Dielectric

This article is about the material. For the song by Amer- 1 Terminology
ican industrial metal band Fear Factory, see Genexus (album).
While the term insulator implies low electrical conducNot to be confused with Dielectric constant or Dialectic. tion, dielectric typically means materials with a high
A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an electri- polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number called
the relative permittivity (also known in older texts as dielectric constant). The term insulator is generally used to
indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is
-+ -+
used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the mate-+ -+
rial (by means of polarization). A common example of
-+ -+
a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between
-+ -+
the metallic plates of a capacitor. The polarization of the
-+ -+
dielectric by the applied electric eld increases the capac-+ -+
-+ -+
itors surface charge for the given electric eld strength.[1]
-+ -+
dielectric
The term "dielectric" was coined by William Whewell
-+ -+
-+ -+
(from "dia-electric) in response to a request from
-+ -+
Michael Faraday.[3][4] A perfect dielectric is a material
-+ -+
with zero electrical conductivity (cf. perfect conduc-+ -+
tor),[5] thus exhibiting only a displacement current; there-+ -+
fore it stores and returns electrical energy as if it were an
-+ -+
-+ -+
ideal capacitor.
-+ -+
-+ -+
-+ -+

Charge
+Q

-Q

Electric
field E

Plate
area A

2 Electric susceptibility

Plate separation d

Main article: permittivity

A polarized dielectric material

The electric susceptibility e of a dielectric material

is a measure of how easily it polarizes in response to
an electric eld. This, in turn, determines the electric
permittivity of the material and thus inuences many
cal insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric
other phenomena in that medium, from the capacitance
eld. When a dielectric is placed in an electric eld,
of capacitors to the speed of light.
electric charges do not ow through the material as they
do in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their av- It is dened as the constant of proportionality (which may
erage equilibrium positions causing dielectric polariza- be a tensor) relating an electric eld E to the induced dition. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges electric polarization density P such that
are displaced toward the eld and negative charges shift
in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric eld that reduces the overall eld within the dielec- P = 0 e E,
tric itself.[1] If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded
molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, where 0 is the electric permittivity of free space.
but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative
eld.[1]
permittivity r by
The study of dielectric properties concerns storage
and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in
materials.[2] Dielectrics are important for explaining var- e = r 1.
ious phenomena in electronics, optics, and solid-state
physics.
So in the case of a vacuum,
1

DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION

e = 0.
The electric displacement D is related to the polarization
density P by
E
d

D = 0 E + P = 0 (1 + e )E = r 0 E.

2.1

Dispersion and causality

+q

M -q

In general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in

response to an applied eld. The more general formula- Electric eld interaction with an atom under the classical dielectric model.
tion as a function of time is
dipole moment, a vector quantity shown in the gure as
the blue arrow labeled M. It is the relationship between
P(t) = 0
e (t t )E(t ) dt .
the electric eld and the dipole moment that gives rise

to the behavior of the dielectric. (Note that the dipole

That is, the polarization is a convolution of the electric moment points in the same direction as the electric eld
eld at previous times with time-dependent susceptibility in the gure. This isn't always the case, and is a major
given by e(t). The upper limit of this integral can be simplication, but is true for many materials.)
extended to innity as well if one denes e(t) = 0 for
t < 0. An instantaneous response corresponds to Dirac When the electric eld is removed the atom returns to its
original state. The time required to do so is the so-called
delta function susceptibility e(t) = e(t).
relaxation time; an exponential decay.
It is more convenient in a linear system to take the Fourier
transform and write this relationship as a function of fre- This is the essence of the model in physics. The behavior
quency. Due to the convolution theorem, the integral be- of the dielectric now depends on the situation. The more
complicated the situation, the richer the model must be
comes a simple product,
to accurately describe the behavior. Important questions
are:

P() = 0 e ()E().
Note the simple frequency dependence of the susceptibility, or equivalently the permittivity. The shape of the
susceptibility with respect to frequency characterizes the
dispersion properties of the material.
Moreover, the fact that the polarization can only depend
on the electric eld at previous times (i.e., e(t) = 0 for
t < 0, a consequence of causality, imposes Kramers
Kronig constraints on the real and imaginary parts of the
susceptibility e().

