for Customer


Loads Supplied from the Distribution System

Figure 7.4 : Flicker Curve IEEE 519-1992

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85
MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

The key elements to mitigate power quality problems are:


proper grounding and wiring
effective mitigating equipment

Consideration of disturbance sources external to the plant or


facility should only be considered after the internal electrical
environment has been thoroughly checked.

87

Dedicated Circuits

A dedicated circuit is a single circuit with one load. It is a


relatively inexpensive distribution technique that can reduce
common mode noise.

The ability of a dedicated circuit to solve power quality problems


depends on its location, impedance, and other factors. To
achieve the lowest possible impedance, theoretically, the load of
the circuit should be as close as possible to the building service
entrance. However, this could aggravate the situation if transients
are a problem, since they could travel more freely through the
system.

For improved operation of the circuit, the neutral and the ground
wires should be the same size as the current-carrying conductor.

Tips and Cautions

Dedicated circuits will solve local problems only.


Improper installation and wiring of isolated ground receptacles is
a common cause of power quality problems; ensure that this is
done properly.

Mitigating Equipment

A wide variety of products are available that can help to mitigate


power line disturbances.

Much care should be taken to properly select effective mitigating


equipment. Improper application of these products may cause
power quality problems.

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Before selecting a product, the customer should have a good


understanding of the cause of the problem, as well as the
characteristics of the available equipment.

A properly functioning system may be adversely affected by


change in the electrical environment, for example, a change of
load in the facility. Therefore, mitigating equipment that was once
effective may fail to protect sensitive equipment after such a
change has occurred.

When selecting equipment that has an operational heat loss, as


indicated by an efficiency of less than 100%, provision should be
made for adequate air conditioning if the equipment is to be
located in a computer room.

Figure 8.1 shows the relative costs of various types of


equipment.
UPS

Power line
conditioner

SPS

MG
Set
Voltage line
regulator

Isolation
transformer

Transient
suppressor

Harmonic
filter

Type of Equipment

Figure 8.1
Relative Cost Comparison of Mitigating Equipment
Based on 100 kVA Rating
* Cost increases with kVA rating. Typical maximum relative costs
are shown for equipment rated at 100 kVA.

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89

Additional information on mitigation techniques is available in the


Ontario Hydro Power Quality Mitigation Reference Guide.

TRANSIENT SUPPRESSORS
Transient suppressors are energy diverters that pass the energy
contained in a transient to the ground. There are a variety of
designs available including gas discharge tubes, line clamps made
of semiconducting material, and hybrid designs which may contain
linear inductive or capacitive components. It is important to note
that transient suppressors do not provide voltage regulation or
isolation.

Lightning Arresters

The lightning arrester is designed to remove large overvoltages


and associated high energy levels. This is accomplished during
an overvoltage by short-circuiting the line to ground in what is
referred to as a crowbar effect of energy diversion. The
conduction of energy to ground will cease when the current
drops to zero.

Figure 8.2
Effect of Lightning Arrester During Overvoltage

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The device typically consists of a non-linear element with a


resistance that varies inversely with the voltage. Gas discharge
tubes operate in a similar manner.

The response time for this technology is relatively slow.


These products are used as primary arresters on main power
feeders.

Line Clamp ("Surge Suppressors")

Faster-acting transient suppressors, or "surge suppressors," may


contain Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs), or silicon avalanche
diodes, and can be used for lower-voltage transient attenuation.
They act by clamping line voltage to a specific value and
conducting any excess impulse energy to the safety ground,
regardless of frequency. The energy shunting capability of a line
clamp is expressed by its joule rating, which determines the
amount of energy the device can handle.

Figure 8.3
Effect of Line Clamp on Transient Voltages
120 Volt System

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91

Silicon avalanche diodes operate on lower voltages, handle less


power, but tend to act faster than MOVs, and are often used in
communication systems for these reasons.

Due to the clamping nature of a surge suppressor, it cannot


remove voltage irregularities that occur within the sine wave
envelope but do not exceed the limiting threshold.

Figure 8.4
Example of Impulses Not Clamped

Used as secondary energy-diverters on small feeders or in


plants.

Due to the great variety of surge suppressors on the market,


care must be taken to ensure that a well-designed, reasonably
priced product is selected.

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Uses

These products are effective only for voltage transients and


swells which exceed the clamping level, but are within the
product energy rating.

Some only attenuate transverse mode impulses; others attenuate


both common mode and transverse mode impulses (depends on
MOV configuration).

Transient suppressors are used at inputs and outputs of


transformers, UPS systems, and motor-generators and at
locations where power cables enter a building.

Disadvantages

If the joule rating is exceeded, the product's life expectancy will


be shortened, and overheating and damage may occur. In
extreme cases, an MOV can explode.

By diverting transients to ground, transient suppressors may


convert a line problem to a ground potential problem.

Line clamps usually have short lifetimes.


The effectiveness of any clamp depends on the soundness of the
grounding system. Even the highest quality transient suppressor
will fail to protect equipment from transients if poor grounding
and wiring exist.

POWER LINE FILTERS


Linear Passive Filter
Design and Operation

A linear filter is composed of linear components, such as


inductors and capacitors. It passes the basic power frequency
(60 Hz) and attenuates other frequencies which are in the form of
electrical noise and harmonics.

Some filters are tuned circuits, which means they address a


small range of frequencies.

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Examples of filters that are not tuned are the simple low pass
filter, and the simple high pass filter:

Figure 8.5
Examples of Untuned Filters

93

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Two important types of filters are series filters and parallel filters.

The major elements of a parallel filter are in parallel to each


other.

Filters may be shunt-connected or series-connected.

The major elements (inductors and capacitors) of a series filter


are in series to each other.

A shunt-connected circuit is a circuit that is totally in parallel with


the source of energy.

Figure 8.6
Examples Of Shunt Circuits

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95

A series-connected circuit is a circuit that is totally in series with


the source of energy.

See also Section 6.

Figure 8.7
Examples of Series Circuits
Uses

Simple low pass filters attenuate high frequencies, and have the
general characteristics most desired in filters for improved power
quality and noise attenuation.

Simple high pass filters attenuate low frequencies.


Tuned shunt filters are not used for general power quality
applications.

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Special designs are used to attenuate harmonics. A shuntconnected tuned filter, which consists of an inductor, a capacitor
and a resistor, is tuned to eliminate a specific harmonic order by
providing a low impedance to the harmonic frequency and
shunting the harmonic energy to ground. A number of these
filters may be arranged in stages, with each stage selectively
filtering a given harmonic frequency.

Figure 8.8
Examples of Harmonic Filters

Equipment which is either sensitive to electrical noise, or which


creates it, is often designed with linear filters for protection of
equipment.

For harmonics, multistaged shunt filters are most effective for


mitigation of lower order harmonics.

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97

Disadvantages

Common mode noise is not necessarily eliminated by the use of


linear filters.

Low pass series filters are seldom used for harmonic attenuation
since they must be rated for full line current making them
relatively expensive.

Shunt filters applied at individual loads can often be overloaded


by harmonics produced by nearby loads or even at other
customer sites.

Tingle Voltage Filter

A tingle voltage filter, as its name implies, is a device that is used


to reduce tingle voltage.

