meiosis

Sunday, October 11, 2015

10:18 PM

Sexual reproduction
Sexual or asexual

Sexual reproduction
2 parents of opposite sex
Combination of genes from both parents
Where miosis comes in
To come in
Formation of gametes - come in to form zygote and have new individual

Asexual Involves single parent

Offspring produced by mitosis - identical to parent
Many species do both
Some species just do asexual
Some do asexual some of time and sexual at other times

In hydra - organism - celentarate

Cell - budd off of main body and form brand new little hydra
Vegetative - very common in plants

Send out runners - new plantlet

Now an offspring - genetically identical to main plant
And severed and offspring free living
Already talked about mitosis

Miosis - sexual reproduction

Meiosis - involved in sexual reproduction

Produces gamete cells involved in sexual reproduction
Gamete cells - haploid - half amount of chromosomes
Haploid made in particular part of pody called germ cells
Germ cells found in particular parts of body such as gonands - testies and overies of
animals
And in plants

In humanes - gametes made in testies

Called sperm and rest of structures - delivery system to get sperm to egg structures do other things as well
In female - eggs produced in ovaries
And getting sperm to eggs and zygote getting formed - place where to grow

Gamete producing structures in plants

Flowering plants
Structures produce gamets
"ovary" at base of flower

Ovary - contains ovules

Equivalent of eggs in animal
Particular plant
Separate structure - make male gamets
Anther (where sperm originate)
Pollon equivalent to animal sperm

Meiosis overview

Main job of meiosis - produce haploid cells

Half number of chromosomes as original cell
Not randomly chosen half of chromosomes
Each gamete - one representative of each homologous of each chromosomes
In red to emphasise importants
Each gamete has one representative of each homologous pair of chromosomes
Extra set at end - determines male or female
Each homologous pair
23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
Pair number 1
Each x y structure
Gamete 1 of those two
Doesn't matter which one
But one and only one
Pair number 2 - one of those structures

Same for all of them

General purpose of meiosis - gamete cell that has half of original cell
Half of original cell
Maintain a constant amount of genetic information
If we didn't do meiosis
Produced things we call gametes by mitosis
Gamete cell from one parent to another parent
Chromosome - double
Each generation double until cell choked with chromosome
Keep constant number of chromosomes
Joining cells
Join 2 cells from each parent
Each gamete - half number of chromosome
Constant chromosome number from generation to generaton
Mitosis - produces genetic variability
One of things
Large family
Brother and sister
Don't look exactly like you but somewhat like you
Variablity
Part of - gamete produced you and gamete produced brother and sister - different
Different representatives from each homologous pair

Events of meiosis

Like mitosis except

There are 2 cell divisions
Meiosis 1 and meiosis ii
And homologous chromosoems are separated
Natural world Meiosis - more like mitosis with extra things
First thing
Chromosomes duplicated
Not make lot of sence
Why duplicate when goal is to cut in half
As we'll see with evolutionary kinds of things
Not always most efficient
But evolution takes preexisting systems and modifies to produce new kinds of
things
Meiosis - things happening like mitosis - some changes

1
2
3
4

Duplicating chromosomes
Homologues pair up (synapsis )
Meisis 1 - metaphase - right up next to each other - one goes to one side one
goes to the other - separate others
Separate chromatids (meiosis II) - still have chromosomes in duplicated
condition - separate them

Two? Duplicate chromosomes

Cell division 1 - do is separate homologues - still left with chromosomes in
duplicated condition
Another meiosis to separate sister chromatids

X shaped structure
Two homologus chromosomes
X shaped on top in light blue
One homologous already duplicated
Underneath it other homologue that goes with it, also duplicated
Two events of miosis
Already duplicated and homologous pairing up and coming together
Next event
Separate from each other
Two homologous chromosomes
Separated
Meiosis 2
One homologous chromosomes
Still duplicated condition
Have to separate sister chromatids

Separate sister chromatids

Event takes place in second cell division miosis 2

Meiosis 1
same phases as mitosis
Prophase - unique thing - homologous chromosomes pair up
Pair like that synapsis coming together
Metaphase - pairs of homologues line up on equator

Anaphase and telophase

Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles
Which homologue ends up at which pole is random
Line up at equator
Sometimes mother on left side
Sometimes mother on right side
Random
Homologues separate
In anaphase and telophase
Get all homologues from father going one side and from mother going to one
side
Random mix of two
Montra holds
Each of new cells only have one representative from heach homologous pair

One thing see happening

Homologous pairs lining up next to each other
Do more than this
Crossing over that happens when they line up next to each other
Synapsis
Metaphase - meiosis 1
Pairs lined up together on equator of cell
In box - 1 homologue and bottom you see other homologue
In anaphase and telophase
Chromosomes separated
Telophase - top portion of cell - one representative from one homologous pair

Results so far
Meiosis 1
2 cells - each represantative of each homologous pair

But chromosomes still duplicated state

One more cell division to separate duplicated to sister chromatids

Metaphase
Each chromosome is attached at the equator
Anaphase and telophase
Sister chromatid separate
Chromosomes already duplicated

End of meiosis 1
2 cells
In beginning 2 cells
One representative
One pair of chromosomes
Fairly large

One on right
Another pair - kinda small side
Each cells have one big and one smaller chromosome
Each cells have to undergo another cell division
Focus on either one of hese

