LegalStudiesHumanRightsnotes

HumanRights

Chapter7thenatureanddevelopmentofhumanrights

Thedefinitionofhumanrights

Thefundamentalentitlementsthatcomefrombeinghumane.g.righttolife
Theyaimtoprotectindividualsfrominjustice
Notiontranscendsrace,nationality,ethnicity,gender,ability,sexuality...
PriortoWW2,itwaswidelyacceptedthathumanrightswereaconcernforindividual
countries
TheatrocitiescommittedbyHitlersNazismadehumanrightsaninternalconcern
Developingrecognitionofhumanrights
Theabolitionofslavery
o Acceptedpracticeintheancientworld
o HumaneandliberalideassurfacedintheFrenchandAmericanrevolutions
o TheBritishgovtpassedtheEmancipationAct1833,abolishingslaverythroughoutthe
Britishcolony
o Followingthisinitialact,variousotherlawsworldwidewerepassed
o UNbannedslaveryundertheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948)andlater,
theConventionontheAbolitionofSlavery(1957)madepenaltiesmoreenforceable
andwidespread
o Yetdespitethesemechanism,thenumberofpeoplelivinginasituationofforced
servitudeisintheregionof200million,ItalianAntiMafiaCommission
o ContemporaryformsofslaveryChildSoldiers,andprostitution(turnoverof13billiona
year)

TradeUnionism
o Associationsofemployeesthataimtoprotecttherightsofworkers
o FormedaftertheIndustrialRevolutioninthe18thcentury
o Playedanimportantroleinestablishingthatemployersowedaresponsibilitythetheir
workers,suchasasafeworkingenvironment

Universalsuffrage

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o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Thateveryadulthastherighttovote
Therighttovoteremovesinjusticeandpowerfulpoliticalbarrierstoequality
GrantedinAus,althoughrelativelynewasvotersusedtobestrictlywhite,maleandrich
Womenwontherighttovoteinfederalelectionsin1902
WomenstilldonothavethevoteinSaudiArabia
Aboriginalswerentgrantedthevoteuntil1962
Therearestillmanynationswithoutademocraticgovt(e.g.Chinaillegaltosetup
oppositionpoliticalpartiestoCommunistParty)

o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

Universaleducation
Therightofallthebasiceducation
Rarebeforethe19thcentury
AgrowingdemandforeducatedpeopletomeetdemandsofIndustrialRevolution
In1870s,Auscoloniesmadeeducationfreeandcompulsory
TheUNhasrecognisedthateducationisessentialtothealleviationofpoverty,the
adoptionoffamilyplanningandtheimprovementofthestatusofwomen
UniversaleducationisprotectedundertheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights

RighttoSelfDetermination
Thecollectiverightofpeople(particularlyIndigenousandotherminoritygroups)tohave
atleastpartialcontroloftheirland,whilststillbeingpartofthebroadernation
Canalsomeangrantingindependencetothetraditionalowners
Grewrapidlyinthe1960s,particularlyinAsia,AfricaandthePacific,wheremuch
decolonisationoccurred,aslandwashandedbacktoIndigenouspeoplese.g.inEast
Timor
Handingbacklandtotraditionalownershasleadtosomeinstanceswherethereare
barriersbetweenethnicgroups.E.g.RwandaHutussoughttokilltheentirepopulation
ofTutsis

o
o
o
o

o
o
o

EnvironmentalRights
Thisisacollectiverightamatterofcommonconcernforhumankind
Intergenerationalequalitygrantstherightoffuturegenerationstoenjoythesame
levelofenvironmentalqualityasthepresentgeneration
Hasgainedasincreasedrecognitionduetoanunderstandingofthelimitedresourcesof
ourplanet
StockholmandRioDeclarationaremovestowardsasustainablefuture
PeaceRights
therighttopeace
inancienttimes,countriesactedintheirowninterests
thedevelopmentofdeadlynuclearweaponryhascreatedsomuchdestructionandfear
thatpeacerightshavegainedrecognition
theUNidentifiedpeaceasoneofitsmainaims
theSecurityCouncilactswhenthereisathreattopeacee.g.inKoreanwar(19501953)

