Ch33 Giancoli7e Manual

ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY
33
Responses to Questions
1.
Long ago, without telescopes, it was difficult to see the individual stars in the Milky Way. The stars in
this region of the sky were so numerous and so close together and so tiny that they all blended together
to form a cloudy or milky stripe across the night sky. Now, using more powerful telescopes, we can
see the individual stars that make up the Milky Way Galaxy.
2.
If a star generates more energy in its interior than it radiates away, then its temperature will increase.
Consequently, there will be greater outward pressure opposing the gravitational force directed inward.
To regain equilibrium, the star will expand. If a star generates less energy than it radiates away, then its
temperature will decrease. There will be a smaller outward pressure opposing the gravitational force
directed inward, and, in order to regain equilibrium, the star will contract.
3.
Red giants are extremely large stars with relatively cool surface temperatures, resulting in their reddish
colors. These stars are very luminous because they are so large. When the Sun becomes a red giant, for
instance, its radius will be on the order of the distance from the Earth to the Sun. A red giant has run
out of hydrogen in its inner core and is fusing hydrogen to helium in a shell surrounding the core. Red
giants have left their main-sequence positions on the HR diagram and have moved up (more
luminous) and to the right (cooler).
4.
Although the HR diagram only directly relates the surface temperature of a star to its absolute
luminosity (and thus doesnt directly reveal anything about the core), the HR diagram does provide
clues regarding what is happening at the core of a star. Using the current model of stellar evolution and
the HR diagram, we can infer that the stars on the main sequence are fusing hydrogen nuclei to
helium nuclei at the core and that stars in the red giant region are fusing helium and beryllium to make
heavier nuclei such as carbon and that this red giant process will continue until fusion can no longer
occur and the star will collapse.
5.
The initial mass of a star determines its final destiny. If, after the red giant stage of a stars life, its
mass is less than 1.4 solar masses, then the star cools as it shrinks and it becomes a white dwarf. If
its mass is between 1.4 and 23 solar masses, then the star will condense down to a neutron star, which
will eventually explode as a supernova and become a white dwarf. If its mass is greater than 23 solar
masses, then the star will collapse even more than the neutron star and form a black hole.
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33-1
33-2
Chapter 33
6.
When measuring parallaxes from the Moon, there are two cases: (1) If you did the measurements two
weeks apart (one at full moon and one at new moon), you would need to assume that the Earth did not
move around the Sun very far, and then the d shown in Fig. 3311 would be the EarthMoon distance
instead of the SunEarth distance. (2) If you did the measurements six months apart and at full moon,
then the d shown in Fig. 3311 would be the SunEarth distance plus the EarthMoon distance instead
of just the SunEarth distance. From Mars, then the d shown in Fig. 3311 would be the SunMars
distance instead of the SunEarth distance. You would also need to know the length of a Mars year
so that you could take your two measurements at the correct times.
7.
Measure the period of the changing luminosity of a Cepheid variable star. Use the known relationship
between period and luminosity to find its absolute luminosity. Compare its absolute luminosity to its
apparent brightness (the observed brightness) to determine the distance to the galaxy in which it is
located.
8.
A geodesic is the shortest distance between two points. For instance, on a flat plane the shortest
distance between two points is a straight line, and on the surface of a sphere the shortest distance is an
arc of a great circle. According to general relativity, spacetime is curved. Determining the nature of a
geodesic, for instance, by observing the motion of a body or light near a large mass, will help
determine the nature of the curvature of spacetime near that large mass.
9.
If the redshift of spectral lines of galaxies was due to something other than expansion of the universe,
then the Big Bang theory and the idea that the universe is expanding would be called into question.
However, the evidence of the cosmic background microwave radiation would conflict with this view,
unless it too was determined to result from some cause other than expansion.
10.
No, just because everything appears to be moving away from us does not mean we are at the center of
the universe. Here is an analogy. If you were sitting on the surface of a balloon and more air was put
into the balloon, causing it to expand, then every other point on the balloon would move away from
you. The points close to you would be farther away because of the expansion of the rubber, and the
points on the other side of the balloon would be farther away from you because the radius of the
balloon would be larger.
11.
If you were located in a galaxy near the boundary of our observable universe, galaxies in the direction
of the Milky Way would be receding from you. The outer edges of the observable universe are
expanding at a faster rate than the points more interior. Accordingly, due to the relative velocity
argument, the slower galaxies in the direction of the Milky Way would look like they are receding
from your faster galaxy near the outer boundary. Also see Fig. 3322.
12.
An explosion on Earth blows pieces out into the space around it, but the Big Bang was the start of the
expansion of space itself. In an explosion on Earth, the pieces that are blown outward will slow down
due to air resistance, and the farther away they are, the slower they will be moving. They will
eventually come to rest. But with the Big Bang, the farther away galaxies are from each other, the
faster they are moving away from each other. In an explosion on Earth, the pieces with the higher
initial speeds end up farther away from the explosion before coming to rest, but the Big Bang appears
to be relatively uniform: the farthest galaxies are moving the fastest, and the nearest galaxies are
moving the slowest. An explosion on Earth would correspond to a closed universe, since the pieces
would eventually stop, but we would not see a big crunch due to gravity as we would with an actual
closed universe.
13.
To see a black hole in space, we need indirect evidence. If a large visible star or galaxy was rotating
quickly around a nonvisible gravitational companion, then the nonvisible companion could be a
massive black hole. Also, as matter begins to accelerate toward a black hole, it will emit characteristic
Astrophysics and Cosmology
33-3
X-rays, which we could detect on Earth. Another way we could see a black hole is if it caused
gravitational lensing of objects behind it. Then we would see stars and galaxies in the wrong place as
their light is bent as it passes past the black hole on its way to Earth.
14.
Both the formation of the Earth and the time during which people have lived on Earth are on the far
right edge of Fig. 3329, in the era of dark energy.
15.
Atoms were unable to exist until hundreds of thousands of years after the Big Bang because the
temperature of the universe was still too high. At those very high temperatures, the free electrons and
nuclei were moving so fast and had so much kinetic energy, and they had so many high energy
photons colliding with them, that they could never combine together to form atoms. Once the universe
cooled below 3000 K, this coupling could take place, and atoms were formed.
16.
(a)
(b)
All Type Ia supernovae are expected to be of nearly the same luminosity. Thus they are a type of
standard candle for measuring very large distances.
The distance to a supernova can be determined by comparing the apparent brightness with the
intrinsic luminosity and then using Eq. 331 to find the distance.
17.
If the average mass density of the universe is above the critical density, then the universe will
eventually stop its expansion and contract, collapsing on itself and ending finally in a big crunch.
This scenario corresponds to a closed universe, or one with positive curvature.
18.
(a)
(b)
Gravity between galaxies should be pulling the galaxies back together, slowing the expansion of
the universe.
Astronomers could measure the redshift of light from distant supernovae and deduce the
recession velocities of the galaxies in which they lie. By obtaining data from a large number of
supernovae, they could establish a history of the recessional velocity of the universe and perhaps
tell whether the expansion of the universe is slowing down.
Responses to MisConceptual Questions

