Ch31 Giancoli7e Manual

NUCLEAR ENERGY; EFFECTS AND USES OF RADIATION
31
Responses to Questions
1.
n + 137
56 Ba ? +
(a)
Conserve nucleon number: 1 + 137 = A + 0. Thus, A = 138. Conserve charge: 0 + 56 = Z + 0.

Thus, Z = 56. This is
n + 137
56 Ba
(b)
138
56 Ba,
or barium-138.
137
55 Cs + ?
Conserve nucleon number: 1 + 137 = 137 + A. Thus, A = 1. Conserve charge: 0 + 56 = 55 + Z .

Thus, Z = 1. This is 11 H, or p (a proton).
d + 21 H
(c)
4
2 He + ?
Conserve nucleon number: 2 + 2 = 4 + A. Thus, A = 0. Conserve charge: 1 + 1 = 2 + Z . Thus,

Z = 0. This is , or a gamma ray (a photon).
+ 197
79 Au ? + d
(d)
Conserve nucleon number: 4 + 197 = A + 2. Thus, A = 199. Conserve charge: 2 + 79 = Z + 1.

Thus, Z = 80. This is
2.
or mercury-199.
2
3
The reaction is 22
11Na + 1 H 2 He + ?. The reactants have 12 protons and 24 nucleons, so they must
have 12 neutrons. Thus the products must have 12 protons and 12 neutrons as well. Since the alpha has
2 protons and 2 neutrons, the other product must have 10 protons and 10 neutrons. That nucleus is
20
10 Ne.
3.
199
80 Hg,
Thus, the full equation is
22
2
11 Na + 1 H
4
20
2 He + 10 Ne .
Neutrons are good projectiles for producing nuclear reactions because they are neutral and they are
massive. If you want a particle to hit the nucleus with a lot of energy, then a more massive particle is
the better choice. A light electron would not be as effective. Using a positively charged projectile like
an alpha or a proton means that the projectile will have to overcome the large electrical repulsion from
the positively charged nucleus. Neutrons can penetrate directly to the nucleus and cause nuclear
reactions.
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31-1
31-2
Chapter 31
4.
For spontaneous radioactive decay reactions, Q > 0, answer (b). Otherwise, more energy must be
added to make the reaction proceed.
5.
The thermal energy from nuclear fission appears in the kinetic energy of the fission products (daughter
nuclei and neutrons). In other words, the fission products are moving very fast (especially the neutrons,
due to the conservation of momentum).
6.
(a) Yes, since the multiplication factor is greater than 1 (f = 1.5), a chain reaction can be sustained.
(b) The difference would be that the chain reaction would proceed more slowly, and to make sure the
chain reaction continued, you would need to be very careful about leakage of neutrons to the
surroundings.
7.
Uranium cant be enriched by chemical means because chemical reactions occur similarly with all of
the isotopes of a given element. The number of neutrons does not influence the chemistry, which is
primarily due to the valence electrons. Thus, trying to enrich uranium by chemical means, which
means trying to increase the percentage of
8.
235
92 U
in the sample compared with
238
92 U,
is impossible.
First of all, the neutron can get close to the nucleus at such slow speeds due to the fact that it is neutral
and will not be electrically repelled by either the electron cloud or the protons in the nucleus. Then,
once it hits a nucleus, it is held due to the strong nuclear force. It adds more energy than just kinetic
energy to the nucleus due to E = mc 2 . This extra amount of energy leaves the nucleus in an excited
state. To decay back to a lower energy state, the nucleus may undergo fission.
9.
For a nuclear chain reaction to occur in a block of porous uranium, the neutrons being emitted by the
decays must be slowed down. If the neutrons are too fast, then they will pass through the block of
uranium without interacting, effectively prohibiting a chain reaction. Water contains a much higher
density of protons and neutrons than does air, and those protons and neutrons will slow down
(moderate) the neutrons, enabling them to take part in nuclear reactions. Thus, if water is filling all of
the porous cavities, then the water will slow the neutrons, allowing them to be captured by other
uranium nuclei, and allow the chain reaction to continue, which might lead to an explosion.
10.
Ordinary water does not moderate, or slow down, neutrons as well as heavy water; more neutrons will
also be lost to absorption in ordinary water. However, if the uranium in a reactor is highly enriched,
then there will be many fissionable nuclei available in the fuel rods. It will be likely that the few
moderated neutrons will be absorbed by a fissionable nucleus, and it will be possible for a chain
reaction to occur.
11.
A useful fission reaction is one that is self-sustaining. The neutrons released from an initial fission
process can go on to initiate further fission reactions, creating a self-sustaining reaction. If no neutrons
were released, then the process would end after a single reaction and not be very useful.
12.
Heavy nuclei decay because they are neutron-rich, especially after neutron capture. After fission, the
smaller daughter nuclei will still be neutron-rich and relatively unstable and will emit neutrons in order
to move to a more stable configuration. Lighter nuclei are generally more stable with approximately