o
o

FormalStatementsofHumanRights

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o
o
o
o
o

UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948)
UDHRdevelopedlargelyinresponsetotheatrocitiesofWW2
Atitscoreisnondiscriminationandrespectforindividualdignity
Itslackoflegalstatushashelpedgiveitmoralauthorityhelpstrengthenitsdemandsfor
increasedHRagainstauthoritariangovernments
Ithasbeenafoundationforlaterinstrumentsandsimilarrightsindomesticlegal
systems
Itisnotlegallybinding,howeveritsuniversalacceptancehasmadeitpartofthe
principlesofI.L

o
o
o
o
o
o

InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(1966)
Relatetothetreatmentoftheindividualbothasanindividualandasamemberofwider
society
Mainlyprotectspeoplefromtheactionsofoppressivegovts
Oftendeniedinauthoritarianstates
ExpandonrightssetofbyUDHR
Includesrighttolife,liberty,security,participateingovernment,freedomfromtorture
andslavery,freedomofreligion
hasbeenquiteineffective,asreportsshowthatdespitebeingsignatories,various
nationsabuseHR

o
o
o

InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(1966)
Relatetoeconomic,socialandculturalfreedom
Oftendeniedinpoorcountries
Includesrighttowork,education,jointradeunions,participatefreelyinculturallife,an
adequatestandardofliving,selfdetermination,equalitybetweenmenandwomen

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Chapter8PromotingandEnforcinghumanrights

Intheinternationalcommunity:

StateSovereignty
Therightofastatetomakelawswithinitsjurisdictionwithoutexternalinterference
e.g.Ausandasylumseekers
SovereigntyandIL
ThemosteffectivewayforIHRLtobeenforced,istoratifytreatiesintodomesticlaw
Somestatesautomaticallymakeitpartoftheirlegalsystem(France,Germany)
Commonlawstatesusuallyconsideritbindingbetweenstatesbutnotwithrespect
toindividualrightsunlessithasbeenratified(Australia,India)
SScanpreventtheeffectivenessofI.L,asitonlyappliestocountriesthathave
agreedtobeboundbyitandmanydonotsufficientlyenforceit(e.g.PakistanGovt.
TestingnuclearweaponsdespiteitbeingabreachofI.L)
TherighttogovernthemselvesisusedasanexcusetobreachesofIHRL(Ausasylum
seekers)

Therolesof:
TheUnitedNations
o protectionofhumanrights

GeneralAssembly
ThemaindebatingforumoftheUN
Hearsreportsonhumanrightsabuses
ItmaysendspecialRapporteurstoinvestigatehumanrightsviolations
MakesrecommendationstomemberstatesonanymatterundertheCharterofthe
UN
Passesresolutions(e.g.2003asthebeginningoftheUNliteracydecade)
Althoughthesearenotlegallybinding,theycarrymoralforceandraiseawarenessof
HRissues.Theyalsoprovideafoundationforotherlegallybindingconventions(e.g.
UDHRleadtoCovenants)

SecurityCouncil
Handlesthreatstointernationalpeaceandsecurity
Permanent5:Russia,US,UK,ChinaandFrance
Canarrangehumanitarianaid
Canarrangepeacekeepingforcesintroublespotsaroundtheworld(e.g.conflict
betweenIsraelandPalestine)
Canimposesanctions
o Moralstatesexpresstheiropiniontowardsoffendingstate
o Politicalbreakingdiplomaticrelations
o Economicpunishedeconomically(refusingtotrade,blockades)e.g.inIraq
afterGulfwar
o Financialrefusedfinancialassistancefromstates

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o
o

Physicaluseofforce(e.g.USthreateningtoinvadeNorthKoreaduetoits
nuclearweaponsprogram)
Effectiveness:
MayforcestatesintofollowingIHRL,however...
Canharmthecitizensandnotthegovernment