Tingle voltage, or stray voltage, refers to a situation in which a


minor electrical voltage (2-3 V) exists between the neutral
conductor and earth of an electrical system. The most common
source of this voltage is the voltage drop caused by neutral
return currents. This is an inherent characteristic of the
multigrounded distribution system used in Ontario and throughout
North America. Other sources are defects or deficiencies in the
electrical system on the customer's premises and/or the utility's
distribution network. Since the farm animals tend to be relatively
sensitive to these low voltages, it is recommended that farmers
consider a means of protecting the animals from these voltages.

The first step in resolving a tingle voltage problem is to eliminate


all the defects and deficiencies on the farm electrical system.

To reduce the other on-farm and off-farm sources to acceptable


levels, solutions include equipotential grids, tingle voltage filters
and isolation transformers. Due to high costs, equipotential grids
are recommended on new installations only. The tingle voltage
filter is the most economic solution for existing installations.

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Ontario Hydro developed a tingle voltage filter which is now


being produced and marketed by a Canadian vendor.

Other solutions to tingle voltage problems include:


equipotential grid system
proper wiring and connections
isolation transformers.

It is not recommended to separate the primary neutral line from


the barn neutral line, as is often done. If these lines are supplied
by the same service entrance, this would create safety hazards
in the electrical distribution system, and the situation violates the
Canadian Electrical Safety Code.

In the past, Ontario Hydro and some other North American


utilities separated the primary and secondary neutrals at the
transformer as a method of mitigating tingle voltage. This
practice has been discontinued for safety and operational
reasons in favour of the solutions listed above.

ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS
Design and Operation

Isolation transformers consist of two coils (primary and


secondary) intentionally coupled together, on a magnetic core.

They have two primary functions:


a) They provide isolation between two circuits, by converting
electrical energy to magnetic energy and back to electrical
energy, thus acting as a new power source.
b) They provide a level of common mode shielding between two
circuits.

Since the ability of a transformer to pass high frequency noise


varies directly with capacitance, isolation transformers should be
designed to minimize the coupling capacitance between primary
and secondary sides, while increasing the coupling to ground.

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99

Isolation transformers have no direct current path between


primary and secondary windings. This feature is not
characteristic of the auto-transformer; see "Regulators".

Unshielded isolation transformers can only attenuate low


frequency common mode noise.

High frequency normal mode noise can be attenuated by


specially designed and shielded isolation transformers. Standard
isolation transformers could not mitigate this problem because
any voltage variations across the primary windings induce
corresponding voltage variations in the secondary windings.

An isolation transformer is normally designed with a simple


Faraday electrostatic shield between the two sets of windings, to
improve the isolation characteristics of the device. Attenuation of
common mode noise is typically in the 10 kHz -100 kHz range.

Enhanced or Super Isolation Transformers incorporate single or


multiple shields to provide a higher level of attenuation of
common mode noise, and possibly a degree of normal mode
noise attenuation. Magnetically coupled signals may still
penetrate the shield. Whether or not multiple shields are
included, however, it is the noise rejection capability of the
installed device that is important. Very often a single shield is
adequate.

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Figure 8.9
Shielded Isolation Transformer
Uses

Isolation transformers are used to attenuate common mode


noise.

They provide a new neutral to ground reference point.

Isolation transformers may be combined with other equipment


such as transient suppressors and circuit breakers to form
complex circuits known as Power Distribution Units (PDUs).

Only high quality shielded isolation transformers should be used


in critical applications.

They can be used to break ground loops.


Isolation transformers can reduce higher order harmonics, but
will not eliminate harmonic distortion or prevent notching.

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101

Disadvantages

No voltage regulation or ride-through capabilities are available.

The ability of an enhanced isolation transformer to attenuate


normal mode noise varies, depending on the load.

Poorly designed isolation transformers may produce harmonics.


Noise attenuation capability of the product may be significantly
lowered when the ground connection is more than a few feet
long.

LINE VOLTAGE REGULATORS


Design and Operation

A line voltage regulator is a device that maintains a relatively


constant voltage output within a specified range, regardless of
input voltage variations.

Other kinds of line voltage regulators can regulate, but not


"condition", the power. They are less frequently used, and
include the ferroresonant transformer, the tap switching
transformer, the variable ratio transformer, the magnetically
coupled voltage regulator, the induction regulator, and the
saturable reactor. The ferroresonant transformer and tap switcher
are discussed in more detail within this section.

Auto-transformers are frequently used in voltage regulation


devices.

If an auto-transformer is used as the variable circuit element, it


develops a variable voltage which is added to the incoming AC
line voltage. A sample of the input voltage is rectified, filtered and
compared to a DC reference voltage. The difference is then used
to offset the input voltage change.

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Auto-transformers are also used in Silicon Controlled Rectifier


regulators. In this case, the primary voltage of the autotransformer is varied by phase control.

Uses

These products regulate voltage to protect against momentary


and transient disturbances, within a certain range. Their
response time is typically one cycle.

Regulators are already built into some sensitive equipment. Most


regulators that are built into equipment, however, are DC
regulators.

Disadvantages

Voltage regulators do not have noise suppression capabilities.


Those with switching power supplies actually create noise in the
input line.

Ferroresonant Transformers
Design and Operation

In contrast to the isolation transformer, the ferroresonant


transformer is designed to operate at saturation.

Therefore, it has the same functions as the shielded isolation


transformer, but also provides instantaneous, continual voltage
regulation, as well as ride-through capabilities.

A ferroresonant transformer has a relatively simple design, and


no moving parts.

It is designed with a tank circuit, including capacitors and


windings, which saturates the transformer core. It is this circuit
that provides the regulation and energy-storage capabilities.

Voltage output is fixed by the size of the core and by the number
of turns.

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103

A simple ferroresonant transformer with square wave output is


not suitable for loads sensitive to harmonics. Instead, a
neutralizing winding is designed into some units to cancel most
harmonic effects, thereby producing a relatively sinusoidal
voltage source for the computer.

Figure 8.10
Neutralizing Winding in Ferroresonant Transformer
Clips Voltage Transients and Normal Mode Noise
Uses

These products provide regulation of output over a wide range of


input voltages.

Simple, square-wave ferroresonant transformers are used for


incandescent electric lighting and other resistive loads.

For harmonic-sensitive loads, the customer should specify a total


harmonic distortion of the output voltage waveform of less than
5%, or ask for a neutralizing winding to be included in the design.

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Disadvantages

Due to the high output impedance of ferroresonant transformers,


they produce large output voltage drops during high current
demands. Therefore, they cannot handle significant changes in
current, and would be incompatible with many systems, such as
medical cat scanners.

These products produce heat and audible noise, and are


sensitive to line frequency variations.

Ferroresonant transformers have very poor efficiency and high


losses for light loading conditions.

Instability may result from load imbalance, or if placed near a


similar unit. Two ferroresonant devices should never be used on
the same circuit, for this reason.

These products may actually produce transients during voltage


interruption or start-up, unless transient suppressors are
employed.

Tap Switching Transformers


Design and Operation

An electronic tap switching transformer, or tap switcher, regulates


output voltage by changing the ratio of primary windings to
secondary windings in response to fluctuations in input voltage or
load. This is accomplished with solid state switches (SCRs or
TRIACS) which select the appropriate taps to compensate for the
fluctuations.