equal numbers of protons and neutrons; heavier nuclei need additional neutrons in order to decrease
Coulomb repulsion between the protons.
13.
The water in the primary system flows through the core of the reactor and therefore could contain
radioactive materials, including deuterium, tritium, and radioactive oxygen isotopes. The use of a
secondary system provides for isolation of these potentially hazardous materials from the external
environment. Also, it is desirable to keep the radioactive materials as confined as possible to avoid
Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation
31-3
accidental leakage and contamination. In the electric generating portion of the system, waste heat must
be given off to the surroundings, and keeping all of the radioactive portions of the energy generation
process as far away from this release point as possible is a major safety concern.
14.
Fission is the process in which a larger nucleus splits into two or more fragments, roughly equal in
size, releasing energy. Fusion is the process in which smaller nuclei combine to form larger nuclei,
also releasing energy.
15.
Fossil fuel power plants are less expensive to construct, and the technology is well known. However,
the mining of coal is dangerous and can be environmentally destructive, the transportation of oil can be
damaging to the environment through spills, the production of power from both coal and oil
contributes to air pollution and the release of greenhouse gases into the environment, and there is a
limited supply of both coal and oil. Fission power plants produce no greenhouse gases and virtually no
air pollution, and the technology is well known. However, they are expensive to build, they produce
thermal pollution and radioactive waste, and when accidents occur they tend to be very destructive.
Uranium is also dangerous to mine. Fusion power plants produce very little radioactive waste and
virtually no air pollution or greenhouse gases. Unfortunately, the technology for large-scale sustainable
power production is not yet known, and the pilot plants are very expensive to build.
16.
Gamma particles penetrate better than beta particles because they are neutral and have no mass. Thus,
gamma particles do not interact with matter as easily or as often as beta particles, allowing them to
better penetrate matter.
17.
The large amount of mass of a star creates an enormous gravitational attraction, which causes the gas
to be compressed to a very high density. This high density creates very high pressure and high
temperature. The high temperatures give the gas particles a large amount of kinetic energy, which
allows them to overcome the Coulomb repulsion and then fuse when they collide. These conditions at
the center of the Sun and other stars make the fusion process possible.
18.
Stars, which include our Sun, maintain confinement of the fusion plasma with gravity. The huge
amount of mass in a star creates an enormous gravitational attraction on the gas molecules, and this
attractive force overcomes the outward repulsive forces from electrostatics and radiation pressure.
19.
Alpha particles are relatively large and are generally emitted with relatively low kinetic energies. They
are not able to penetrate the skin, so they are not very destructive or dangerous as long as they stay
outside the body. If alpha emitters are ingested or inhaled, however, then the protective layer of skin is
bypassed, and the alpha particles, which are charged, can do tremendous amounts of damage to the
lungs and other delicate internal tissues due to ionizing effects. Thus, there are strong rules against
eating and drinking around alpha emitters, and the machining of such materials, which produces fine
dust particles that could be inhaled, can be done only in sealed conditions.
20.
The absorbed dose measures the amount of energy deposited per unit mass of absorbing material and is
measured in grays (Gy) or rads. The gray is the SI unit and is 1 J/kg. A rad is 0.01 Gy. The effective
dose takes into account the type of radiation depositing the energy and is used to determine the
biological damage done by the radiation. The effective dose is the absorbed dose multiplied by a
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) factor. The effective dose is measured in rem, which are
rad RBE, or sieverts (Sv), which are gray RBE. Sieverts is the SI unit, and 1 Sv = 100 rem. 1 Sv of
any type of radiation does approximately the same amount of biological damage.
21.
Radiation can kill or deactivate bacteria and viruses on medical supplies and even in food. Thus, the
radiation will sterilize these items, making them safer for humans to use.
31-4
22.
Chapter 31
Allow a radioactive tracer to be introduced into the liquid that flows through the pipe. Choose a tracer
that emits particles that cannot penetrate the walls of the pipe. Then check the pipe with a Geiger
counter. When tracer radiation is found on the outside of the pipe (radiation levels will be higher at that
point), the leak will have been located.
Responses to MisConceptual Questions