3
3.1

Dielectric polarization
Basic atomic model

In the classical approach to the dielectric model, a material is made up of atoms. Each atom consists of a cloud
of negative charge (electrons) bound to and surrounding
a positive point charge at its center. In the presence of an
electric eld the charge cloud is distorted, as shown in the
top right of the gure.

Is the electric eld constant or does it vary with time?

At what rate?
Does the response depend on the direction of the
applied eld (isotropy of the material)?
Is the response the same everywhere (homogeneity
of the material)?
Do any boundaries or interfaces have to be taken into
account?
Is the response linear with respect to the eld, or are
there nonlinearities?
The relationship between the electric eld E and the
dipole moment M gives rise to the behavior of the dielectric, which, for a given material, can be characterized
by the function F dened by the equation:

M = F(E)

When both the type of electric eld and the type of material have been dened, one then chooses the simplest
function F that correctly predicts the phenomena of inThis can be reduced to a simple dipole using the terest. Examples of phenomena that can be so modeled
superposition principle. A dipole is characterized by its include:

3
Refractive index
Group velocity dispersion
Birefringence
Self-focusing
Harmonic generation

3.2

polarizations arise in molecules or crystals. This polarization is called ionic polarization.

Ionic polarization causes the ferroelectric eect as well as
dipolar polarization. The ferroelectric transition, which is
caused by the lining up of the orientations of permanent
dipoles along a particular direction, is called an orderdisorder phase transition. The transition caused by
ionic polarizations in crystals is called a displacive phase
transition.

Dipolar polarization

Dipolar polarization is a polarization that is either inherent to polar molecules (orientation polarization), or
can be induced in any molecule in which the asymmetric distortion of the nuclei is possible (distortion polarization). Orientation polarization results from a permanent dipole, e.g., that arising from the 104.45 angle between the asymmetric bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the water molecule, which retains polarization in the absence of an external electric eld. The assembly of these dipoles forms a macroscopic polarization.

4 Dielectric dispersion
In physics, dielectric dispersion is the dependence of the
permittivity of a dielectric material on the frequency of
an applied electric eld. Because there is a lag between
changes in polarization and changes in the electric eld,
the permittivity of the dielectric is a complicated function
of frequency of the electric eld. Dielectric dispersion is
very important for the applications of dielectric materials
and for the analysis of polarization systems.

This is one instance of a general phenomenon known as

material
dispersion: a frequency-dependent response of a
When an external electric eld is applied, the distance
medium
for wave propagation.
between charges within each permanent dipole, which is
related to chemical bonding, remains constant in orienta- When the frequency becomes higher:
tion polarization; however, the direction of polarization
itself rotates. This rotation occurs on a timescale that de1. dipolar polarization can no longer follow the oscilpends on the torque and surrounding local viscosity of
lations of the electric eld in the microwave region
the molecules. Because the rotation is not instantaneous,
around 1010 Hz;
dipolar polarizations lose the response to electric elds
at the highest frequencies. A molecule rotates about 1
2. ionic polarization and molecular distortion polarizaradian per picosecond in a uid, thus this loss occurs
tion can no longer track the electric eld past the
at about 1011 Hz (in the microwave region). The delay
infrared or far-infrared region around 1013 Hz, ;
of the response to the change of the electric eld causes
3. electronic polarization loses its response in the ultrafriction and heat.
violet region around 1015 Hz.
When an external electric eld is applied at infrared frequencies or less, the molecules are bent and stretched by
the eld and the molecular dipole moment changes. The In the frequency region above ultraviolet, permittivity apmolecular vibration frequency is roughly the inverse of proaches the constant 0 in every substance, where 0 is
the time it takes for the molecules to bend, and this dis- the permittivity of the free space. Because permittivity
indicates the strength of the relation between an electric
tortion polarization disappears above the infrared.
eld and polarization, if a polarization process loses its
response, permittivity decreases.