1.
(c)
At the end of the hydrogen-fusing part of the stars life, it will move toward the upper right of
the diagram as it becomes a red giant. Low-mass stars, not large enough to end as neutron stars,
then move to the lower left as they become white dwarf stars. The position of the star on the
main sequence is a result of the size (mass) of the star. This does not change significantly during
its main-sequence lifetime, and therefore the star does not change positions along the main
sequence.
2.
(b)
Parallax requires that the star move relative to the background of distant stars. This only happens
when the distance to the star is relatively small, less than about 100 light-years.
3.
(b)
If the universe were expanding in every direction, then any location in the universe would
observe that all other points in the universe are moving away from it with the speed increasing
with distance. This is observed when galaxy speeds are measured, implying that indeed the
universe is expanding. The observation does not say anything about whether the expansion will
continue forever or eventually stop.
4.
(c)
The Sun is primarily made of hydrogen, not heavy radioactive isotopes. As gravity initially
compressed the Sun, its core heated sufficiently for the hydrogen atoms in the core to fuse to
create helium. This is now the primary source of energy in the Sun. The Sun is too hot for
molecules, such as water, to be formed by the oxidation of hydrogen. When fusion began in the
33-4
Chapter 33
core, the energy release balanced the force of gravity to stop the gravitational collapse. Since the
Sun is no longer contracting, the gravitational potential energy is no longer decreasing and is not
a significant source of energy.
5.
(b, c, d) Parallax is only useful for finding distances to stars that are less than 100 light-years distant,
much less than intergalactic distances. The HR diagram with luminosity and temperature of the
star can tell us the absolute brightness of the distant star. The relationship between the relative
brightness and absolute brightness tells us the distance to the star. Certain supernova explosions
have a standard luminosity. A comparison of the apparent brightness and absolute brightness of
the supernova can give the distance to the supernova. Finally, since the universe is expanding
and the velocity of objects increases with distance, a measure of the redshift in light from distant
stars can be used to find the speed of the stars and therefore the distance.
6.
(b)
Due to the speed of light, light takes a finite time to reach Earth from the stars, with light from
more distant objects requiring more time to reach Earth. Therefore, when an object that is a
million light-years away is observed, the observer sees the object as it was a million years ago. If
the object is 100 million light-years away, the observer sees it as it was 100 million years ago.
The farther the observed object, the earlier the time that it is being observed.
7.
(d)
At the time of the Big Bang, all of space was compacted to a small region. The expansion
occurred throughout all space. So it occurred near the Earth, near the center of the Milky Way
Galaxy, several billion light-years away, near the Andromeda Galaxy, and everywhere else.
8.
(d)
In the first few seconds of the universe, matter did not exist, only energy; the first atoms were
not formed until many thousands of years later, and these atoms were primarily hydrogen. Stars
on the main sequence and novae convert hydrogen into helium. They do not create the heavier
elements. These heavy elements are typically created in the huge energy bursts of supernovae.
9.
(c)
The rotational period of a star in a galaxy is related to the mass in the galaxy. Astronomers
observing the rotational periods found them to be much greater than could be accounted for by
the visible matter (stars and dust clouds). Dust clouds are not dark matter, as they can reflect
light and are therefore visible. The acceleration of the expansion of the universe is the foundation
for the theory of dark energy, which is different from dark matter.
10.
(a)
If the Big Bang were a single large explosion that gave the universe an initial large kinetic
energy, and since currently the only large-scale force in the universe is the attractive force of
gravity, we would expect that the kinetic energy of the universe would be decreasing as that
energy becomes gravitational potential energy. The expansion, however, is accelerating, so there
must be another energy source fueling the acceleration. This source has been dubbed dark
energy.
Solutions to Problems
1.
Convert the angle to seconds of arc, reciprocate to find the distance in parsecs, and then convert to
light-years.
36000
= 1.0440
1
3.26 ly
1
1
=
= 0.958 pc
d (pc) =
= 3.1 ly
0 1.0440
1 pc
= (2.9 104 )
2.
Use the angle to calculate the distance in parsecs and then convert to light-years.
d (pc) =
3.
33-5
3.26 ly
1
1
=
= 3.704 pc 3.704 pc
= 12 ly
0 0.270
1 pc
The parallax angle is smaller for the farther star. Since tan = d /D, as the distance D to the star
increases, the tangent decreases, so the angle decreases. And since for small angles, tan , we
have that d /D. Thus if the distance D is doubled, then the angle will be smaller by a factor of 2.
4.
The apparent brightness of an object is inversely proportional to the observers distance from the
L
object, given by Eq. 331, b =
. To find the relative brightness at one location as compared with
4 d 2
another, take a ratio of the apparent brightness at each location.
L
bJupiter
bEarth
5.
M
M
1.99 1030 kg
=
=
= 2 103 kg/m3
4 r3
4 (6 1010 m)3
V
3
3
(a)
The apparent brightness is the solar constant, 1.3 103 W/m 2 .
(b)
Use Eq. 331 to find the absolute luminosity.