Voltage is regulated not continuously, but in steps. Switching


occurs when line voltage passes through zero, so transients are
not created.

The tap switcher can react in one or two cycles.


Either peak or RMS voltage detectors may be used.
Taps may either be on the primary or secondary side.

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105

Figure 8.11
Tap Switching Transformer
Uses

Where voltage fluctuation is the primary concern.

Disadvantages

Voltage output changes are not continuous. Better voltage


continuity is achieved by using more taps.

If auto-transformers are used, no isolation is provided.

Power Conditioners

Devices marketed as power conditioners are often combinations


of the above-mentioned mitigation devices. They often contain
transient voltage surge suppression, noise filters, and isolation
transformers or voltage regulators. Careful consideration of
product specifications and the intended use will ensure
successful application of the device while minimizing cost.

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UPS SYSTEMS

"UPS" means uninterruptible power supply.

Available in a wide range, from basic battery backup to units that


can supply power for days.

UPS systems are either on-line or off-line (standby). Typically, the


on-line systems are more reliable but cost more.

These systems may be either rotary or static. Rotary systems


employ rotating machines; static systems use solid state
components.

They do not necessarily provide protection against high energy


impulses.

A properly selected UPS system is the only product, other than a


generating unit, that can protect critical loads against power
interruptions exceeding 0.5 seconds.

A UPS system must never be installed in such a way that it could


supply power to the utility feeder during a power interruption. For
some wiring designs, this could actually happen if the
mechanically interlocked maintenance bypass switch system
fails. During maintenance, the switch in the bypass line should
be closed, and the switch on the output of the UPS must be
open. If, however, both switches close, and a power interruption
occurs, power from the UPS battery would be sent back to the
incoming line, endangering utility personnel who are working on
the lines, even lines remote from the system and through
transformers. To avoid problems like this, proper operational
procedures and identification of components should be practiced.

A UPS system contains batteries that store energy which can be


used during power interruptions.

Additional protective devices may be required in the customer's


facility to prevent this from happening.

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107

Figure 8.12
Configuration of UPS Maintenance Bypass Line

Mode of
Operation

Normal
Operation

Maintenance
Mode

Hazardous
Malfunction

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Some inexpensive UPS systems with low power ratings produce


a square wave output, causing some loads to malfunction. This
characteristic is particularly true for standby UPS systems.

Figure 8.13
Square Wave Output of Simple Standby UPS
(Reproduced with permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from
"Handbook of Power Signatures", A. McEachern,1988)
The problem can be avoided by selecting a UPS system with a
synthesized sine wave.

Disagreement often arises as to the preferred type of system,


rotary or static. Rotary systems are often criticized for the regular
maintenance they require, whereas static systems are criticized
for the frequency of failed components. It should be pointed out
that regular maintenance and parts replacement of rotary
systems helps to prevent component failures, whereas static
systems can run for a significant period of time without
maintenance before failure with minimal downtime. No matter
what system is selected, the user should expect that some type
of maintenance of replacement will eventually be required.

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109

Typical Applications of UPS Systems

Cost of Power Interruption

Examples

Life safety

Hospital diagnostic systems


Alarm systems

Loss of critical data

Communications networks
Monitoring systems

Money, property

Process control systems


Instrumentation systems

Multiple UPS systems can be used for redundancy in critical


applications. They can be arranged in parallel, in which case they
normally share loads, or in isolation, so that each UPS supplies a
specific load under normal operation.

UPS Components

Solid state devices, such as rectifiers and switches, which are


used in static UPS systems, are very sensitive to over-voltages
and currents. In fact, all semiconductors are very likely to fail
once their maximum ratings are exceeded. Methods of avoiding
this problem include:
ensuring the UPS has protection against overloads
using transient suppressors to protect the UPS
using a rotary, not a static system; motor and transformer
windings can withstand over-currents and over-voltages for
long durations.

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Large UPS systems (>100 kVA) typically employ inverters, which


are audibly noisy, and wet-cell batteries, which require
ventilation. Care should be taken to locate these items in
protected, ventilated areas.

Regardless of where the system is situated, the room should be


relatively free of dust, and the temperature maintained near 25C
for optimum battery life and performance.

More recently designed small UPS systems (<100 kVA) employ


sealed batteries, which emit no hydrogen gas, and transistorized
inverters, which are very quiet. The batteries are mounted in a
cabinet, and the whole system can be placed in a computer
room. Care should be taken to ensure that adequate battery life
is available for these systems.

Battery Design and Selection

A battery is an electrochemical device that converts stored


chemical energy into electrical energy.

Recharge time is typically 8-10 times the discharge time.

Two basic types of batteries that are used for UPS systems are
lead acid and sealed maintenance free. Lead acid batteries are
also now available in sealed versions for stationary applications.

When selecting a UPS battery, the cell size, cell life, required
voltage and manufacturer's warranty should be considered. It is
also important to note that battery discharge time as a function of
load is not a linear relationship

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111

Lead Acid Batteries

Lead acid batteries have lead plates for electrodes and an


electrolyte of sulphuric acid. When the cells discharge, water is
produced in the electrolyte and lead sulfate is produced at the
electrodes. When charging, the opposite reaction occurs and
hydrogen gas is emitted.

To prevent the build up of hydrogen gas in the facility, a good


ventilation system is required. Water must be regularly added to
the battery, as well.

The most popular types of lead acid batteries are lead antimony,
lead calcium and lead Plante, or pure lead.

Characteristics of various batteries are summarized in


Table 8.1.
Battery Type

Characteristics & Applications

Typical
Warranty (yrs)

Life
Expectancy (yrs)

LEAD ACID BATTERIES


Lead Calcium

good reliability vs cost tradeoff


infrequent maintenance
generates less hydrogen gas than
other batteries

20

20-25

Lead
Antimony

suitable for applications involving


frequent power interruptions

15-20

20-22

Plante
(pure lead)

relatively high cost. since no


impurities are present
infrequent maintenance
very durable whether frequently
or infrequently cycled
tolerate high operating temperatures

20-25

indefinite
(high)

Nickel Cadmium
(NICAD)

tolerate temperature changes


relatively expensive
relatively small size and weight

Lead Calcium
Gel Cells

have a gelled electrolyte. so


2
will not leak
sealed battery, so gas cannot escape
and thus suitable for area with poor ventilation

25

Table 8.1
Comparison of UPS Batteries

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Rotary UPS
Design and Operation

The state-of-the-art, on-line rotary UPS is one of the most


effective but costly types of UPS systems.

Although a number of designs are available, they are all basically


motor-generators with battery backups. A common design is as
follows:

Figure 8.14
On-Line Rotary UPS

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113

During normal operation, incoming AC power is delivered to a


synchronous M/G set through a static switch path and a rectifierinverter path, each path fully redundant. Normally 95% of the
power flows through the static switch path, and 5% through the
rectifier-inverter path for continuous monitoring.

During a power interruption, a battery supplies the inverter


instead of the rectifier, and the static switch opens. During
frequency variations, the static switch opens and the rectifierinverter path supplies the M/G set.

Frequency is maintained within the computer tolerance of


60 0.5 Hz.

The inertia of the rotating mass provides adequate ride-through


following interruptions of about 100 ms. Therefore, for brief
interruptions, the battery is not required, as it is with a
static UPS.