1.
(e)
In nuclear reactions, energy is converted between mass, kinetic energy, and radiant energy, but
the total energy is conserved. The momentum is conserved as particles are absorbed and released
in the reactions. The net electric charge is conserved. That is, the total net charge before the
reaction will always equal the net charge after the reaction. The new conserved quantity in this
chapter is the conservation of nucleon number. In any reaction, the number of nucleons will
remain unchanged.
2.
(b)
Large nuclei have more neutrons per proton than smaller nuclei. In a fission reaction, the
daughter nuclei are neutron-rich and emit particles to convert excess neutrons into protons.
3.
(c)
The melting point, boiling point, and valence shells do not affect the critical mass for a chain
reaction. The nuclear density is relatively constant for all substances. The critical mass is
determined by the mass necessary for each reaction to produce, on average, one neutron that
creates an additional reaction. If each fission can produce additional neutrons, then it is more
likely that one of those neutrons will create an additional reaction and the critical mass can be
smaller.
4.
(b)
Fusion occurs in small nuclei because the binding energy per nucleon of larger nuclei is greater
than the binding energies of the small nuclei. Fission occurs in very large nuclei because the
binding energy per nucleon of the smaller nuclei is greater than the binding energy per nucleon
of the very large nuclei. If the binding energy per nucleon always increased, then fusion could
occur through all elements, but fission could not occur.
5.
(a)
Nuclear reactions occur when uranium-235 absorbs a neutron. Thermal neutrons are more likely
to be absorbed by uranium-235, so the moderator is used to slow down the neutrons.
6.
(e)
Fission and fusion are sometimes thought of as different names for the same physical process,
but this is incorrect. Fission occurs when energy is released as large nuclei are broken apart.
Fusion occurs when energy is released as small nuclei are put together.
7.
(c)
The primary fuel source for fusion is hydrogen, which is very plentiful. The by-product of
nuclear fusion is helium, which is not radioactive. The problem with fusion is that the hydrogen
nuclei repel each other; therefore, very high temperatures are necessary for them to get close
enough to fuse.
8.
(a)
When the two hydrogen nuclei bind together to form helium, energy is released. This energy
comes from the mass of the hydrogen nuclei, so the resulting helium nucleus has less mass than
the mass of the two hydrogen nuclei.
9.
(a)
Gamma and beta radiation induce about the same amount of biological damage. Alpha radiation
induces much more damage in a concentrated area than either gamma or beta radiation due to its
relatively large mass and the slow speed of alpha radiation.
31-5
10.
(a)
A single fission reaction releases about 200 MeV of energy. A single fusion reaction produces
less than 25 MeV. Therefore, the fission reaction releases more energy.
11.
(a)
The fuel for fusion is hydrogen, which is a component of water.
12.
(a, b) Radiation is composed of high-energy particles that can disrupt cells. If a small amount of
radiation hits the correct molecules of a cell (such as DNA), then it can alter the cell, causing
cancer. Therefore, any amount of radiation can be harmful. Radiation is produced in natural
nuclear decays and is therefore part of the normal environment. Gamma radiation can be very
penetrating, but alpha and beta radiation do not penetrate very far into living tissue.
13.
(e)
Cell damage due to radiation occurs from extended exposure to high levels of radiation. The
damage can be minimized by having the technician work farther away from the radiation, work
for a shorter time, and be shielded from the radiation. A radiation badge can warn the worker
when the allowed radiation exposure has been reached. Therefore, all of the answers can help
reduce radiation damage.
14.
(d)
X-rays, gamma rays, and beta rays all produce about the same amount of radiation damage.
Neutrons and alpha particles produce more cell damage per unit energy than X-rays, gamma
rays, or beta rays due to their larger masses and slower speeds.
15.
(b)
The critical mass is the mass that must be present so that on average, a neutron from each fission
is absorbed by another nucleus to instigate another fission. When more neutrons are released
during each fission, another reaction is more likely with less mass present. Therefore, the
plutonium has a smaller critical mass.
Solutions to Problems
1.
2.
When aluminum absorbs a neutron, the mass number increases by one and the atomic number is
unchanged. The product nucleus is
28
13 Al .
by , according to this reaction:
28
13 Al
Since the nucleus now has an extra neutron, it will decay
28
14 Si +
+ ve . Thus the product is
28
14 Si .
If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed.
MeV/c 2
Q = 2m 2 H c 2 m 3 He c 2 mn c 2 = [ 2(2.014102 u) 3.016029 u 1.008665 u ] 931.5
1
2
u
= 3.270 MeV
2
c
Thus, no threshold energy is required, since the Q-value is positive. The final mass is less than the
initial mass, so energy is released in this process.
3.
A slow neutron has negligible kinetic energy. If the Q-value is positive, then the reaction is possible.
MeV/c 2 2
Q = m 238 U c 2 + mn c 2 m 239 U c 2 = [ 238.050788 u + 1.008665 u 239.054294 u ] 931.5
c
92
92
u
= 4.806 MeV
Thus, the reaction is possible.
31-6
4.
Chapter 31
(a)
The product has 16 protons and 16 neutrons. Thus the reactants must have 16 protons and 16
31
15 P .
neutrons. Thus, the missing nucleus has 15 protons and 16 neutrons, so it is