Intergovernmentalorganisations
HumanRightsCouncil
UNbodythatpromoteshumanrights
ReportsonHRviolationsandmakesrecommendationstotheGeneralAssembly
HasanewprocedureforimpartiallyhearingcomplaintsaboutviolationsofHRA
WorkingGroupassessesthecomplaintbasedoncertaincriteria,repliestothestates
concernedandreportstotheHRcouncil
canappointRapporteurstoinvestigatepossiblehumanrightsabuses(e.g.inNorth
Korea)

CourtsandTribunals
SeeWorldOrder

StatutoryBodies
UNHighCommissionerforHR
Coordinatesthepromotionofhumanrights
Providesadvisoryservicesandfinancialassistance
MaintainsahighinternationalprofileforHRthroughspeechesandpublicity
Reportsdirectlytogeneralsecretary

Committeesmonitoringhumanrightsconventions
Committeesinclude:
o HumanRightsCommittee
o CommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights
o CommitteeAgainstTorture
o CommitteeontheEliminationofRacialDiscrimination
Althoughtheyalloperateindifferentways,theyallhavethesamegeneralfunction
Theymonitorvarioushumanrightsconventions,investigatingnoncomplianceswith
them
Theyreceiveregularreportsfromstatesontheprogressoftheirimplementationof
these
TheyhearinterstatecomplaintsofHRabusesandattemptstomediatethem
Decisionsarenotbindingonnationsandarenotenforceable

NGOs
anassociationbasedoncommoninterests,whichhasnoconnectionwithanygovt
PlayacrucialroleininvestigatingHRissues,encouraginggovernmentsand
individualstocomplywithHRlaws

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RedCrossisparticularlypowerfulandhasstatusattheUN.RedCrosswasinvolved
inthedraftingofGenevaConventions.Itsmainactivitiesistogivehumanitarianaid
tovictimsofwarandnaturaldisasters

Themedia
Avehicleforconveyinginfo,usedoftenbyNGOs
Exposehumanrightsissues,influencepublicopinionandtoembarrassgovernments
andindividualswhoabuseHRbyexposingtheiractstopublic,pressuringtheminto
obeyingIHRL

IntheAustralia:

TheIncorporationofhumanrightsintodomesticlaw
MainSourcesofHRlawinAusincludesconstitution,commonandstatutelaw.

TheroleoftheConstitution:
AlthoughitcontainsfewreferencestorightsofAustralians,itplays2importantroles:
1. Throughthedivisionandseparationofpowers
2. Throughreferencetosomespecificrights,includingexpressedandimpliedrights

Separationofpowers
Separatesthepowerofthestateintothreearms:
o Legislature(parliament)
o Judiciary(courts)
o Executive(governmentsanditsadministrativedepartments)
Limitsthepowerofeach,aseachactasacheckontheother
LimitationonlyataCommonwealthlevel,meaningthatatastatelevel,the
executivearmmaybeabletobindthejudicialarm,creatingaseriousHRconcern

Divisionofpowers
DividesgovernmentpowerbetweentheCommonwealthandtheStates
LimitsthepowerofCommonwealthandhence,ensurespowerisnottoocentralised
inoneplace
o ExclusivepowerspowersoftheCommonwealth(trade,defence,external
affairs)
o ResidualpowerspowersoftheStateGovt(transport,lawandorder)
LimitationCommonwealthpowerhasgrownsignificantlysincefederation
PosItsexternalaffairspowermeansthatitcontrolsAustraliastreatyobligations.It
canbindstatestothoserightsandlegislatetoprotectthoserightsacrossAus

ExpressedandImpliedrightsintheConstitution
Expressrightsexpresslyincludedinite.g.freedomofreligion
Impliedrightsimpliedthroughthetextofit.TheHighCourtisresponsiblefor
judgingwhatrightsareimplied.e.g.Langev.AusBroadcastingCorporationHigh
Courtdecidedthatpoliticalcommunicationwasaformoffreedomofspeech,and
thereforeanimpliedright