b=
7.
1
2
=
= 3.7 10
5
2
.
The density is the mass divided by the volume.
6.
2
d
4 d Jupiter
d2
=
= 2Earth = Earth
L
d Jupiter d Jupiter
2
4 d Earth
4 d 2
L = 4 d 2b = 4 (1.496 1011 m 2 )2 (1.3 103 W/m 2 ) = 3.7 1026 W
The angular width is the inverse tangent of the diameter of our Galaxy divided by the distance to the
nearest galaxy. According to Fig. 332, our Galaxy is about 100,000 ly in diameter.
= tan 1
Galaxy diameter
1.0 105 ly
= tan 1
= 4.2 102 rad 2.4
Distance to nearest galaxy
2.4 106 ly
Moon = tan 1
Moon diameter
3.48 106 m
= tan 1
= 9.1 103 rad ( 0.52)
8
Distance to Moon
3.84 10 m
The galaxy width is about 4.5 times the Moons width.

8.
The text says that there are about 4 1011 stars in the galaxy and about 1011 galaxies, so that means
there are about 4 1022 stars in the observable universe.
9.
The density is the mass divided by the volume.
M Sun
1.99 1030 kg
M
=
=
= 1.83 109 kg/m3
4 R3
4 (6.38 106 m)3
V
Earth
3
3
33-6
Chapter 33
Since the volumes are the same, the ratio of the densities is the same as the ratio of the masses.
Earth
10.
M
M Earth
star
5.98 10
24
kg
= 3.33 105 times larger
star
white
M 1.5(1.99 1030 kg)

=
= 5.354 1017 kg/m3 5.4 1017 kg/m3
4 (11 103 m)3
V
3
neutron
=
5.354 1017 kg/m3

9
1.83 10 kg/m
dwarf
12.
1.99 1030 kg
The density of the neutron star is its mass divided by its volume. Use the proton to calculate the
density of nuclear matter. The radius of the proton is taken from Eq. 301.
neutron =
11.
neutron
star
= 2.9 10
nuclear
star
5.354 1017 kg/m3

1.673 1027 kg
4 (1.2 1015
3
= 2.3
m)3
The reciprocal of the distance in parsecs is the angle in seconds of arc.

1
1
=
= 0.01786 0.018
d (pc) 56 pc
(a)
0 =
(b)
1
6
6
0.017860
= 4.961 10 (5.0 10 )
3600
0
Convert the light-years to parsecs and then take the reciprocal of the number of parsecs to find the
parallax angle in seconds of arc.
1 pc
65 ly
= 19.94 pc 20 pc (2 significant figures)
3.26 ly
13.
1
= 0.050
19.94 pc
Find the distance in light-years. That value is also the time for light to reach us.
3.26 ly
85 pc
= 277 ly 280 ly It takes light 280 years to reach us.
1 pc
14.
It is given that b1 = b2 , r1 = r2 , P1 = 750 nm, and P2 = 450 nm. Wiens law (Eq. 271) says
PT = , where is a constant, so P1T1 = P2T2 . The Stefan-Boltzmann equation (Eq. 146) says
that the power output of a star is given by P = AT 4 , where is a constant and A is the radiating
area. The P in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is the same as the luminosity L in this Chapter. The
luminosity L is related to the apparent brightness b by Eq. 331.
P1T1 = P2T2
b1 = b2
L1
4 d12
T2 P1
=
T1 P2
=
L2
4 d 22
d 22
d12
L2 P2 A2T24 4 r22T24 T24 T2

=
=
=
=
=
L1 P1 A1T14 4 r12T14 T14 T1
2

d 2 T2
750
= = P1 =
= 2.8
d1 T1
450
P2
The star with the peak at 450 nm is 2.8 times farther away than the star with the peak at 750 nm.
15.
33-7
Wiens law (Eq. 272) says that PT = , where is a constant, so P1T1 = P2T2 . The StefanBoltzmann equation (Eq. 146) says that the power output of a star is given by P = AT 4 , where
is a constant and A is the radiating area. The P in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is the same as the
luminosity L in this Chapter. The luminosity L is related to the apparent brightness b by Eq. 331. It is
given that b1 /b2 = 0.091, d1 = d 2 , P1 = 470 nm, and P2 = 720 nm.
T2 P1
=
; b1 = 0.091 b2
T1 P2
P1T1 = P2T2
1=
d 22
d12
L1
4 d12
= 0.091
L2
4 d 22
0.091L2 0.091P2 0.091A2T24 (0.091)4 r22T24

T24 r22
=
=
=
=
0
.
091
L1
P1
A1T14
4 r12T14
T14 r12
2
T

470 nm
r1
= 0.091 2 = 0.091 P1 = 0.091
= 0.1285
r2
720 nm
T1
P2
The ratio of the diameters is the same as the ratio of radii, so
16.
The Schwarzschild radius is 2GM /c 2 .