3.3

Ionic polarization

Ionic polarization is polarization caused by relative dis- 5 Dielectric relaxation

placements between positive and negative ions in ionic
crystals (for example, NaCl).
Dielectric relaxation is the momentary delay (or lag)
If a crystal or molecule consists of atoms of more than in the dielectric constant of a material. This is usually
one kind, the distribution of charges around an atom in caused by the delay in molecular polarization with rethe crystal or molecule leans to positive or negative. As a spect to a changing electric eld in a dielectric medium
result, when lattice vibrations or molecular vibrations in- (e.g., inside capacitors or between two large conducting
duce relative displacements of the atoms, the centers of surfaces). Dielectric relaxation in changing electric elds
positive and negative charges are also displaced. The lo- could be considered analogous to hysteresis in changing
cations of these centers are aected by the symmetry of magnetic elds (for inductors or transformers). Relaxthe displacements. When the centers don't correspond, ation in general is a delay or lag in the response of a

TUNABILITY

linear system, and therefore dielectric relaxation is mea- 6 Paraelectricity

sured relative to the expected linear steady state (equilibrium) dielectric values. The time lag between electrical Paraelectricity is the ability of many materials (specifeld and polarization implies an irreversible degradation ically ceramics) to become polarized under an applied
of Gibbs free energy.
electric eld. Unlike ferroelectricity, this can happen
In physics, dielectric relaxation refers to the relaxation even if there is no permanent electric dipole that exresponse of a dielectric medium to an external, oscillating ists in the material, and removal of the elds results in
electric eld. This relaxation is often described in terms the polarization in the material returning to zero.[7] The
of permittivity as a function of frequency, which can, for mechanisms that cause paraelectric behaviour are the
ideal systems, be described by the Debye equation. On distortion of individual ions (displacement of the electron
the other hand, the distortion related to ionic and elec- cloud from the nucleus) and polarization of molecules or
tronic polarization shows behavior of the resonance or combinations of ions or defects.
oscillator type. The character of the distortion process Paraelectricity can occur in crystal phases where electric
depends on the structure, composition, and surroundings dipoles are unaligned and thus have the potential to align
of the sample.
in an external electric eld and weaken it.

5.1

Debye relaxation

Debye relaxation is the dielectric relaxation response of

an ideal, noninteracting population of dipoles to an alternating external electric eld. It is usually expressed in the
complex permittivity of a medium as a function of the
elds frequency :

An example of a paraelectric material of high dielectric

constant is strontium titanate.
The LiNbO3 crystal is ferroelectric below 1430 K, and
above this temperature it transforms into a disordered
paraelectric phase. Similarly, other perovskites also exhibit paraelectricity at high temperatures.

Paraelectricity has been explored as a possible refrigeration mechanism; polarizing a paraelectric by applying an electric eld under adiabatic process conditions
raises the temperature, while removing the eld lowers

() = +
,
the temperature.[8] A heat pump that operates by polariz1 + i
ing the paraelectric, allowing it to return to ambient temwhere is the permittivity at the high frequency limit, perature (by dissipating the extra heat), bringing it into
= s where s is the static, low frequency per- contact with the object to be cooled, and nally depolarmittivity, and is the characteristic relaxation time of the izing it, would result in refrigeration.
medium.
This relaxation model was introduced by and named after
the physicist Peter Debye (1913).[6]

5.2

Variants of the Debye equation

7 Tunability
Tunable dielectrics are insulators whose ability to store
electrical charge changes when a voltage is applied.[9][10]

ColeCole equation

Generally, strontium titanate (SrTiO

3) is used for devices operating at low temperatures, while
This equation is used when the dielectric loss peak shows barium strontium titanate (Ba
1xSr
symmetric broadening
xTiO
3) substitutes for room temperature devices. Other po ColeDavidson equation
tential materials include microwave dielectrics and carbon nanotube (CNT) composites.[9][11][12]
This equation is used when the dielectric loss peak shows
In 2013 multi-sheet layers of strontium titanate interasymmetric broadening
leaved with single layers of strontium oxide produced a
dielectric capable of operating at up to 125 GHz. The
HavriliakNegami relaxation
material was created via molecular beam epitaxy. The
two have mismatched crystal spacing that produces strain
This equation considers both symmetric and asymmetric within the strontium titanate layer that makes it less stable
and tunable.[9]
broadening
Systems such as Ba
KohlrauschWilliamsWatts function (Fourier 1xSr
transform of stretched exponential function)
xTiO

8.2

Dielectric resonator

3 have a paraelectricferroelectric transition just below From this, it can easily be seen that a larger leads to
ambient temperature, providing high tunability. Such greater charge stored and thus greater capacitance.
lms suer signicant losses arising from defects.
Dielectric materials used for capacitors are also chosen
such that they are resistant to ionization. This allows the
capacitor to operate at higher voltages before the insu8 Applications
lating dielectric ionizes and begins to allow undesirable
current.