For longer interruptions, the battery system supplies energy to


the motor.

The inverter is continuously monitored.


A bypass line is used for maintenance.

Uses

Critical ones, where reliability is important.


For protection against power interruptions.
Often used for large systems above 100 kVA.

Disadvantage

These products are relatively heavy.

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Continuous Static UPS


Design and Operation

Like the on-line rotary system, the on-line static UPS is a


relatively expensive, yet effective, continuous source of
uninterruptible power.

For a typical design during normal operation, incoming voltage is


rectified, supplied to a battery, fed to an inverter and output as
AC power. If commercial power is interrupted, the battery
provides power to drive the inverter. Therefore, the UPS system
is always the final source of power for the load.

The critical load can be connected without interruption to a


bypass source through a fast-acting static transfer switch in the
event of UPS failure or overload.

Figure 8.15
Continuous Static UPS

For larger units (>100 kVA), step-wave inverters are normally


used.

For smaller units (<100 kVA), pulse width modulated transistorbased inverters are often employed.

Older terminology refers to a continuous static UPS as a reverse


transfer static UPS.

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115

Uses

Continuous static UPS systems handle power interruptions,


severe sags, and frequency deviations.

They are used for computer and process control systems that
require a period of time for performance of an orderly shutdown.

They are available for both small and large systems, from
0.8 kVA to 1,000 kVA.

These systems can be paralleled to provide higher power


handling capabilities and redundancy.

Disadvantages

Static UPS systems need adequate air conditioning, space,


temperature regulation, and ventilation. In addition, they may be
noisy.

In certain applications, these systems may produce unacceptable


levels of input current harmonic distortion. This requires an input
filter, which adds approximately 5% to the cost of the system.

Line Interactive Static UPS


Design and Operation

A line interactive UPS is a hybrid type of static system, normally


classified as on-line.

It is the most advanced, state-of-the-art UPS.

During operation, AC power passes through a power conditioner


and is transformer coupled to the output and to one side of a bidirectional inverter. Batteries coupled to the other side of the
inverter which can provide charging current to the batteries and
AC power to output almost simultaneously.

This product is very compact; about 1/3 to 1/4 size of other


comparable UPS systems.

It combines a power conditioner with a UPS and a bi-directional


inverter.

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It is also very quiet since it switches at frequencies above the


audible range.

The line interactive system generates relatively little heat


compared to other UPS systems.

Figure 8.16
Line Interactive Static UPS
Uses

It has the same uses as the continuous static UPS, and is useful
where noise and space are important considerations.

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117

Rotary UPS System (Off-Line Inverter)


Design and Operation

During normal operation of a rotary UPS system with off-line


inverter, incoming AC power is supplied through a switch to an
AC motor-generator set, which in turn supplies the load to
eliminate input current harmonic distortion and ride through very
short power interruptions (200-500 msec).

If a power interruption occurs, the system switches to the battery


to supply power to the inverter, which produces AC power that
drives the AC M-G set, which in turn supplies the load. The
inertia of the M-G set is sufficient to allow adequate time for the
inverter to turn on and supply power, without interruption, to the
motor and critical load.

The ride-through capability of the M-G set eliminates the need for
the inverter to turn on for brief AC power interruptions lasting less
than 200 to 500 ms, improving the efficiency of this power supply
system.

Figure 8.17
Rotary UPS System With Off-Line Inverter

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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

Uses

The rotary UPS is used for critical loads, where short-term


frequency variations during switch over to battery power supply
are not a factor.

The modular design of some systems allows the user to first


install an M-G set, and later purchase the battery and inverter if
an upgrade to an UPS system is required.

Inverter failure will not shut down the system as long as AC


power is available.

Applications where minimizing input and output current harmonic


distortion is desired.

Disadvantages

Cannot correct AC line frequency variations except when


switched over to battery power supply. However, this is a rare
problem.

These rotary UPS systems are relatively heavy and require


larger floor space area than comparable static systems.

Standby UPS
Design and Operation

The simple off-line static UPS has the same configuration as the
on-line version, but it only switches in when it senses a
fluctuation or interruption in the power supply. In other words, the
system operates on "bypass" during normal operation.

Lower cost units may not include a voltage regulator in the


design.

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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

119

Figure 8.18
Simple Static UPS

The simple off-line static system is the least expensive and the
least sophisticated UPS on the market.

It is quiet and relatively compact.

Uses

Most small (<3 kVA) systems currently sold to protect against


power interruptions are standby systems since they are relatively
inexpensive. However, great care should be taken to ensure that
a product of this type will provide adequate protection for the
given application.

This product is generally used for microcomputer installations,


and cash register (point of sale) applications.

It is not often employed on main-frame computers.

Disadvantages

The simple static UPS is limited to small loads, under 10.0 kVA.
It provides no isolation or regulation. In normal mode operation,
AC line power is fed directly to the UPS output, and is not
regulated in any way.

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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

Like the off-line rotary UPS, the user will not know if the inverter,
which is the weakest link, fails until it is too late. In addition, the
combination of the response time of the system, a low battery
storage capability and lengthy battery recharging times may
render the system ineffective for extreme or repetitious
disturbance situations. However, for many applications, the
reliability of the system is acceptable.

It is very important to select a system with adequate battery


storage capabilities. Although this is true for any UPS system, it
is particularly important for simple static UPS systems. If
purchasers select these systems for their low cost, they may
compromise the battery capabilities. Typically, these systems
provide power for five minutes or less, however, battery
recharging time may exceed 100 minutes of charging per minute
of battery use. This is a major disadvantage if a number of
disturbances are experienced within a short interval of time.
Customers should be encouraged to request large batteries for
their applications, when required.

Systems employing electro-mechanical relays have switching


times (4-l0ms) that may exceed the ride-through capabilities of
some computers.

Ferroresonant Static UPS

The ferroresonant UPS is an off-line static system which


continuously employs a ferroresonant transformer or conditioner
on the output. During normal operation, although the UPS is
bypassed, power does pass through the regulator.

Advantages provided by the ferroresonant device include wave


shaping,voltage regulation and electrical isolation, as well as
some attenuation of common mode disturbances. No transfer
time is involved.

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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

121

Figure 8.19
Ferroresonant UPS
Uses

This product is becoming increasingly popular as a means of


protecting critical loads from most power line disturbances.

It can operate with distorted, unregulated input voltage.


Products with two properly connected inverters can provide
sinusoidal three-phase output voltage for some applications.

Dlsadvantages

The ferroresonant UPS has the same disadvantages as the


ferroresonant transformer, namely, heat generation, inefficiency,
incompatibility with other ferroresonant devices, instability under
light loading conditions and during frequency variations, and
inability to handle large increases in load.

This product is relatively heavy.

SUMMARY

A summary of the characteristics, maintenance requirements and


full load efficiencies of mitigating equipment is presented in Table
8.2 (pg. 123). It also offers advice on desirable features to look
for when selecting equipment.

The ability of each type of mitigating product to deal with various


power line disturbances is presented in Table 8.3 (pg. 125).

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MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

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129
MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

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MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

131

Measurement Techniques

Because the instantaneous AC voltage and current signal varies


in amplitude and alternates in polarity, it is usual to consider its
effective value or Root-Mean-Square (RMS) value. This value
produces the same heating effect as the DC value that produces
the same amount of heat in a resistor.