(b)
The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the
electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton.
Q = mp c 2 + m31 Sc 2 m32 Sc 2
15
16
MeV/c 2
= [1.007825 u + 30.973762 u 31.972071 u ] 931.5
5.
2
c = 8.864 MeV
We assume that all of the particles are essentially at rest, so we ignore conservation of momentum.
To make just the fluorine nucleus, the Q-value plus the incoming kinetic energy should add to 0. In
order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton.
KE + Q
= KE + mp c 2 + m18 O c 2 m18 F c 2 mn c 2 = 0
8
m18 F c 2 = KE + mp c 2 + m18 O c 2 mn c 2 =
9
MeV/c 2 2
= 2.438 MeV + [1.007825 u + 17.999160 u 1.008665 u ] 931.5
c
= 1.6767873 104 MeV
1u
m18 F = (1.6767873 104 MeV/c 2 )
931.5 MeV/c 2
9
6.
(a)
= 18.000937 u
If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed.

Q = mn c 2 + m 24 Mg c 2 m 23 Na c 2 md c 2
12
11
MeV/c 2
= [1.008665 u + 23.985042 u 22.989769 u 2.014102 u ] 931.5
2
c = 9.468 MeV
Thus more energy is required if this reaction is to occur. The 18.00 MeV of kinetic energy is
more than sufficient, so the reaction can occur.
7.
(b)
18.00 MeV 9.468 MeV = 8.53 MeV of energy is released
(a)
If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed. In order to balance the electrons,
we use the mass of 11 H for the proton and the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle.
Q = mp c 2 + m7 Li c 2 m 4 He c 2 m c 2
3
MeV/c 2
= [1.007825 u + 7.016003 u 2(4.002603 u) ] 931.5
2
c = 17.346 MeV
Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction can occur.
(b)
The total kinetic energy of the products will be the Q-value plus the incoming kinetic energy.
KE total
8.
(a)
31-7
= KE reactants + Q = 3.1 MeV + 17.346 MeV = 20.4 MeV
If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed. In order to balance the electrons,
we use the mass of 11 H for the proton and the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle.
Q = m c 2 + m14 N c 2 m17 O c 2 mp c 2
7
MeV/c 2 2
= [ 4.002603 u + 14.003074 u 16.999132 u 1.007825 u ] 931.5
c = 1.192 MeV
Thus, more energy is required if this reaction is to occur. The 9.85 MeV of kinetic energy is
more than sufficient, so the reaction can occur.
(b)
KE total
9.
= KE reactants + Q = 9.85 MeV 1.192 MeV = 8.66 MeV
In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle.
Q = m c 2 + m16 O c 2 m 20 Ne
8
10
MeV/c 2
= [ 4.002603 u + 15.994915 u 19.992440 u ] 931.5
10.
2
c = 4.730 MeV
The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy.