8.1

Capacitors

Main article: Capacitor

Commercially manufactured capacitors typically use a

Charge
+Q

Electric
field E

-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+

-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+

-Q
dielectric

Plate
area A

Plate separation d

8.2 Dielectric resonator

Main article: Dielectric resonator
A dielectric resonator oscillator (DRO) is an electronic
component that exhibits resonance of the polarization response for a narrow range of frequencies, generally in the
microwave band. It consists of a puck of ceramic that
has a large dielectric constant and a low dissipation factor. Such resonators are often used to provide a frequency
reference in an oscillator circuit. An unshielded dielectric
resonator can be used as a Dielectric Resonator Antenna
(DRA).

9 Some practical dielectrics

Dielectric materials can be solids, liquids, or gases. In
addition, a high vacuum can also be a useful, nearly lossless dielectric even though its relative dielectric constant
is only unity.

Solid dielectrics are perhaps the most commonly used diCharge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electrics in electrical engineering, and many solids are
electric eld. A dielectric (orange) reduces the eld and increases very good insulators. Some examples include porcelain,
glass, and most plastics. Air, nitrogen and sulfur hexthe capacitance.
auoride are the three most commonly used gaseous disolid dielectric material with high permittivity as the in- electrics.
tervening medium between the stored positive and negative charges. This material is often referred to in technical
Industrial coatings such as parylene provide a dieleccontexts as the capacitor dielectric.[13]
tric barrier between the substrate and its environment.
The most obvious advantage to using such a dielectric
material is that it prevents the conducting plates, on which
the charges are stored, from coming into direct electrical
contact. More signicantly, however, a high permittivity
allows a greater stored charge at a given voltage. This can
be seen by treating the case of a linear dielectric with permittivity and thickness d between two conducting plates
with uniform charge density . In this case the charge
density is given by

V
d

and the capacitance per unit area by

c=

=
V
d

Mineral oil is used extensively inside electrical

transformers as a uid dielectric and to assist in cooling. Dielectric uids with higher dielectric constants, such as electrical grade castor oil, are often used in high voltage capacitors to help prevent
corona discharge and increase capacitance.
Because dielectrics resist the ow of electricity,
the surface of a dielectric may retain stranded excess electrical charges. This may occur accidentally
when the dielectric is rubbed (the triboelectric effect). This can be useful, as in a Van de Graa
generator or electrophorus, or it can be potentially
destructive as in the case of electrostatic discharge.
Specially processed dielectrics, called electrets
(which should not be confused with ferroelectrics),

11
may retain excess internal charge or frozen in polarization. Electrets have a semipermanent electric
eld, and are the electrostatic equivalent to magnets. Electrets have numerous practical applications
in the home and industry.
Some dielectrics can generate a potential dierence
when subjected to mechanical stress, or (equivalently) change physical shape if an external voltage is
applied across the material. This property is called
piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric materials are another
class of very useful dielectrics.
Some ionic crystals and polymer dielectrics exhibit a
spontaneous dipole moment, which can be reversed
by an externally applied electric eld. This behavior is called the ferroelectric eect. These materials are analogous to the way ferromagnetic materials
behave within an externally applied magnetic eld.
Ferroelectric materials often have very high dielectric constants, making them quite useful for capacitors.