Other methods used to measure voltage and current include


average and peak measuring techniques.

For sinusoidal waveforms there is a fixed relationship between


the RMS value and the average and peak values.

Some measurement instruments assume sinusoidal AC


waveforms and use average or peak measurement techniques to
give RMS readings. When these instruments are used to
measure distorted waveshapes, significant errors may occur in
analysis and interpretation of the data.

RMS (Root - Mean - Square) Measurement

RMS measurements are averaged over a period of time, usually


for several cycles.

The average power available to a resistive load is proportional to


the square of the RMS voltage or current. The average power
equals (VRMS)2/R or (IRMS)2/R.

Care must be taken when interpreting RMS measurements


because many inexpensive meters are calibrated to read RMS of
an ideal sine wave, but are not true RMS-responding.

True RMS converters should be used for measurement of


distorted waveforms.

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MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

There are three true RMS conversion techniques in common


use: thermal, analog and digital.
Thermal Converters:

Analog Converters:

Digital Converters:

Page 132

input signal heats a resistive load, with


the square of the RMS value
proportional to the heat
accurate, but may have a long time
response
electrical circuits manipulate the input
voltage to determine RMS value
typically used in digital multimeters
an Analog to Digital (A/D) converter
samples input voltage at a high rate
digital values are processed to obtain
an RMS value
typically used in digital waveform
analyzers or digital oscilloscopes with
waveform analysis capabilities

RMS techniques are used to measure harmonic distortion and


other long-term voltage deviations, as well as momentary
disturbances such as sags and swells.

Average Measurements

Averaging meters measure the "half cycle" average of the


instantaneous voltages over a period of time by rectifying the
signal and passing it through an averaging circuit.

This is the simplest and least expensive technique.


It is typically used in inexpensive digital voltmeters.
RMS calibrated for pure sine wave.

Peak Measurements

Peak meters measure the highest instantaneous of the voltage or


current waveform.

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MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

133

Transients (disturbances of less than one half cycle duration)


have traditionally been measured by the peak value. However,
the range of durations used to characterize a transient is not well
defined, and conflicting results can be obtained with various
disturbance monitors.

In the power industry, transients are usually described as peak


overvoltages in per unit (pu) values.

In the computer industry, transients are normally measured as


the maximum voltage deviation from the sine wave, or as the
peak to peak volts measured through a high pass filter. This is
expressed as a percent of the nominal peak, or peak to peak
voltage.

Harmonic Analysis (see also Section 6)

Harmonic analyses are usually conducted by obtaining and


interpreting measurements of waveforms.

Some of the reasons for taking harmonic measurements include:


confirming the presence of harmonics
locating a harmonic source
evaluating the severity of the problem relative to acceptable
harmonic limits
setting standards and guidelines
harmonic filter design
providing input data for harmonic software analysis program
designing analytical model of the problem

Equipment normally required to perform a harmonic study


consists of a harmonic analyzer, an oscilloscope, and an RMS
responding voltmeter and ammeter. Sometimes a coupling
device is used to reduce high voltages or currents to levels
suitable for input to low level instrumentation. These coupling
devices should be accurate to at least 3 kHz for accurate
magnitude and phase angle measurement.

Quantitative measurements of voltage and current, the THD


(Total Harmonic Distortion) of the voltage, and other parameters
may be evaluated in conjunction with a visual inspection of the
voltage and current waveforms on an oscilloscope. Since
harmonic levels change over time, it is important to consider this
in the analysis.

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MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

For a more detailed evaluation, spectrum analysis can be used.


Spectrum analysis is a method which breaks down a voltage or
current waveform into its component sine waves, each at a
different frequency and phase position. These individual
harmonics can be used to determine the direction of harmonic
power flow, and calculate the THD, the RMS value, and other
parameters of the waveform.

Spectrum analysis is usually performed up to the 50th harmonic


(3 kHz).

There are generally two types of measurement instrumentation


that can be used to conduct a harmonic analysis: general
purpose and dedicated.

There are a large number of general purpose measuring devices


available, many of which employ digital techniques and include
oscilloscopes with waveform analysis capabilities, waveform
analyzers and frequency spectrum analyzers.

Dedicated power system harmonic analyzers are specifically


designed to measure power system harmonics and provide
relative distortion parameters. They are very convenient and
simple to use, but relatively expensive.

Power Line Monitoring

In addition to the equipment used to perform harmonic studies,


specialized power line disturbance monitors can be used for the
analysis of other types of power line disturbances.

Characteristics of power line monitors:

portable, rugged, lightweight


simple to use, with proper training
designed for long-term unattended recording
definition of line disturbance parameters varies between
manufacturers
only record when disturbances exceed user selected threshold
levels
most products have harmonics monitoring capabilities or
options
an internal UPS is usually a standard feature to maintain
operation during voltage interruptions of up to several minutes

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MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING

135

Simple instruments indicate normal mode voltage disturbances.


Transient impulse magnitudes are measured, but not their
durations. Their paper tape printouts report in text format.

More sophisticated monitors measure current in addition to


voltage disturbances for common mode as well as normal mode
disturbances, and impulse parameters such as duration and rise
time. Data generated is reported graphically on CRT displays or
paper tape, and can be stored on floppy diskettes.

Additional features or options of some monitors include


measurement of RFI, high frequency noise, temperature and
humidity.

Monitoring power line disturbances for problem identification can


be a very useful, although sometimes unnecessary task. Before
a decision is made to employ a monitor, the facility should
first be checked for proper wiring and grounding practices
and for obvious sources of problems.

Verification of the electrical grounding system, followed by


monitoring should be considered before a major piece of
electronic equipment or a system is installed in a facility.

Monitoring should be accompanied by a survey of sensitive


equipment susceptibility levels to ensure proper diagnosis and
recommendations for solution of the problem.

In order to observe the electrical environment for a typical cycle


of plant operation and to account for variations due to utility
operation or weather conditions, monitoring is usually conducted
for two to six weeks.

Before purchasing a power line monitor, considerations such as


training and availability of staff to operate the instrument should
be made.

Monitoring equipment may be leased or a consultant may be


retained to carry out the measurements with their own or leased
equipment.

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137
PREVENTION AND TROUBLESHOOTING

10

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PREVENTION AND TROUBLESHOOTING 139


Prevention
The following are some methods of reducing power quality
problems, and some relevant tips, that may be suggested to
electrical end-users.

Check that the electrical contractor is reputable, and practices


proper grounding and wiring techniques. The electrical
installation should be tested with instruments to determine
compliance to codes and equipment requirements. Have all
wiring inspected.

Electrically separate highly sensitive loads from other loads. This


may involve using separate buses, or separate distribution
transformers. The Electrical Safety Code generally does not
allow separate AC services to be used in a facility.

Ensure that overvoltage protection exists at the powerline


entrance to the building and at other susceptible points.

Ensure that all equipment is CSA certified for safety reasons.


Before purchasing mitigating equipment, ensure that all
distribution and grounding problems have been identified and
corrected. Then identify any problems that require mitigating
equipment.

When purchasing electrical products, ensure that they will


effectively perform the functions that are required, and cause
minimal degradation of the power system. It is a good idea to
request a demonstration of the equipment within the plant, when
possible, especially for mitigating equipment.