Q = md c 2 + m13 C c 2 m14 N c 2 mn c 2
6
MeV/c 2
= [ 2.014102 u + 13.003355 u 14.003074 u 1.008665 u ] 931.5
2
c = 5.326 MeV
KE total
11.
= KE reactants + Q = 41.4 MeV + 5.326 MeV = 46.7 MeV
The 147 N absorbs a neutron, and 146 C is a product. Thus the reaction is n + 147 N 146 C + ?. The
reactants have 7 protons and 15 nucleons, which means 8 neutrons. Thus the products also have
7 protons and 8 neutrons, so the unknown product must be a proton. The reaction is
n + 147 N
14
6C + p .
In order to balance the electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton.
Q = mn c 2 + m14 N c 2 m14 C c 2 mp c 2
7
MeV/c 2
= [1.008665 u + 14.003074 u 14.003242 u 1.007825 u ] 931.5
2
c = 0.626 MeV
31-8
12.
Chapter 31
(a)
The deuteron is 12 H, so the reactants have 4 protons and 8 nucleons. Therefore, the reactants
have 4 neutrons. Thus the products must have 4 protons and 4 neutrons. That means that X must
have 3 protons and 4 neutrons, so X is 37 Li .
(b)
This is called a stripping reaction because the lithium nucleus has stripped a neutron from
the deuteron.
(c)
electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton

Q = md c 2 + m6 Li c 2 m7 Li c 2 mp c 2
3
MeV/c 2 2
= [ 2.014102 u + 6.015123 u 7.016003 u 1.007825 u ] 931.5
c = 5.027 MeV
Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction is exothermic.

13.
(a)
This is called a pickup reaction because the helium has picked up a neutron from the carbon
nucleus.
(b)
The alpha is 42 He. The reactants have 8 protons and 15 nucleons, so they have 7 neutrons. Thus,
the products must also have 8 protons and 7 neutrons. The alpha has 2 protons and 2 neutrons, so
X must have 6 protons and 5 neutrons. Thus, X is
(c)
11
6C .
electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton and the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle.
Q = m3 He c 2 + m12 C c 2 m11 C c 2 m c 2
2
MeV/c 2
= [3.016029 u + 12.000000 u 11.011434 u 4.002603 u ] 931.5
2
c = 1.856 MeV
Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction is exothermic.

14.
The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the electron
count, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton and the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle.
MeV/c 2 2
Q = mp c2 + m7 Li c 2 m4 He c 2 m c2 = [1.007825 u + 7.016003 u 2(4.002603) u ] 931.5
c
3
2
u
= 17.35 MeV
The reaction releases 17.35 MeV .

15.
The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy. In order to balance the electron
count, we use the mass of 42 He for the alpha particle.
Q = m c 2 + m9 Be c 2 m12 C c 2 mn c 2
4
MeV/c 2
= [ 4.002603 u + 9.012183 u 12.000000 u 1.008665 u ] 931.5
2
c = 5.702 MeV
The reaction releases 5.702 MeV .