10

See also

Classication of materials based on permittivity

Paramagnetism
Ferroelectricity
Clausius-Mossotti relation
Dielectric losses
Dielectric strength
Dielectric spectroscopy
EIA Class 1 dielectric
EIA Class 2 dielectric
High-k dielectric
Low-k dielectric
leakage
Linear response function
Metamaterial
RC delay
Rotational Brownian motion
Paschens law - variation of Dielectric strength of
gas related to pressure

REFERENCES

11 References
[1] Quote from Encyclopdia Britannica: "Dielectric, insulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current.
When dielectrics are placed in an electric eld, practically
no current ows in them because, unlike metals, they have
no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through
the material.
Dielectrics (physics)". Britannica. 2009. p. 1.
Retrieved 2009-08-12.
[2] Arthur R. von Hippel, in his seminal work, Dielectric Materials and Applications, stated: "Dielectrics... are not a
narrow class of so-called insulators, but the broad expanse
of nonmetals considered from the standpoint of their interaction with electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic elds.
Thus we are concerned with gases as well as with liquids
and solids, and with the storage of electric and magnetic
energy as well as its dissipation. (Technology Press of
MIT and John Wiley, NY, 1954).
[3] J. Daintith (1994). Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists. CRC Press. p. 943. ISBN 0-7503-0287-9.
[4] James, Frank A.J.L., editor. The Correspondence of
Michael Faraday, Volume 3, 18411848, Letter 1798,
William Whewell to Faraday, p. 442.. The Institution
of Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom, 1996.
ISBN 0-86341-250-5
[5] Microwave Engineering - R. S. Rao (Prof.). Retrieved
2013-11-08.
[6] P. Debye (1913), Ver. Deut. Phys. Gesell. 15, 777;
reprinted 1954 in collected papers of Peter J.W. Debye
Interscience, New York
[7] Chiang, Y. et al.: Physical Ceramics, John Wiley & Sons
1997, New York
[8] Kuhn, U.; Lty, F. (1965). Paraelectric heating and cooling with OH--dipoles in alkali halides. Solid State Communications 3 (2): 31. Bibcode:1965SSCom...3...31K.
doi:10.1016/0038-1098(65)90060-8.
[9] Self-correcting crystal may lead to the next generation of advanced communications. KurzweilAI.
doi:10.1038/nature12582. Retrieved 2013-11-08.
[10] Lee, C. H.; Orlo, N. D.; Birol, T.; Zhu, Y.; Goian,
V.; Rocas, E.; Haislmaier, R.; Vlahos, E.; Mundy,
J. A.; Kourkoutis, L. F.; Nie, Y.; Biegalski, M. D.;
Zhang, J.; Bernhagen, M.; Benedek, N. A.; Kim, Y.;
Brock, J. D.; Uecker, R.; Xi, X. X.; Gopalan, V.;
Nuzhnyy, D.; Kamba, S.; Muller, D. A.; Takeuchi,
I.; Booth, J. C.; Fennie, C. J.; Schlom, D. G.
(2013). Exploiting dimensionality and defect mitigation to create tunable microwave dielectrics. Nature
502 (7472): 532536. Bibcode:2013Natur.502..532L.
doi:10.1038/nature12582. PMID 24132232.
[11] Electrically tunable dielectric materials and strategies to improve their performances.
Progress
in Materials Science 55: 840893.
2010-11-30.
doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2010.04.004. Retrieved 2013-1108.

[12] Giere, A.; Zheng, Y.; Maune, H.; Sazegar, M.; Paul, F.;
Zhou, X.; Binder, J. R.; Muller, S.; Jakoby, R. (2008).
Tunable dielectrics for microwave applications. 2008
17th IEEE International Symposium on the Applications of
Ferroelectrics. p. 1. doi:10.1109/ISAF.2008.4693753.
ISBN 978-1-4244-2744-4.
[13] Mussig & Hans-Joachim, Semiconductor capacitor with
praseodymium oxide as dielectric, U.S. Patent 7,113,388
published 2003-11-06, issued 2004-10-18, assigned to
IHP GmbH- Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics/Institute Fur Innovative Mikroelektronik

12

Further reading

Jackson, John David (August 10, 1998). Classical

Electrodynamics (3 rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1. 808 or 832 pages.
Scaife, Brendan (September 3, 1998). Principles of
Dielectrics (Monographs on the Physics & Chemistry
of Materials) (2 nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0198565574.