Following installation of mitigating equipment, verify that the


problem is solved.

Always identify any equipment sensitivity requirements, such as


sensitivity to voltage fluctuations, in specifications.

Consider the interaction between mitigating equipment and the


load. For instance, if the mitigating equipment has a high
impedance, and the load has high inrush current (due, perhaps,
to the starting of large motors), a voltage sag could result.

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140 PREVENTION AND TROUBLESHOOTING

The noise suppression capabilities of some products may be


specified in terms of peak attenuation, which may not be
appropriate for some applications. In addition, it is important to
know the conditions under which the attenuation was measured.

The purchaser should check if quoted equipment capabilities


apply to units operating at no load, partial load or full load.

All electrical equipment should be properly sized. Products may


be sized by power, in Volt Amps (VA), or by maximum current
rating in amps. To determine proper sizing, the following steps
should be taken:
Determine the load operating voltage, current, and/or VA from
the nameplate rating.
Sum all individual VA ratings of the loads.
To obtain an estimate of the power consumed by the load,
which is the real power in Watts, calculate:
Watts = VA x Power Factor.
Many nameplate ratings assume a power factor of unity. If this
is not a good assumption, factor this in.
Some units are rated in Primary Power ratings. If this is the
case then the sum of all secondary loads will have to be
divided by the efficiency of the unit in order to obtain the
Primary Power rating.

It is especially important to obtain the power requirements for


sensitive loads from the manufacturer. Refer to Federal Information
Processing Standard (FIPS) Publication 94 for a checklist of items
to match automatic data processing systems to power source
characteristics and grounding requirements.

Ensure that all components of an interconnected data processing


system share the same grounding system and that this point is
tested both initially as well as routinely thereafter to ensure
quality level not to exceed a specified maximum impedance.

For the purposes of signal grounding, never assume that two


physically separated points of a ground system will be at
the same potential. Use isolation techniques or current
transmitters for physically separated equipment.

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PREVENTION AND TROUBLESHOOTING 141

Keep the signal ground separate from the power ground except
for one common point for the whole system.

If significant changes have been made in an electrical system,


and a low voltage condition exists, notify the utility so that the tap
setting on the electrical transformer can be checked.

Proper installation of electrical equipment is very important and


yet often overlooked. For example, many ferroresonant
transformers and power conditioners are improperly installed due
to incorrectly sized primary conductors or breakers.

Reduce the number of disturbance sources.

To minimize problems related to voltage sags:

Maintain a malfunction log.


Customers should be aware of the level of harmonics they are
producing. If a customer is exceeding the acceptable limits of the
distribution system, they may be required to shut down their
facility.

Use reduced voltage starters on motors.


Use closed (not open) transition starters on motors. The open
ones mitigate sags but create transients.
If installing an isolation transformer, ensure that the ground on
the secondary side is properly connected; this is often
neglected. In addition, check that the connections on the
primary side are tight, otherwise a voltage on the secondary
side may be induced, which will damage the equipment.
Above all, know and understand the technology of mitigating
equipment before applying it.

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142 PREVENTION AND TROUBLESHOOTING


Troubleshooting
If an electrical end-user suspects that a power quality problem
exists in his facility, there are a number of steps that may be taken
to trouble-shoot the problem. The key is a process of elimination.
Reputable consultants may be contacted by the customer to assist
the process:
1. Define and
acknowledge
the problem:

2. Check wiring
and
grounding:
3. Analyze the
disturbance,
if applicable:
4. If required,
identify the
technology that
will mitigate
the problem:

type of disturbance, frequency of


occurrence, magnitude
determine which power conductor, hot,
neutral or safety ground, has a problem;
this is critical, since some mitigation
techniques only address problems with a
specific conductor. For safety ground
problems, for instance, the source of the
problem must be fixed: no mitigating
equipment will provide a solution.
consider power quality of neighbouring
facilities.
loose connections, proper grounding
techniques, etc.
important since many power quality
problems are attributable to these factors
see Section 9 on measurement and
monitoring
refer to Section 8
check compatibility with existing
electrical system, for example,
determine the ride-through
capabilities and sensitivities of existing
computer systems
check possible problems with existing
mitigating equipment
consider various techniques to alleviate
the symptoms (suppress disturbance at
source, make receptor insensitive to
disturbance, or minimize transmission
through coupling channel).

5. Check that proposed solution actually works, and follow-up.

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143
STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES 11

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STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES 145


Ontario Hydro Power Supply Agreements

Customers should be particularly aware of their responsibilities


and the requirements of the utility system when using electrical
apparatus. For example, every application for three-phase
electrical service in Ontario contains the following conditions:
...Ontario Hydro agrees to use reasonable diligence in providing
a regular and uninterrupted supply of power, but does not
guarantee a constant supply of power, or the maintenance of
unvaried frequency or voltage, and will not be liable in damages
to the Customer by reason of any failure in respect thereof..."
"All electrical and mechanical equipment used by the Customer
shall be subject to the reasonable approval of Ontario Hydro and
the Customer shall so take and use power as not to endanger
the equipment or other works of Ontario Hydro or cause any
wide or abnormal fluctuation of its line voltage...."
"The customer shall take and use power in such a manner so as
not to cause disturbance or voltage fluctuation on Ontario
Hydro's supply system or systems of any third party. The
customer shall take remedial measures at his own expense by
way of installing suitable apparatus or otherwise as may be
necessary to reduce any disturbance, fluctuations or interference
to a level deemed tolerable by Ontario Hydro...".

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146 STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES

Similar terms and conditions are stated in the power supply


agreements for three phase customers over 5000 kW, and for
retail customers.

In addition, certain responsibilities are outlined in various Ontario


Hydro policies and procedures. For example, customers who are
supplied with voltages in excess of 50 kV are required to correct
a phase imbalance in their load that causes an increase of more
than 1% in the voltage imbalance of the system at the point of
interface with the customer's equipment.

Standards
CSA Standards

CSA C22.3 No 2-1975. General Grounding Requirements and


Grounding Requirements for Electrical Supply Stations.

CSA C22.3 No 3.1-1974. Inductive Coordination Handbook for


Use with CSA Standard C22.3 No.3 of the Canadian Electrical
Code, Part III.

CSA CAN3-C155-M84. Shunt Capacitors for AC Power Systems.

ANSI/IEEE Standards

ANSI C84.1-1982. Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Systems


and Equipment.

ANSI C2-187. "Grounding Methods for Electric Supply and


Communication Facilities", Part 9 of the National Electrical Safety
Code.

ANSI/NFPA 70-1987. National Electric Code.

ANSI/IEEE C37.90.1-1974. Relays-Surge Withstand Capability


(SWC) Test.

ANSI/IEEE 18-1980 Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors.


ANSI/IEEE C37.90-1978. Relays and Relay Systems Associated
with Electric Power Apparatus.

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STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES 147

ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2-1987 Draft. Withstand Capability of Relay


Systems to Radiated Electromagnetic Interference from
Transceivers.

ANSI/IEEE C62.41. IEEE Guide for Surge Voltages in LowVoltage AC Power Circuits (formerly IEEE 587).

ANSI/IEEE C62.45-1987. IEEE Guide on Surge Testing for


Equipment Connected to Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits.