16.
31-9
The Q-value gives the energy released in the reaction, assuming that the initial kinetic energy of the
neutron is very small.
Q = mn c 2 + m 235 U c 2 m141 Ba c 2 m92 Kr c 2 3mn c 2
92
56
36
MeV/c 2 2
= [1.008665 u + 235.043930 u 140.914411 u 91.926156 u 3(1.008665 u) ] 931.5
c
= 173.3 MeV
17.
The Q-value gives the energy released in the reaction, assuming the initial kinetic energy of the
neutron is very small.
Q = mn c 2 + m 235 U c 2 m88 Sr c 2 m136 Xe c 2 12mn c 2
92
38
54
MeV/c 2
= [1.008665 u + 235.043930 u 87.905612 u 135.907214 u 12(1.008665 u) ] 931.5
2
c
= 126.5 MeV
18.
The power released is the energy released per reaction times the number of reactions per second.
P=
energy # reactions
reaction
s
P
# reactions
240 106 W
=
=
= 7.5 1018 reactions/s
19
6
energy
s
(200 10 eV/reaction)(1.60 10
J/eV)
reaction
8 1018 reactions/s
19.
Compare the energy per fission with the mass energy.

energy per fission
mass energy mc
20.
200 MeV
2
(235 u)(931.5 MeV/c )c
= 9.1 1024
1
(9 102 )%
1100
Convert the 960 watts over a years time to a mass of uranium.

7
960 J 3.156 10 s 1 MeV

13
1 yr
1 s
1.60 10
1 fission 0.235 kg 235
-4
92 U

= 3.696 10 kg
23
J 200 MeV 6.02 10 atoms
0.4 g
21.
(a)
The total number of nucleons for the reactants is 236, so the total number of nucleons for the
products must also be 236. The two daughter nuclei have a total of 231 nucleons, so 5 neutrons
must be produced in the reaction:
(b)
235
92
235
92
235
92 U + n
133
98
51Sb + 41 Nb + 5n.
Q = m235 U c2 + mn c2 m133 Sb c2 m98 Nb c2 5mn c2

92
51
41
MeV/c2 2
= [ 235.043930 u + 1.008665 u 132.915250 u 97.910328 u 5(1.008665 u)] 931.5
c
= 171.1 MeV
31-10
22.
Chapter 31
We assume as stated in Problems 18, 19, and 20 that an average of 200 MeV is released per fission of a
uranium nucleus.
1 eV
(3 107 J)
1.60 1019
23.
1 MeV 1 nucleus
0.235 kg
7

= 3.7 10 kg

6
23
J 1 10 eV 200 MeV 6.02 10 nuclei
235
92
Since the reaction is 34% efficient, the fission needs to generate (950/0.34) MW of power. Convert
the power rating to a mass of uranium using the factor-label method. We assume that 200 MeV is
released per fission, as in other Problems.
950 106 J
1 atom
1 eV
0.235 kg U
3.156 107 s
= 1075 kg
0.34 s 200 106 eV 1.60 1019 J 6.02 1023 atoms
1 yr
1100 kg
24.
We find the number of collisions from the relationship En = E0
235
92
235
92
( 12 ) , where n is the number of

n
collisions.
En = E0
25.
( 12 )
0.040 eV
En
ln
E0
1.0 106 eV
n=
=
= 24.58 25 collisions
ln 12
ln 12
ln
If the uranium splits into two roughly equal fragments, then each will have an atomic mass number of
half of 236, or 118. Each will have a nuclear charge of half of 92, or 46. Calculate the electrical
potential energy using a relationship derived in Example 177. The distance between the nuclei will be
twice the radius of a nucleus, and the radius is given in Eq. 301.
PE
Q1Q2
(46) 2 (1.60 1019 C) 2 1 MeV
= (8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )
4 0 r
2(1.2 1015 m)(118)1/3 1.60 1013
1
= 260 MeV
J
This is about 30% larger than the nuclear fission energy released.
26.
The reaction rate is proportional to the number of neutrons causing the reactions. For each fission, the
number of neutrons will increase by a factor of 1.0004, so in 1000 milliseconds, the number of
neutrons will increase by a factor of (1.0004)1000 = 1.5 .
27.
KE
1 eV
= 32 kT = 32 (1.38 1023 J/K)(2 107 K) = 4 1016 J = 4 1016 J
1.60 1019
3000 eV
28.
The Q-value gives the energy released in the reaction.