REarth =
17.
2GM
2(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 1024 kg)

8
(3.00 10 m/s)
c2
2(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )(2 1041 kg)

(3.00 108 m/s) 2
The Schwarzschild radius is given by R = 2GM /c 2 , so M =
M =
19.
2GM Earth
= 8.86 103 m 8.9 mm
The Schwarzschild radius is given by R = 2GM /c 2 . An approximate mass of ordinary matter for our
Galaxy is calculated in Example 331. A value of twice that mass is also quoted in the text, so the
given answer may vary by a factor of 2.
R=
18.
D1
= 0.13 .
D2
= 3 1014 m
Rc 2
. The radius is given in Eq. 2714.
2G
Rc 2 (5.29 1011 m)(3.00 108 m/s) 2

=
= 3.57 1016 kg
2
2
11
2G
2(6.67 10
N m /kg )
The limiting value for the angles in a triangle on a sphere is 540 . Imagine drawing an equilateral
triangle near the north pole, enclosing the north pole. If that triangle were small, then the surface
would be approximately flat, and each angle in the triangle would be 60. Then imagine stretching
each vertex of that triangle down toward the equator, ensuring that the north pole was inside the
triangle. The angle at each vertex of the triangle would expand, with a limiting value of 180. The
three 180 angles in the triangle would sum to 540.
33-8
20.
Chapter 33
(a)
(b)
21.
For the vertices of the triangle, we choose the north pole and two
points on a latitude line on nearly opposite sides of the Earth, as
shown on the diagram. Let the angle at the north pole be 179.
It is not possible to draw a triangle on a sphere with the sum of
the angles less than 180. To draw a triangle like that, a
hyperbolic surface like a saddle (similar to Fig. 3318) would be
needed.
180
179o
90
90o
90o
90
We find the time for the light to cross the elevator and then find how far
the elevator moves during that time due to its acceleration.
t =
x
g (x) 2 (9.80 m/s 2 )(2.4 m) 2
; y = 12 g (t ) 2 =
=
= 3.1 1016 m
c
2c 2
2(3.00 108 m/s)2
Note that this is smaller than the size of a proton.

22.
Use Eq. 334, Hubbles law.
= H0d d =
23.
H0
1850 km/s
= 88 Mly = 8.8 107 ly
21 km/s/Mly
Use Eq. 334, Hubbles law.
= H0d d =
24.
(a)
H0
(0.015)(3.00 108 m/s)

4
2.1 10 m/s/Mly
= 214.3 Mly 210 Mly = 2.1 108 ly
Use Eq. 336, applicable for c, to solve for the speed of the galaxy.
z=
obs rest
c
rest
455 nm 434 nm
= c
= 0.04839c 0.048c
434 nm
The size of the answer does meet the condition that c.

(b)
Use Hubbles law, Eq. 334, to solve for the distance.
= H0d d =
25.
H0
0.04839(3.00 108 m/s)

= 691 Mly 6.9 108 ly
21000 m/s/Mly
We find the velocity from Hubbles law, Eq. 334, and the observed wavelength from the Doppler
shift, Eq. 333.
(a)
H 0 d (21, 000 m/s/Mly)(7.0 Mly)

=
= 4.9 104
c
3.00 108 m/s
= 0
(b)
1 + /c
1 + 4.9 104
= (656.3 nm)
= 656.62 nm shift = 0 = 0.3 nm
1 /c
1 4.9 104
H 0 d (21, 000 m/s/Mly)(70 Mly)

=
= 4.9 103
8
c
3.00 10 m/s
= 0
1 + /c
1 + 4.9 103
= (656.3 nm)
= 659.52 nm shift = 0 = 3.2 nm
1 /c
1 4.9 103
26.
33-9
Use Eqs. 333 and 334 to solve for the distance to the galaxy.
obs = rest
d=
H0
( )
=c
( + )
( ) = (3.00 10 m/s) (423.4 nm)
( + ) (2.110 m/s/Mly) (423.4 nm)
1 + /c
1 /c
=
c
H0
2
obs
2
rest
2
obs
2
rest
2
obs
2
rest
2
obs
2
rest
(393.4 nm) 2
2
2
+ (393.4 nm)
= 1.048 103 Mly 1.0 109 ly
27.
Use Eqs. 333 and 335a to solve for the speed of the galaxy.
z=
obs rest obs

1 + /c
=
1 =
1
rest
rest
1 /c
( z + 1) 2 1
( z + 1) 2 + 1
1.0602 1
1.0602 + 1
= 0.05820 = 0.058c
The approximation of Eq. 336 gives = zc = 0.060c .