13

External links

Electromagnetism A chapter from an online textbook

Dielectric Sphere in an Electric Field
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package Dielectric Materials
Texts on Wikisource:
"Dielectric". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Dielectric". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th
ed.). 1911.

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Dielectric Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric?oldid=719855765 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, SimonP, Heron, Alo, Ellywa,
Smack, Maximus Rex, Phoebe, Pigsonthewing, Romanm, Sverdrup, Jondel, Xanzzibar, Mattaschen, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Christopher
Parham, BenFrantzDale, Jaan513, Johnux, Icairns, McCart42, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Bender235, Pjrich, Kedmond, Femto, Bert
Hickman, Eric Kvaalen, Wtshymanski, David Haslam, GregorB, SDC, Hard Raspy Sci, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Utuado, Kevmitch, Thedatastream,
Margosbot~enwiki, GnniX, Alfred Centauri, Srleer, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp, JabberWok, Shaddack, Alex Bakharev,
NawlinWiki, Malcolma, Fantusta, PrimeCupEevee, Light current, CWenger, Halcyonhazard, Arad, Katieh5584, Jerry-VA, CIreland,
ChemGardener, Mlibby, Cafe Nervosa, SmackBot, Royalguard11, Melchoir, Od Mishehu, Blue520, KocjoBot~enwiki, Polaron, Kmarinas86, Bluebot, Fuzzform, Oli Filth, Complexica, DHN-bot~enwiki, Langbein Rise, Bread2u, Foxjwill, Ajaxkroon, Nishkid64, FrozenMan, InedibleHulk, Iridescent, Benplowman, Trebnoj, Rsteif, Chetvorno, Harold f, MightyWarrior, CmdrObot, Jaeger5432, Chrumps, Dr
Zak, CNMIN, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Headbomb, John Walker (fourmilab.ch), Mhaitham.shammaa, Lfstevens, Storkk, JAnDbot, PIrish,
EagleFan, InvertRect, MartinBot, Adiel lo~enwiki, Loohcsnuf, Mclaugb, STBotD, WinterSpw, Timwilson85, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot,
Je G., Wolfnix, Philip Trueman, Sweetness46, CoJaBo, Rako77, Lamro, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Hajo3, Flyer22 Reborn, BetsyBobby,
John.fothergill, Laburke, Jegeyom, Guiermo, Borgg, Lxmota, Jax 0677, XLinkBot, Wikiuser100, Ngebbett, Nicoguaro, Mdawber, Addbot, Pyfan, Out of Phase User, Fgnievinski, Thaejas, Download, Deuterium124, Zorrobot, Quantumobserver, Gtz, Efa, Edwinhubbel,
Gitrguru, Materialscientist, LouriePieterse, Bob Burkhardt, Haljolad, 12056, Wikispeller, Omnipaedista, Mnmngb, Chongkian, , FrescoBot, Techauthor, Tranletuhan, Steve Quinn, Curtisabbott, Ravishkumar88, Jonesey95, Mariastaar, Joannacooper, FoxBot, Fama Clamosa, , Ti-30X, Marie Poise, Enistuncer, Ripchip Bot, Chibby0ne, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Dcirovic, Frodlimt, Hhhippo,
ZroBot, PBS-AWB, Delyle, Quondum, Joshlepaknpsa, Fizicist, Ehsan.hosseini, Andymcl92, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, Mappetop,
Lovetinkle, ClueBot NG, Ulund, Manubot, Widr, Euty, Episcophagus, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Maniac55, A black hope, JYBot,
Saaket sharma, Donn300, Dexbot, Andyhowlett, Choi.scipy, Handibles, Eliminate1337, JaconaFrere, Vhalis, HFHV, AntonyHart, Fedor
Mende 1, KasparBot, Vineet.Yadavvineetyadav and Anonymous: 190

14.2

Images

File:Capacitor_schematic_with_dielectric.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Capacitor_schematic_

with_dielectric.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: self-made SVG version of Image:Dielectric.png, incorporating Image:Capacitor
schematic.svg as its base. Original artist: Papa November
File:Dielectric_model.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Dielectric_model.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dielectric_model.svg Original artist: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Superm401

14.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0