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TheroleofStatuteLaw
AusparliamentsmakelawstoprotectHR
Manyhavebeenadoptedthroughtheprocessofratifyinginternationaltreaties
Variousantidiscriminationlegislation:
o RacialDiscriminationAct1975(Cth)
o SexDiscriminationAct1984(Cth)

TheRoleofCommonLaw
Madethroughthejudgementsofcourts
RightsprotectedbyCLpresumptionofinnocence,righttoafairtrial,silenceandappeal
IneffectivenessofCL:
o ItdoesnotofferabsoluteprotectionofhumanrightsasCLrightsarenotfixed
andcanbeeasilyremovedbyanactofparliament
However,hasbeeneffectiveinestablishingsomerights

TheroleofCourtsandTribunals
AustralianHumanRightsCommission
Hasamonitoringrole
Hastheresponsibilityto:
o ConductpublicinquiriesintoHRabusesandissuerecommendationsto
governments
In1997,itconductedaninquiryintotheseparationofIndigenouschildrenfromtheir
families.ThereportcalledBringingthemhome,recommendedanapologybytheAus
Govttovictims,whichwasignoredforadecadeunderHowardGovt.In2008,the
apologywasmadeunderRuddLabourgovt

HighCourtofAustralia
SupremepoweroverothercourtsinHRissuesithasthepowertosetprecedentson
othercourtsandtooverturngovernmentlegislation
E.g.MabovQueensland(1992)involvedrecognitionforthefirsttimeofAus
Indigenouspeoplesrighttonativetitleoftheirtraditionallands.ILwasinfluentialin
thiscase.
Limitationsomehavecriticisedthecourtforexceedingitspowers
Itspowertodeclarelegislationinvalid,upholdtherightsoftheconstitutionandto
continuetodevelopcommonlawmakeitpossiblythemostimportantprotectorofHRin
Aus

RoleofNGOs
PlayacrucialroleininvestigatingHRissues,encouraginggovernmentsandindividualsto
complywithHRlaws
ShapepublicopinionandexposeviolationsofHRbygovernmentsandindividuals

Roleofthemedia
Ausisrankedoneofthetop10countriesformediafreedom

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Exposehumanrightsissues,influencepublicopinionandtoembarrassgovernmentsand
individualswhoabuseHRbyexposingtheiractstopublic,pressuringthemintoobeying
IHRL(particularlyABCandSBS)

AcharterofRights(forandagainst)
ThereisgreatdebateoverwhetherAusneedsacharterofrights
Abillofrightsisadocumentsettingouthumanrights,whichmaybeconstitutional(part
oftheconstitution)orstatutory(developedbyanactofparliamentoftencalledCharter
ofRights)
Themaindifferencebetweentheseisthatabillisentrenchedintheconstitutionand
canonlybechangedbyareferendum.Thismaycreateinflexibility.Whereasacharteris
mainlystatutoryandcanbechangedbyamajorityvoteoftheparliament.Thismaynot
provideasstrongprotectionasaBillhowever,itcaneasilyrespondtochangesin
societysviewsofhumanrights(e.g.guncontrolinUSisgreatlyhinderedbythefactthat
theAmericanbillofrightsgrantstherighttobeararms.Itisentrenched,meaningthat
itsalmostimpossibletochange)

Argumentsfor
ArgumentsAgainst
Commonlawdoesnotadequatelyprotect
HR
StatutelawdoesnotprotectHR
effectively,particularlywhereparliament
passeslawsinfringingonhumanrights
Rightscontainedininternational
documentscanbebetterguaranteed

Rightsarewellprotectedbycommonlaw
StatutelawprotectsHRwell.Itcanbe
writtentodealwithexistingHRproblems
astheneedarises
Parliamentisthebestprotectorofrights
throughrecognitionofILand
implementingitinstatute