28.
Use Eqs. 333 and 335a to solve for the redshift parameter.
z=
obs rest obs

1 + /c
1 + 0.075
=
1 =
1 =
1 = 0.078
rest
rest
1 /c
1 0.075
Or we can use the approximation given in Eq. 336.

z /c = 0.075
29.
We cannot use the approximation of Eq. 336 for this circumstance. Instead, we use Eq. 335b
combined with Eq. 333, and then use Eq. 334 for the distance.
1 + /c
1 + /c
1 + /c
1 z + 1 =
=2
=4
1 /c
1 /c
1 /c
1 + /c = 4(1 /c) 1 + /c = 4 4 /c 5 /c = 3 = 0.6c
z=
d=
30.
H0
0.6(3.00 108 m/s)

3
21 10 m/s/Mly
= 8571 Mly 9 109 ly
Use Eqs. 334 and 335a to solve for the speed of the galaxy.
= 610 nm 434 nm = 176 nm
2

176 nm
+ 1 1
+1 1
1 + /c
0.9755
0
434 nm
z=
=
1
=
=
=
= 0.3278c 0.33c
2
1 /c
c 2
2.9755
0
176 nm
+1 +1
+ 1 + 1
434 nm
0
Use Hubbles law, Eq. 334, to solve for the distance.
= H0d d =
H0
/c
H 0 /c
0.3278
= 4.68 103 Mly 4.7 109 ly
(21000 m/s/Mly)
3.00 108 m/s
33-10
31.
Chapter 33
For small relative wavelength shifts, we may use Eq. 336 to find the speed. We use Eq. 334 to find
the distance.
d=
=c
rest
H0
rest
; = H0d
c 3.00 108 m/s 0.10 cm

=
= 68 Mly
H 0 rest 21, 000 m/s/Mly 21 cm
We also use the more exact relationship of Eq. 333.

2
obs
1 + /c
=
rest
1 /c
obs
21.1 cm
1
1
21cm
rest
=
=
= 4.75 102
2
2
c
21.1 cm
obs
+ 1 21 cm + 1
rest
= H0d d =
H0
/c
H 0 /c
4.75 102
= 67.86 Mly 68 Mly
( 21000 m/s/Mly )
3.00 108 m/s
32.
Eq. 333 states = rest
1 + /c
.
1 /c
1/2
1 + /c

= rest 1 +
1 /c
c
= rest
1/2

1
c
rest 1 + 12 1 12 = rest 1 + 12
c
c
c

= rest 1 + 2 12 = rest 1 + = rest + rest
c
c
c
( )
rest = = rest

=
rest c
33.
Wiens law is Eq. 272.
PT = 2.90 103 m K P =
34.
2.90 103 m K 2.90 103 m K

=
= 1.1 103 m
T
2.7 K
We use Wiens law, Eq. 272. From Fig. 3329, the temperature at that time is about 1010 K.
PT = 2.90 103 m K P =
2.90 103 m K 2.90 103 m K

=
= 3 1013 m
10
T
10 K
From Fig. 228, that wavelength is in the gamma ray region of the EM spectrum.
35.
We use the proton as typical nuclear matter.

26 kg 1 nucleon
3
= 6 nucleons/m
10
m3 1.67 1027 kg
36.
33-11
If the scale of the universe is inversely proportional to the temperature, then the scale times the
temperature should be constant. If we call the current scale 1 and know the current temperature to be
about 3 K, then the product of scale and temperature should be about 3. Use Fig. 3329 to estimate the
temperature at various times. For purposes of illustration, we assume that the universe has a current size
of about 1010 ly. There will be some variation in the answer due to differences in reading the figure.
(a)
At t = 106 yr, the temperature is about 1000 K. Thus the scale is found as follows:
(Scale)(Temperature) = 3 Scale =
3
3
=
= 3 103
Temperature 1000
Size (3 103 )(1010 ly) = 3 107 ly
(b)
At t = 1 s, the temperature is about 1010 K.

Scale =
(c)
3
3
=
= 3 1010
Temperature 1010
Size (3 1010 )(1010 ly) = 3 ly
At t = 106 s, the temperature is about 1012 K.

Scale =
3
3
=
= 3 1012
Temperature 1012
Size (3 1012 )(1010 ly) = 3 102 ly 3 1014 m
(d)
At t = 10235 s , the temperature is about 1027 K.

Scale =
3
3
=
= 3 1027
Temperature 1027
Size (3 1027 )(1010 ly) = 3 1017 ly 0.3 m
37.
We approximate the temperatureenergy relationship by kT = E = mc 2 as suggested in Section 337.

kT = mc 2
(a)
T=
T=
mc 2
.
k
mc 2 (500 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 1013 J/MeV)

=
= 6 1012 K
k
1.38 1023 J/K
From Fig. 3329, this corresponds to a time of 105 s .

(b)
T=
mc 2 (9500 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 1013 J/MeV)

=
= 1 1014 K
23
k
1.38 10
J/K

(c)
T=
mc 2 (100 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 1013 J/MeV)

=
= 1 1012 K
23
k
1.38 10
J/K

There will be some variation in the answers due to differences in reading the figure.
33-12
38.
Chapter 33
(a)
According to the textbook, near Fig. 3333, the visible matter makes up about one-tenth of the
total baryonic matter. The average baryonic density is therefore 10 times the density of visible
matter. The data in the Problem are for visible matter only (stars and galaxies).
baryon = 10 visible = 10
= 10
(b)
M visible
4 R3
3
11
(1011 galaxies)(10 stars/galaxy)(2.0 1030 kg/star)

4
3
(14 109 ly)(9.46 1015 m/ly)
2.1 1026 kg/m3
Again, according to the text, dark matter is about 5 times more plentiful than baryonic matter.
dark = 5 baryon = 5(2.055 1026 kg/m3 ) 1.0 1025 kg/m3

39.
The angular momentum is the product of the rotational inertia and the angular velocity.
( I ) initial = ( I ) final
R initial
6 106 m
= initial
= (1 rev/month)
3
R final
8 10 m
1 month 1d
1h
rev
= 0.217 rev/s
= 5.625 105 rev/month = 5.625 105
30 d
24 h 3600 s
month
I initial
I final
final = initial
2
2 MR initial
initial 2
MR 2
final
5
0.2 rev/s
40.
The rotational kinetic energy is given by
1
2
I 2 . The final angular velocity, from Problem 39, is
5.625 105 rev/month.