Q = m 2 H c 2 + m3 H c 2 m 4 He c 2 mn c 2
1
MeV/c 2
= [ 2.014102 u + 3.016049 u 4.002603 u 1.008665 u ] 931.5
2
c = 17.59 MeV
29.
Calculate the Q-value for the reaction 12H + 21H
31-11
3
2He + n.
Q = 2m 2 H c 2 m 3 He c 2 mn c 2
1
MeV/c 2 2
= [ 2(2.014102 u) 3.016029 u 1.008665 u ] 931.5
c = 3.27 MeV
30.
For the reaction in Eq. 316a, if atomic masses are to be used, then one more electron needs to be
added to the products side of the equation. Notice that charge is not balanced in the equation as
written. The balanced reaction is 11 H + 11 H
2
+
1H + e
+ v + e .
Q = 2m1 H c 2 m 2 H c 2 me+ c 2 me c 2
1
MeV/c 2
= [ 2(1.007825 u) 2.014102 u 2(0.000549 u) ] 931.5
2
c = 0.4192 MeV 0.42 MeV
For the reaction in Eq. 316b, use atomic masses, since there would be two electrons on each side.
Q = m1 H c 2 + m 2 H c 2 m 3 He c 2
1
MeV/c 2 2
= [1.007825 u + 2.014102 u 3.016029 u ] 931.5
c = 5.4940 MeV 5.49 MeV
For the reaction in Eq. 316c, use atomic masses, since there would be two electrons on each side.
Q = 2m3 He c 2 m 4 He c 2 2m1 H c 2
2
MeV/c 2
= [ 2(3.016029 u) 4.002603 2(1.007825 u) ] 931.5
31.
(a)
(b)
2
c = 12.8594 MeV 12.86 MeV
Eq. 318a:
4.03 MeV
1u
1 kg
= 6.03 1023 MeV/g

2(2.014102 u) 1.66 1027 kg 1000 g
Eq. 318b:
3.27 MeV
1u
1 kg
= 4.89 1023 MeV/g

2(2.014102 u) 1.66 1027 kg 1000 g
Eq. 318c:
17.59 MeV
1u
1 kg
= 2.11 1024 MeV/g
27
(2.014102 u + 3.016049 u) 1.66 10
kg 1000 g
Uranium fission (200 MeV per nucleus):

200 MeV
1u
1 kg
= 5.13 1023 MeV/g

(235 u) 1.66 1027 kg 1000 g
Eq. 318a:
Eq. 318b:
Eq. 318c:
5.13 1023
6.03 1023
5.13 1023
4.89 1023
5.13 1023
2.11 1024
= 0.851
= 1.05
= 0.243
31-12
32.
Chapter 31
Calculate the Q-value for the reaction
238
92 U + n
239
92 U.
Q = m 238 U c 2 + mn c 2 m 239 U c 2
92
92
MeV/c 2 2
= [ 238.050788 u + 1.008665 u 239.054294 u ] 931.5
c = 4.806 MeV
33.
The reaction of Eq. 318b consumes 2 deuterons and releases 3.23 MeV of energy. The amount of
energy needed is the power times the elapsed time, and the energy can be related to the mass of
deuterium by the reaction.
J
1 MeV
7 s

960 (1 yr) 3.156 10
s
yr 1.60 1013
2.014 103 kg
2d

J 3.23 MeV 6.02 1023 d
= 3.923 104 kg = 0.39 g
34.
(a)
The reactants have a total of 3 protons and 7 neutrons, so the products should have the same.
After accounting for the helium, there are 3 neutrons and 1 proton in the other product, so it must
be tritium,
(b)
3
1H .
The reaction is 36 Li + 01 n
4
3
2 He + 1 H.
The Q-value gives the energy released.

Q = m6 Li c 2 + m1 n c 2 m 4 He c 2 m 3 H c 2
3
MeV/c 2
= [ 6.015123 u + 1.008665 u 4.002603 u 3.016049 u ] 931.5
35.
2
c = 4.784 MeV
Assume that the two reactions take place at equal rates, so they are both equally likely. Then from
the reaction of 4 deuterons, there would be a total of 7.30 MeV of energy released, or an average of
1150 MW
= 3485 MW must be obtained from the fusion
1.825 MeV per deuteron. A total power of
0.33
reactions to provide the required 1150-MW output, because of the 33% efficiency. We convert the
power to a number of deuterons based on the energy released per reacting deuteron and then convert
that to an amount of water using the natural abundance of deuterium.
1 H atom
1 MeV
1d
6 J 3600 s
3485 10