Cell on top - cell goes through metaphase

Two chromosomes line up on equator of cell
Anaphase and telophase - separated into sister chromatids
Meiosis ii
Results - 4 cells - each with the haploid number of chromosomes
Each gamete has one representative of each homologous pair

Other aspects of meiosis

Male and female animals - differ a little bit
Male gamete formation - 4 sperm - original and get 4 sperm
Egg formation same would be true - 4 egg cells
Get 4 cells but one becomes egg
3 other cells produced are called polar bodies
Not functional gametes
Why that should be case

Single cell - undergoes first biotic devision

Producing 2 cells and 2 cells producing 4 cells - 4 sperm cells

Egg formation
Single cell
Becomes two cells
And each becomes two cells

Only one becomes egg or ovum

Remaining - don't act as gametes at all
Reason why three of these are thrown away and not used
One of things you should be thinking of
Egg compared to sperm - very large
Important for an egg to have a lot of material inside it
Providing nutrition for developing embryo
Diagram - cytokenisis
Divides contents of cell - unequal in egg formation
First division we get
Cell on top - a lot smaller than cell on bottom
In next division
Still discrepency
One larger than other
Consolidating all cytoplasmic material and in one giant cell and 3 much smaller
cells discarded

Ultimate purpose - gametes with genetic variability

See how this can happen
One things that occurs
Independent assortment
Cell at top of diagram
Cell that has 6 chromosomes
3 pairs of homologous chromosomes
One pair seem to be largest
One to left see smallest right see sometihng in middle
3 pairs
Know that in metaphase

Homologous pairs come together

Line up on equator
And will move to opposite poles of cell
Here we color code chromosomes
To keep track of them
Dark blue on bottom - from father
Lighter blue - from mother
Mother chromosome on top
And father on bottom
One possible configuration
And it does occur
Gametes
One representative
One big, one small, and one medium
Two gametes produce
One will have all mom
And other will have all dad
But when homologous chromosomes come together
Lots of other posiblities too
Next cell shows another one
One of dad on top and two of moms
Give us different gametes
Gamete one have small chromosome from father and large and medium from
father and complementary opposite
Gametes different than oens above

Genes on mother are different than father chromosome

Not completely different
But having variation
Mother and father both have genes for eye color
Mother may have blue eyes and father may have brown eyes
Gametes very different from each other
Same genes but alials may be different

Independent assortment
One representative of each pair of homologues chosen at random
Possible combinations
6 chromosomes 3 pairs 2 to 3 power = 8
Humans 23 pairs 2 to 23 power 8 million reshuffles genetic material
8 different possible gametes that come out of that
8 different combinations
Humans - 23 pairs
Way to figure out
2 to 23rd power
8 million different combinations of mom and dad chromosomes in gametes of
human beings
A lot of genetic variation
Reshuffles
Reshuffle genetic material
Very important when we talk about evoltuion
Evolution - variation

Talk about that This diagram on left

Pair of homologus chromosomes - dark blue and lighter blue
Prophase Pair up together in synapsis
Interesting jioned together
Exchange chromosonal material
Crossing over
Called because in second picture
Dark blue - arm - dark to light
Crossing over together
Formation kyasmada
Cross each other
What happens
Last two pictures

Exchange of genetic information

Arm of light blue - attached to dark blue and arm of dark blue attached to light
blue chromosome
At end - we have a chromosome
More specifically chromatid
Picture on left - portion of chromosome of dark and light blue
Chromosome to right
Chromatid - portion light blue and portion thas dark blue

Homologous one from father and one from mother

All chromosome information shuffled further

Father joined with mother recirpical cross join with mother

Crossing over
Occurs while homologues are in synapsis
Equivalent portions are exchanged
Results in new genetic combinations
Further shuffling genetic material
New genetic combination

A lot due to independent

And now youo get even more
Genetic combination different
Different combinations of genetic varience put together in different ways

Before - independent assortment 8 million combinations

Now because of corssing over
Number of combinations of dad and mom chromosomal material is almost
infinite

Genetic variability and sexual reproduction

Why are offspring from sexual reproduction different from each other
Because of
Independent assortment (each gamete gets a random representative of each
homologous pair of chromosomes)
Crossing over
Random pairing of gametes from mom (egg) and dad (sperm) at fertilization
Pool of gametes by dad and mom
Put two together form individual
Chances of reaching into sperm pool and egg pool and by chance - two
gametes same
Identical twin
Not part of twinning process
Odds are 0
So many possible combinations
Only way - single fertalized egg - goes initial cleavage and those cells go on to
make individuals

Meiosis summery

Gametes
Each chromosome duplicated during interphase
Begin with duplicated chromosome
Take look at picture
Left germ cell form male
Right germ cell from female
Each cells have one pair of homologous chromosome
Simple cell
Each chromosome duplicated
Follow one of these meiosis processes
One on left
Two x shaped structures

Duplicated condition
Miosis 1
Two homologous pair up on equator of cell and going to separate at end of
meisis one 2 cells each has one representative of homologous chromosomes
Take those cells
Contain duplicate state
Sister chromatids separated
Get two new cells
Each has one sister chromatid
4 gamete cells
Each has one chromosone
Top of diagram - original cell 2 chromosomes
One gamete formed by mother and one formed by father
And put them together fertalized cell called zygote
Diploid number restored at fertilization