KE final
KE initial
1I
2 final
1I
2 initial
2
final
2
initial
2 MR 2
final
5
2 MR 2
initial
5
final
=
2
initial
R final final
R initial initial
(8 103 m)(5.625 105 rev/month)

5
5
= 5.625 10 6 10
6
(6 10 m)(1 rev/month)
41.
A:
B:
C:
The temperature increases, the luminosity stays the same, and the size decreases.
The temperature stays the same, the luminosity decreases, and the size decreases.
The temperature decreases, the luminosity increases, and the size increases.
42.
The apparent luminosity is given by Eq. 331. Use that relationship to derive an expression for the
absolute luminosity, and equate the Suns luminosity to the stars luminosity.
b=
L
4 d 2
L = 4 d 2b
Ldistant = LSun
star
d distant = dSun
star
2
2
4 d distant
bdistant = 4 dSun
bSun
star
star
lSun
1
1 ly
= (1.5 1011 m)
= 5 ly
15
11
ldistant
10 9.461 10 m
star
43.
The power output is the energy loss divided by the elapsed time.
P=
=
44.
33-13
KE
=
t
I 2 (fraction lost)
1
2
1 2
25
MR 2 2 (fraction lost)
t
1 (1.5)(1.99 10 kg)(8.0 10 m) (2 rad/s) 2 (1 109 )

= 1.7461025 W 1.7 1025 W
5
(1 d)(24 h/d)(3600 s/h)
30
Use Newtons law of universal gravitation.

F =G
m1m2
r
(4 1041 kg) 2
= (6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )
(2 106 ly)(9.46 1015 m/ly)
= 2.98 1028 N
3 1028 N
45.
We use the Suns mass and given density to calculate the size of the Sun.
M
M
=
4
V
r3
3 Sun
1/3
3M
rSun =
4
rSun
d Earth-Sun
46.
1/3
3(1.99 1030 kg)

=
26
kg/m3 )
4 (10
3.62 1018 m
11
1.50 10
2 107 ;
1ly
= 3.62 1018 m
= 382 ly 400 ly
15
9.46 10 m
rSun
dgalaxy
382 ly
4 103
100,000 ly
The temperature of each star can be found from Wiens law, Eq. 272. The peak wavelength is used as
a subscript to designate each stars properties.
PT = 2.90 103 m K
T660 =
2.90 103 m K
660 109 m
= 4394 K
T480 =
2.90 103 m K
480 109 m
= 6042 K
The luminosity of each star can be found from the HR diagram.

L660 7 1025 W
L480 5 1026 W
The Stefan-Boltzmann equation says that the power output of a star is given by P = AT 4 , where
is a constant and A is the radiating area. The P in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is the same as the
luminosity L given in Eq. 331. Form the ratio of the two luminosities.
4
2
4
L480 A480T480
4 r480
T480
=
=
4
2
4
L660 A660T660
T660
4 r660
r480
=
r660
2
L480 T660
5 1026 W (4394 K) 2
=
= 1.413
2
L660 T480
7 1025 W (6042 K) 2
The diameters are in the same ratio as the radii.

d 480
= 1.413 1.4
d660
The luminosities are fairly subjective, since they are read from the HR diagram. Different answers
may arise due to different readings of the HR diagram.
33-14
47.
Chapter 33
(a)
First, calculate the number of parsecs. Then use the fact that the number of parsecs is the
reciprocal of the angular resolution in seconds of arc.
1 pc
1
100 ly
= 30.67 pc =
0
3.26 ly
1 1 1
6
6

= (9.06 10 ) (9 10 )
30.67 600 60
=
(b)
We use the Rayleigh criterion, Eq. 257, which relates the angular resolution to the diameter of
the optical element. We choose a wavelength of 550 nm, in the middle of the visible range.
1.22
D
D=
1.22
1.22(550 109 m)
= 4.24 m 4 m
(9.06 106 ) ( rad/180)
The largest optical telescopes with single mirrors are about 8 m in diameter.
48.
(a)
We approximate the temperaturekinetic energy relationship by kT = KE, as given in

Section 337.
kT = KE T =
(b)
49.
(a)
(14 1012 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)

1.38 10
J/K
= 1.6 1017 K
Find the Q-value for this reaction. From Eq. 302, the Q-value is the mass energy of the
reactants minus the mass energy of the products.
Q=
24
12 Mg
2mC c 2 mMg c 2 =
[ 2(12.000000 u) 23.985042 u ] c 2 (931.5 MeV/c 2 ) = 13.93 MeV
The total kinetic energy should be equal to the electrical potential energy of the two nuclei when
they are just touching. The distance between the two nuclei will be twice the nuclear radius, from
Eq. 301. Each nucleus will have half the total kinetic energy.
r = (1.2 1015 m)( A)1/3 = (1.2 1015 m)(12)1/3 ;
PE =
2
qnucleus
;
4 0 2r
2
qnucleus
2 4
2r
0
KE nucleus = 1 PE = 1
= 12 (8.988 109 N m 2 /C2 )

(c)
23
From Fig. 3329, this is in the hadron era.
12
12
6C + 6C
(b)
KE
(6) 2 (1.60 1019 C) 2

2(1.2 10
15
1/3
m)(12)
1 eV
1.60 1019 J
= 4.71 MeV
Approximate the temperaturekinetic energy relationship by kT = KE, as given in Section 337.