ANSI/IEEE 446-1987. IEEE Recommended Practice for


Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Commercial and
Industrial Applications. (ORANGE Book)

ANSI/IEEE 518-1982. IEEE Guide for the Installation of


Equipment to Minimize Electrical Noise Inputs to Controllers from
External Sources.

IEEE Standards

IEEE 142-1982. Recommended Practice for Grounding of


Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. (GREEN Book)

IEEE 519-1992. IEEE Guide for Harmonic Control and Reactive


Compensation of Static Power Converters.

IEEE 597-1983. IEEE Standard Practices and Requirements for


General Purpose Thyristor DC Drives.

IEEE 1250-1995. Guide for Service to Equipment Sensitive to


Momentary Voltage Disturbances.

IEEE P1100, (EMERALD Book)


IEEE P1159-1995. Recommended Practice on Monitoring
Electric Power Quality.

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148 STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES


Other Standards

FIPS PUB 94, Guideline on Electrical Power for ADP (Automatic


Data Processing) Installations.

NEMA MG 1-1987. Motors and Generators.

U.S. Mil-Std-461 C. Electromagnetic Emission and Susceptibility


Requirements for the Control of Electromagnetic Interference.
1986.

U.S. Mil-Std-462. Electromagnetic Interference Characteristics.


Measurements of 1967. (Also, Notice 1-1968, Notice 2-1970)

IEC 664-1980. Insulation Co-ordination within Low-Voltage


Systems, Including Clearances and Creepage Distances for
Equipment.

Guidelines and Procedures


ANSI/IEEE Guidelines

ANSI/IEEE 242-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for


Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems. (BUFF Book)

ANSI/IEEE 493-1980 IEEE Recommended Practice for the


Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
(GOLD Book)

ANSI/IEEE 602-1986 IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric


Systems in Health Care Facilities. (WHITE Book)

CSA CAN 3-C235-83. Preferred Voltage Levels for AC Systems,


0 to 50 000 V.

IEEE Guidelines

IEEE 141-1986 IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power


Distribution for Industrial Plants. (RED Book)

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STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES 149

IEEE 241-1983 IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power


Systems In Commercial Buildings. (GRAY Book)

IEEE 399-1980 IEEE Recommended Practice for Industrial and


Commercial Power System Analysis. (BROWN Book)

IEEE PI 159 - Working Group for Monitoring Electrical Quality.

Ontario Hydro Procedures and Guidelines

Ontario Hydro. Distribution and Marketing Branch. "Regions


Branch Administrative Procedure 1: Control of Neutral to Earth
Voltage (Tingle Voltage) to Protect Livestock". Section 6.3 in The
Organization and Operation of the Distribution and
Marketing Branch, OOOH Series 2.6; Regions Branch
Section 6. Toronto: Ontario Hydro,1984.

Ontario Hydro. Distribution and Marketing Branch. "Regions


Branch Administrative Procedure 2: Controlling Propagation of
Harmonics into the DES by Customers", Section 6.3 in The
Organization and Operation of the Distribution and
Marketing Branch, OOOH Series 2.6, Regions Branch
Section 6. Toronto: Ontario Hydro,1984.

Ontario Hydro. Distribution and Marketing Branch. "Regions


Branch Policy 21 : Neutral to Earth Voltage (Tingle Voltage) to
Protect Livestock", Section 4.3 in The Organization and
Operation of the Distribution and Marketing Branch, OOOH
Series 2.6, Regions Branch Section 4. Toronto: Ontario Hydro,
1984.

Ontario Hydro. Electrical Safety Code, 19th ed. Toronto: Ontario


Hydro,1983.

Ontario Hydro. Electrical Safety Code:1983 - Section 75.


Toronto: Ontario Hydro,1984.

Ontario Hydro. In-House Energy Efficiency Group. Power


Quality Mitigation Guide. Toronto: Ontario Hydro,1996.

Ontario Hydro. Industrial Service Division. "Customers' Facilities


Supplied at Voltages in Excess of 50 kV". Memo by W.G. Keller.
Toronto: Ontario Hydro, August 27,1986.

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Page 150

150 STANDARDS, GUIDELINES & PROCEDURES

Ontario Hydro. Industrial Service Division. "Policy Dealing with


Customer-Owned Facilities Supplied at Voltages in Excess of
50 kV," in High Voltage Supply to Customers over 50 kV.
Toronto: Ontario Hydro,1980.

Ontario Hydro. Oscillatory Transient Interference Immunity


Test, Ontario Hydro Standard Specification A-28m-82. Toronto:
Ontario Hydro, July 1982.

Ontario Hydro. Retail Distribution System Division. Distribution


Planning and Design Department. "Voltage Imbalance", Memo
DSD 250.7 - TP by F. Iley. Toronto: Ontario Hydro, July 05,1983.

Ontario Hydro. Retail and Customer Services Division. "Classes


of Service," Section 3E in Rural Service Manual, Toronto:
Ontario Hydro, December 1986.

Ontario Hydro. Retail and Customer Services Division. "Meter


Reading and Customer Service," Section 9 in Rural Service
Manual, Toronto: Ontario Hydro, March 1987.

Ontario Hydro. Retail Service Department. "Tingle Voltage",


Section 10 in Customer Service Reference Manual. Toronto:
Ontario Hydro, May 1987.

Ontario Hydro. Retail Service Department. "Voltage Complaints",


Section 12 in Customer Service Reference Manual. Toronto:
Ontario Hydro, June 1988.'

Ontario Hydro. Rural Service Department. Tingle Voltage


Manual for Electrical Contractors. Toronto: Ontario Hydro, April
1984.

Ontario Hydro. System Planning Division. Standards for Supply


to Municipal Electrical Utilities Supplied Directly from
Ontario Hydro Owned Transformer Stations, Draft Report No.
TF-6. Toronto: Ontario Hydro,1988.

Ontario Hydro. System Planning Division. Regional Supply


Planning Department. "Guideline on Permissible Voltage
Unbalance", Toronto: Ontario Hydro, October 29,1982.

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151
SUGGESTED READING

12

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SUGGESTED READING

153

General
AC Power Handbook: Problems & Solutions, 5th ed. San Diego:
RTE DELTEC,1984.
Clemmensen, J.M. and M.J. Samotyj. Electric Utility Options in
Power Quality Assurance. Public Utilities Fortnightly. June 11.
1987.
Douglas, J. "Quality Power in the Electronics Age" EPRI Journal
(November 1985): 3-13.
Dugan, R.C., McGranaghan and H.W. Beaty. Electrical Power
Systems Quality. McGraw-Hill: 1996.
Wright Hilbig, R. Power Quality Mitigation Reference Guide.
Toronto: Ontario Hydro, 1996.
Guideline on Electrical Power for ADP Installations, (FIPS
Publication 94) Washington: National Bureau of Standards,
1983.
Key. Thomas S. Diagnosing Power Quality-Related Computer
Problems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications IA-IS,
No. 4, July/Aug.1979.
Lawrie. Robert J.. ed. Electrical Systems for Computer
Installations, New York: McGraw Hill.1988.
Solutions to Power Problems in Computers & Other Critical
Equipment, An Executive Overview. Power Conditioning
Application Notes. Mentor. Ohio: Cyberex Inc., [n.d.]