Thedemocraticsystemdoesnotalways
Thedemocraticsystembestprotects
protectindividualorminorityrightsagainst peoplesrightswithafreemediaandthe
thoseofthemajority
separationofpowers
JudgeswillbeabletoprotectHRmore
effectivelybyinterpretingacharterof
rights.Rightswouldbeputabovepolitics

Judgesbecomeinvolvednmaking
politicaldecisionsasaresultofa
generallydrawncharterofrights

Parliamentsdecisionmakingwould
improve,astheywouldhavetoconsider
thecharterinmakingtheirdecisions

Parliamentmaybeinhibitedinitsneedto
governbythepossibilityoflegislation
beingreferredbacktoparliamentbya
judgesinterpretationofacharter

Acharterwouldeducatethepublicabout
HR

SocietyisbesteducatedaboutHR
throughthemediaandeducation

Acharterwouldencouragetolerance

Australiaisalreadyatolerantsociety

Acharterwouldprotectindividualsfrom
thepossibilityofoppressivelawsenacted

RightsofIndividualsarealreadywell
protectedbycommonlaworlegislation

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byparliament

passedinresponsetosuchproblemsby
parliament

Investigateacontemporaryhumanrightsissueandevaluatetheeffectivenessoflegaland
nonlegalresponsestotheissue
Childsoldiers

Humanrightsarethefundamentalrightsheldbyallpeople.Withanestimated300000
childrenworldwidecurrentlyservingassoldiers,theuseofchildsoldiersrepresentsa
contemporarybreachoftheserights.AccordingtoCapeTownPrinciples,achildsoldieris
anypersonunder18yearsofagewhoispartofanykindofregularorirregulararmedforce
orarmedgroupinanycapacity,notjustthosecarryingarms.Variouslegalandnonlegal
responseshavebeensubsequentlyemployedtoeradicatethisuniversalconcern.

Theuseofchildsoldiersisahumanrightsissue,asundertheUniversalDeclarationof
HumanRights,childrenareentitledtospecialcareandassistance.Theyareusedworldwide
inbothgovernmentandrebelgroups,includinginrecentconflictsinAfghanistan,Myanmur,
SudanandUganda.TheyareevenusedinAustralia,wheretheminimumrecruitmentageis
17.Childrenarecommonlyabductedandforcedtoserve.Othersvolunteer,yetthisoften
involvescoercionordeception.Theyliveinconstantdangerwithnohealthcareandcruel
treatment,suchasbeatingsandsexslavery.Manysufferfrompsychologicalscarringandare
stigmatised,makingreintegrationdifficult.Theexploitivenatureofchildsoldiersisaserious
humanrightsconcern.

Theinternationalcommunityhasrecentlyrespondedtotheissueofchildsoldiersthrougha
varietyoflegalinstruments,providingaprogressiveseriesofinternationalstandards.The
firstofthesewasin1977,whenAdditionalProtocolstothe1949GenevaConventionswere
adopted,illegalisingtheuseofchildsoldiers.Thisiseffectivelybindingonallgroups.Yet
despitethegeneralconsensusthatachildisanyoneunder18,itsettheminimumageof
childsoldiersat15andpartiesaremerelyrequiredtotakeallfeasiblemeasurestocomply,
revealingineffectiveness.

The1989ConventionontheRightsoftheChildincludedstandardsrelatingtothe
recruitmentofchildrenintohazardousareasofwork,effectivelyprotectingchildsoldiers
underthisdefinition.However,CROCalsosetaminimumageof15,despiteitsdefinitionofa
childasunder18.Thisinconsistencyalsosuggestsineffectiveness.

Theregionalinstrument,theAfricanCharterontheRightsandWelfareoftheChild(1990),
effectivelysetsthehigheststandardsofalllegalresponses,withawithoutexception
minimumageof18anduseofstrongerlanguage,allnecessarymeasures.Yet,itremains
ignoredbyvariousAfricanstates.