1.60 1019 J
(4.71 106 eV)
1 eV
KE
= 5.46 1010 K
=
kT = KE T =
23
k
1.38 10
J/K
50.
(a)
33-15
Find the Q-value for this reaction. From Eq. 302, the Q-value is the mass energy of the
reactants minus the mass energy of the products.
16
16
8C + 8C
Q=
28
4
14 Si + 2 He
2mC c 2 mSi c 2 mHe c 2
= [ 2(15.994915 u) 27.976927 u 4.002603] c 2 (931.5 Mev/c 2 )
= 9.594 MeV
(b)
The total kinetic energy should be equal to the electrical potential energy of the two nuclei when
they are just touching. The distance between the two nuclei will be twice the nuclear radius, from
Eq. 301. Each nucleus will have half the total kinetic energy.
r = (1.2 1015 m)( A)1/3 = (1.2 1015 m)(16)1/3 ;
2
qnucleus
4 0 2r
2
qnucleus
2 4
2r
0
KE nucleus = 1 PE = 1
2
= 12 (8.988 109 N m 2 /C 2 )
(c)
PE =
(8) 2 (1.60 1019 C) 2

2(1.2 10
15
1/3
m)(16)
1 eV
= 7.61 MeV
1.60 1019 J
Approximate the temperaturekinetic energy relationship by kT = KE, as given in Section 337.

1.60 1019 J
(7.61 106 eV)
1 eV
KE
= 8.82 1010 K
kT = KE T =
=
k
1.38 1023 J/K
51.
We must find a combination of c, G, and U that has the dimensions of time. The dimensions of c are
L3
ML2
L
,
and
the
dimensions
of
=
are
. Use dimensional
T , the dimensions of G are
2

MT
T
analysis, as discussed in Chapter 1.
3
2
L L ML
+ 3 + 2
t P = c G = [T ] =
[ M ] [T ] 2
= [ L]
2
T
T
MT
+ 3 + 2 = 0; = 0; 2 = 1 + 5 = 0; = 1 3
5 = 1 3
tP = c
52.
5/2 1/2 1/2
G=
c5
1;
2
1;
2
5
2
1
(6.63 1034 J s)
2
= 5.38 1044 s
(3.00 108 m/s)5
(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )
The radius of the universe is estimated as the speed of light (c) times the age of the universe (T). This
radius is used to find the volume of the universe, and the critical density times the volume gives the mass.
r = cT ; V = 43 r 3 = 34 (cT )3 ;
m =V =
4 (cT )3
3
4
3
3.156 107
8
9
(3.00 10 m/s)(13.8 10 yr)
1 yr
s
26
kg/m3 )
(10

= 9.34 1052 kg 1053 kg

33-16
Chapter 33
Solutions to Search and Learn Problems

1.
(a)
Assume that the nucleons make up only 2% of the critical mass density, so neutrinos make up
98% of the critical mass density.
Nucleon mass density = 0.02(1026 kg/m3 )
Nucleon number density =
0.02(1026 kg/m3 )
1.67 10
27
kg/nucleon
= 0.12 nucleon/m3
Neutrino number density = 10 (nucleon number density) = 1.2 108 neutrino/m3
The neutrino number density times the mass per neutrino must make up 98% of the critical mass
density. The mass-to- eV/c 2 conversion is in the front of the textbook.
(mv kg/neutrino)(1.2 108 neutrino/m3 ) = 0.98(1026 kg/m3 )
mv =
(b)
0.98(1026 kg/m3 )
931.5 106 eV/c 2
= 45.8 eV/v 50 eV/v

(1.2 108 neutrino/m3 ) 1.6605 1027 kg
Assume that the nucleons make up only 5% of the critical mass density.
Nucleon mass density = 0.05(1026 kg/m3 )
Nucleon number density =
0.05(1026 kg/m3 )
1.67 10
27
kg/nucleon
= 0.30 nucleon/m3
Neutrino number density = 10 (nucleon number density) = 3.0 108 neutrino/m3

(mv kg/neutrino)(3.0 108 neutrino/m3 ) = 0.95(1026 kg/m3 )
mv =
2.
0.95(1026 kg/m3 )
931.5 106 eV/c 2
= 17.8 eV/v 20 eV/v