Electrical Distribution and Grounding


Ott. H.W. Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems.
John Wiley & Son.1988
Canadian Electrical Safety Code, 19th Edition. 1983 (with a
supplement for Ontario).
Price. Ken. Troubleshooting Down to the Ground,
Computer/Electronic Service News. March 1988.

Disturbances
Goldstein. M. and P.D. Speranza. "The Quality of US Commercial
AC Power". INTELEC International Telecommunications Energy
Conference. Washington (October 3-6.1982): 28-33.

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SUGGESTED READING

Power Quality Harmonics. Energy Management Series. Toronto:


Ontario Hydro Marketing Operations Division, [n.d.]
Power Quality Harmonics Summary. Energy Management Series.
Toronto: Ontario Hydro Marketing Operations Division. [n.d.]
Power System Harmonics - A Review and Assessment of
Problems. Fredericton: University of New Brunswick Centre for
Research and Applied Science, March 1986.
Understanding Power Line Disturbances. Edison. N.J.: Dranetz
Technologies. 1985.

Mitigating Equipment
Computer Power Conditioners. New York: Electrical Construction
and Maintenance: A McGraw-Hill Publication. 1984.
How to Correct Power Line Disturbances. Edison. N.J.: Dranetz
Technologies Inc. 1985.

Monitoring
How to Identify Power Line Disturbances. Edison. N.J.: Dranetz
Technologies Inc. 1985.
Martzloff, Franois D. and Thomas M. Gruzs "Power Quality Site
Surveys: Facts, Fiction and Fallacies. IEEE Conference
Recording Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Technical Conference 1987. Nashville, Tn (May 4-7, 1987):
21-33.
Martzloff, Franois. Power Quality Measurement: Bringing Order
Out of Chaos. Proceedings from the 15th Energy Technology
Conference. Washington D.C. February 17-19, 1988.
McEachern, Alexander. Handbook of Power Signatures. Foster
City. Ca.: Basic Measuring Instruments, 1988.
McEachern. Alexander, "Approaching Power Problems
Systematically." Compute Electronic Service News (August
1986).

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SUGGESTED READING

155

Palko, Ed. "Monitoring and Analyzing Quality of Electric Power."


Plant Engineering (April 25, 1985): 44-51.
Tharp, Stephen. AC-line Monitor Prints Waveform Graphs of
Voltage Disturbances." Electric Design (January 24, 1985):
199-204.

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157
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

13

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

159

Capacitance:

Capacitance is that property of a system of dielectrics and


conductors that allows for the storage of electrically separated
charges when a potential difference exists between the
conductors.
A capacitor does not dissipate real energy (Watts).

Converter:

a device which can be used to change alternating current power


to direct current power or vice versa, or from one frequency to
another

Faraday Shield:

a grounded metallic barrier that can be used for enhanced


isolation between the windings of an isolation transformer

Filter, band pass:

a filter that has a single transmission band, neither of the cutoff


frequencies being zero or infinite

Filter, band reject:

a filter that has a single attenuation band, neither of the cutoff


frequencies being zero or infinite

Impedance:

propensity of a circuit or device to impede the flow of current


the real part of impedance is the resistance, and the imaginary
part is the reactance

Inductance:

represents the propensity of a conductor to store energy in an


associated magnetic field
opposes the change of alternating current, but does not oppose
the flow of steady current, such as DC
can be thought of as electrical inertia

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

I.T Product:

measures the degree of harmonic interference with


communication circuits

I.T

consists of two separate components: balanced I.T and residual


I.T
balanced I.T is the measurement of inductive interference
resulting from harmonics in phase conductors
residual I.T is the measurement of inductive interference resulting
from harmonics in the ground return path

(I1W1)2 + (I2W2)2 + ... + (InWn)2


where l1, I2 are harmonic currents in RMS amperes;
W1, W2... Wn are single frequency TIF
weighting factors

Joule:

measure of energy
Joule = power x time
1 kWh 3.6 x 106 joules

Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV):

a semiconductor whose resistance varies inversely with applied


voltage
commonly used to clamp or arrest transients

Nominal Voltage:

specifies voltage class


actual line voltages may vary by location and by time of day as
loads change
a 120V nominal voltage may have measured values of 108V to
132V

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

161

Power:

rate of energy transfer or consumption


Power = Voltage x Current (x power factor in AC circuits)
units: Watts (Joules/sec)

Power Factor:

the ratio of watts to volt amperes

Reactance:

the opposition to the flow of alternating current by the inductance


or capacitance of a component or circuit
reactance is inductive if the imaginary part of the impedance is
positive
reactance is capacitive if the imaginary part of the impedance is
negative

Rectifier:

a device which may be used to convert alternating current to


direct current (by conducting current easily in one direction and
negligibly in the opposite direction)
a type of converter

Resistance:

a physical property of a circuit that impedes the flow of


alternating current which is in phase with the voltage, and
restricts the flow of direct current
when a current flows through a resistance, a voltage drop
develops across the resistance (Ohm's Law)
the real part of impedance
usually represents the conversion of energy to heat

Resonance:

Resonance of a circuit or system refers to the enhancement of its


response to a periodic excitation

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

The frequency at which the inductive and capacitive components


of an electrical circuit have equal reactance is the resonant
frequency. Resonance occurs when a harmonic frequency
coincides with the resonant frequency, resulting in very high
currents and voltages in the circuit.
Short Circuit Ratio =

Transformer Short Circuit Power Rating (MVA)


Power Rating of Rectifier (MW)

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR):

a type of thyristor

Telephone Interference Factor (TIF):

a measure of the harmonic interference in telephone circuits


a dimensionless quantity
assumes that the coupling between the power and telephone is
proportional to frequency

Thyristor:

a bistable semiconducting device comprising three or more


junctions that can be switched from the OFF state to the ON
state, or vice versa
used to convert alternating current to a unidirectional current
can be arranged with switching devices to form a thyristor
converter

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):


THD =

(Sum of Squares of RMS Magnitudes of all Harmonics*)


(Square of RMS Magnitude of Fundamental)

1/2

X 100 %

also called the Distortion Factor (DF) or the Harmonic Distortion


Factor (HDF)

*Does not include the fundamental.

Power Quality GUIDE

1/9/01

2:00 PM

Page 4

OTHER IN-HOUSE REFERENCE GUIDES:

Adjustable Speed Drive


Fans
Industrial Energy Monitoring & Control Systems
Load Control Communications Systems
Motors
Power Quality
Power Quality Mitigation
Pumps

COMMENTS:
For any changes, additions and/or comments call or write to:
Scott Rouse
Account Executive
Ontario Hydro
700 University Avenue, H10-F18
Toronto, Ontario
M5G 1X6
Telephone (416) 592-8044
Fax. (416) 592-4841
E-Mail
srouse@hydro.on.ca

Power Quality GUIDE

1/9/01

2:00 PM

Page 1

In-H ouse Energy Efficiency

Energy Savings are Good Business

"The sun represents sustained life


while the lightning bolt depicts energy. The integration
represents the perfect partnership of energy utilization and the
environment that encourages wise use and respect for all natural
resources. The roof represents the in-house aspect of energy
efficiency throughout Hydro."
Marcel Gauthier
Georgian Bay Region - Retail

Printed on
recycled papers

Ontario Hydro

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