TheInternationalLabourOrganisationConvention182(1999)prohibitstheforced
recruitmentofchildrenunder18andeffectivelybindssignatorynationstotakeimmediate
measurestoeliminatetheissue.

Attheturnofthecentury,TheOptionalProtocoltotheConventionontheRightsoftheChild
ontheInvolvementofChildreninArmedConflict(2002)wasintroduced.Thiseffectively
strengtheneduniversalstandardsbyprohibitingthecompulsoryrecruitmentofchildren
under18.However,itsetthevoluntaryrecruitmentageat16,andasdiscussedearlier,
voluntaryisoftennotgenuine.

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Whenthefirstpermanentcourttotryindividualschargedwithinternationalcrimeswas
establishedundertheRomeStatuteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt(2002),theuseof
childsoldiersundertheageof15wasaddedasawarcrime.Anobviousweaknessisagain
theagelimit.However,itincreasedtheenforcementofpreviouslegalagreements,
demonstratedthroughacurrentcaseoftheICC,Prosecutorv.ThomasLubangaDyilo.
Lubangaisthefirstindividualtobebroughttotrialsolelyonthegroundsthatheusedchild
soldiersinhisforces,revealingtheeffectivenessoftheRomeStatuteincriminalisingtheuse
ofchildsoldiers.

Itisobviousthattheselegalresponseshaveeffectivelybuiltamuchstrongerinternational
frameworkforendingtheuseofchildsoldiers.Duetostatesovereigntyhowever,these
internationalagreementsonlyapplytothosecountriesthathaveagreedtobeboundby
them,significantlylimitingtheireffectiveness.Furthermore,theissueofageremainsa
sourceofinconsistency,reducingthestrengthofinternationalstandards.Clearly,thelaw
mustbestrengthenedtoeliminatechildsoldiers.

Variousnonlegalresponsesattempttocombattheissue.Inparticular,NGOsareeffectivein
raisingawareness,lobbyinggovernmentstocomplywithlegalstandardsandassisting
previouschildsoldierstoreintegrateintosociety.Forexample,themainpurposeofThe
CoalitiontoStoptheUseofChildSoldiersisDisarmament,DemobilizationandReintegration
ofchildsoldiers.Accordingtoitswebsite,itaimstoachievethisthroughadvocacy,research
andmonitoring,includingregularGlobalReportsontheirresearch.

TheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCrossisaspecialNGO,whosereputationof
neutralityallowsittogainaccesstomanyarmedgroupsworldwideandlobbythemto
reducetheiruseofchildsoldiers.Italsoeducatesthemonlawsrelevanttochildsoldiers.
Similarly,thepressureappliedbytheNGOHumanRightsWatchtothearmedgroup,
LiberiansUnited,sawthemabandontheirpolicyofusingchildsoldiers.

Otherformsofnonlegalresponsesalsoexisttoraiseawareness.RedHandDayisan
annuallycelebratedinitiative.Itslogoofaredhandhasbecomeauniversalsymbolfor
endingchildrecruitment.Themediaswidespreadcoverageofchildsoldierspressures
governmentstocomplywithinternationalstandards.Films,booksanddocumentariesalso
successfullyraiseawareness,suchasBloodDiamond(2006),whichincludedtherecruitment
ofchildsoldiersinthehorrificdiamondtradepartsofAfrica.

Nonlegalresponseshavebeeneffectivelyfocussedglobalattentionontheissueandlobby
governmentsworldwide.Thisultimatelyplacespressureonallarmedgroupstoaltertheir
policiesofusingchildsoldiers.

Theuseofchildsoldiersisevidentlyagravehumanrightsconcern.Legalresponseshave
establishedasetofuniversalstandardsandnonlegalmechanismshavebeeneffectivein
pressuringuniversalcompliancewiththese.However,thepaceofprogressremainsslow,
withover300000childrencurrentlyemployedassoldiers.Thisineffectivenessrevealsthat
thereisstillmuchtobedonetoeliminatethisissue.

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