(3.0 108 neutrino/m3 ) 1.6605 1027 kg
Many methods are available.
For nearby stars (up to 500 or 100 ly away) we can use parallax. In this method we measure the
angular distance that a star moves relative to the background of stars as the Earth travels around
the Sun. Half of the angular displacement is then equal to the ratio of the EarthSun distance and
the distance between the Earth and that star.
The apparent brightness of the brightest stars in galaxies, combined with the inverse square law,
can be used to estimate distances to galaxies, assuming they have the same intrinsic luminosity.
The HR diagram can be used for distant stars. Determine the surface temperature using its
blackbody radiation spectrum and Wiens law and then estimate its luminosity from the HR
diagram. Using its apparent brightness with Eq. 331 will give its distance.
Variable stars, like Cepheid variables, can be used by relating the period to its luminosity. The
luminosity and apparent brightness can be used to find the distance.
The largest distances are measured by measuring the apparent brightness of Type Ia supernovae.
All supernovae are thought to have nearly the same luminosity, so the apparent brightness can be
used to find the distance.
The redshift in the spectral lines of very distant galaxies can be used to estimate distances that are
farther than 107 to 108 ly.
3.
(a)
33-17
From Section 332, a white dwarf with a mass equal to that of the Sun has a radius about the size
of the Earths radius, 6380 km , and a neutron star with a mass equal to 1.5 solar masses has a
radius of about 20 km . For the black hole, we use the Schwarzschild radius formula.
R=
4.
2GM
c2
2(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 ) 3(1.99 1030 kg)
= 8849 m 8.85 km
=
(3.00 108 m/s) 2
(b)
The ratio is 6380 : 20 : 8.85 = 721: 2.26 :1 700 : 2 :1.
(a)
All distant objects in the universe are moving away from each other, as indicated by the galactic
redshift, indicating that the universe is expanding. If the universe has always expanded, it must
have started as a point. The 25% abundance of He supports the standard Big Bang model. The
Big Bang theory predicted the presence of background radiation, which has since been observed.
The curvature of the universe determines whether the universe will continue expanding forever
(open) or eventually collapse back in on itself (closed).
Dark energy increases the total energy of the universe, increasing the probability that it is an
open universe.
(b)
(c)
5.
Each helium atom requires 2 protons and 2 neutrons and has a total mass of 4u. Each hydrogen atom
requires 1 proton and has a mass of 1u. If there are 7 times more protons than neutrons, then for every
2 neutrons there are 14 protons. Two protons combine with the 2 neutrons to produce a helium atom.
The other 12 protons produce 12 hydrogen atoms. Therefore, there is 12 times as much hydrogen as
helium, by number of atoms. Each helium atom has a mass 4 times that of the hydrogen atom, so the
total mass of the hydrogen is only 3 times the total mass of the helium.
6.
About 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the initially very hot temperature of the universe would have
cooled down to about 3000 K. At that temperature, electrons could orbit bare nuclei and remain there,
without being ejected by collisions. Thus stable atoms were able to form. This allowed photons to
travel unimpeded through the universe, so the universe became transparent. The radiation at this time
period would have been blackbody radiation at a temperature of about 3000 K. As the universe
continued to expand and cool, the wavelengths of this radiation would have increased according to
Wiens law. The peak wavelength now is much larger and corresponds to the blackbody radiation at a
temperature of 2.7 K.
7.
(a)
Because the speed of the galaxy is small compared to the speed of light, we can use Eq. 336
instead of Eq. 333. The velocity of the galaxy is negative.
130 103 m/s

= rest = 656 nm
= 0.284 nm
3.00 108 m/s
c
(b)
(c)
This is a blue shift because the wavelength has decreased and because the galaxy is approaching.
The time is equal to the distance between the galaxies divided by their relative speed. This is
assuming that they continue to move at the same present speed. (They would actually accelerate
due to the gravitational force between them.)
t=
2.5 106 ly 9.46 1015 m

1 yr

3
7
ly
130 10 m/s
3.156 10
9
= 5.8 10 yr
s

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ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY

Astrophysics and Cosmology

Responses to MisConceptual Questions

Astrophysics and Cosmology

The apparent brightness is the solar constant, 1.3 103 W/m 2 .

Use Eq. 331 to find the absolute luminosity.

The density is the mass divided by the volume.

L = 4 d 2b = 4 (1.496 1011 m 2 )2 (1.3 103 W/m 2 ) = 3.7 1026 W

The galaxy width is about 4.5 times the Moons width.

The density is the mass divided by the volume.

= 3.33 105 times larger

M 1.5(1.99 1030 kg)

5.354 1017 kg/m3

5.354 1017 kg/m3

The reciprocal of the distance in parsecs is the angle in seconds of arc.

L2 P2 A2T24 4 r22T24 T24 T2

Astrophysics and Cosmology

0.091L2 0.091P2 0.091A2T24 (0.091)4 r22T24

The ratio of the diameters is the same as the ratio of radii, so

The Schwarzschild radius is 2GM /c 2 .

2(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 1024 kg)

2(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )(2 1041 kg)

The Schwarzschild radius is given by R = 2GM /c 2 , so M =

= 8.86 103 m 8.9 mm

Rc 2 (5.29 1011 m)(3.00 108 m/s) 2

Note that this is smaller than the size of a proton.

Use Eq. 334, Hubbles law.

Use Eq. 334, Hubbles law.

(0.015)(3.00 108 m/s)

= 214.3 Mly 210 Mly = 2.1 108 ly

The size of the answer does meet the condition that  c.

Use Hubbles law, Eq. 334, to solve for the distance.

0.04839(3.00 108 m/s)

H 0 d (21, 000 m/s/Mly)(7.0 Mly)

H 0 d (21, 000 m/s/Mly)(70 Mly)

Astrophysics and Cosmology

= 1.048 103 Mly 1.0 109 ly

obs rest obs

The approximation of Eq. 336 gives = zc = 0.060c .

obs rest obs

Or we can use the approximation given in Eq. 336.

0.6(3.00 108 m/s)

= 8571 Mly 9 109 ly

Use Hubbles law, Eq. 334, to solve for the distance.

c 3.00 108 m/s 0.10 cm

We also use the more exact relationship of Eq. 333.

Eq. 333 states = rest

Wiens law is Eq. 272.

2.90 103 m K 2.90 103 m K

2.90 103 m K 2.90 103 m K

We use the proton as typical nuclear matter.

Astrophysics and Cosmology

Size (3 103 )(1010 ly) = 3 107 ly

At t = 1 s, the temperature is about 1010 K.

Size (3 1010 )(1010 ly) = 3 ly

At t = 106 s, the temperature is about 1012 K.

Size (3 1012 )(1010 ly) = 3 102 ly 3 1014 m

At t = 10235 s , the temperature is about 1027 K.

Size (3 1027 )(1010 ly) = 3 1017 ly 0.3 m

We approximate the temperatureenergy relationship by kT = E = mc 2 as suggested in Section 337.

mc 2 (500 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 1013 J/MeV)

From Fig. 3329, this corresponds to a time of 105 s .

mc 2 (9500 MeV/c 2 )c 2 (1.60 1013 J/MeV)

The size of the answer does meet the condition that c.