13
s 1 h 1.60 10
J 1.825 MeV 0.000115 d's
3485 MW
0.018 kg H 2 O
1 H 2 O molecule
2 H atoms
23
6.02 10 molecules
= 5586 kg/h 5600 kg/h
36.
We assume that the reactants are at rest when they react, so the total momentum of the system is 0. As
a result, the momenta of the two products are equal in magnitude. The available energy of 17.57 MeV
is much smaller than the masses involved, so we use the nonrelativistic relationship between
p2
momentum and kinetic energy, KE =
p = 2mKE .
2m
KE 4
2
He
+ KE n = KE total = 17.57 MeV
m 4 He KE 4 He = mn KE n
2
KE 4
2
He
mn
m 4 He + mn
2
2m 4 He KE 4 He =
m 4 He KE 4 He = mn KE total KE 4 He
2
2mn KE n
1.008665
17.57 MeV = 3.536 MeV 3.5 MeV

4.002603 + 1.008665
KE total =
KE n = KE total KE 4
p 4 He = pn
31-13
He
= 17.57 MeV 3.54 MeV = 14.03 MeV 14 MeV
If the plasma temperature were significantly higher, then the approximation of 0 kinetic energy being
brought into the reaction would not be reasonable. Thus the results would depend on plasma
temperature. A higher plasma temperature would result in higher values for the energies.
37.
In Eq. 318a, 4.00 MeV of energy is released for every 2 deuterium atoms. The mass of water can be
converted to a number of deuterium atoms.
6.02 1023 H 2 O 2 H 1.15 104 d
21
(1.00 kg H 2 O)
= 7.692 10 d nuclei
0.018 kg H 2 O 1 H 2 O
1
H
19
6
4.00 10 eV 1.60 10
J
9
(7.692 1021 d nuclei)
= 2.46 10 J
2 d atoms
1
eV
As compared to gasoline:
38.
(a)
2.46 109 J
5 107 J
50 more than gasoline
We follow the method of Example 319. The reaction is 126 C + 21 H 137 N + . We calculate
the potential energy of the particles when they are separated by the sum of their radii. The radii
are calculated from Eq. 301.
KE total
QC QH
(6)(1)(1.60 1019 C) 2 1 MeV
= (8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )
4 0 rC + rH
(1.2 1015 m)(11/3 + 121/3 ) 1.60 1013
1
= 2.19 MeV
For the dt reaction, Example 319 shows that

energies.
KE C
KE d t
KE total
= 0.45 MeV. Find the ratio of the two
2.19 MeV
= 4.9
0.45 MeV
The carbon reaction requires about 5 times more energy than the dt reaction.
(b)
The kinetic energy is proportional to the temperature by
KE
= 32 kT . Since the kinetic energy has
to increase by a factor of 5, so does the temperature. Thus we estimate T 1.5 109 K .

39.
Because the RBE of alpha particles is up to 20 and the RBE of X-rays is 1, it takes 20 times as many
rads of X-rays to cause the same biological damage as alpha particles. Thus the 350 rads of alpha
particles is equivalent to 350 rads 20 = 7000 rads of X-rays.
31-14
Chapter 31
40.
Use Eq. 3110b to relate Sv to Gy. From Table 311, the RBE of gamma rays is 1, so the number of
Sv is equal to the number of Gy. Thus 4.0 Sv = 4.0 Gy .
41.
The biological damage is measured by the effective dose, Eq. 3110a, using Table 311.
(72 rads fast neutrons) 10 = ( x rads slow neutrons) 5
x=
42.
72 rads 10
= 144 rads slow neutrons
5
A gray is 1 joule per kilogram, according to Eq. 319.

(2.5 J/kg) 65 kg = 162.5 J 160 J
43.
(a)
Since the RBE is 1, the effective dose (in rem) is the same as the absorbed dose (in rad). Thus
the absorbed dose is 1.0 rad or 0.010 Gy.
(b)
A Gy is 1 J/ kg.
1 J/kg
1 eV
(0.01 Gy)
(0.20 kg)
19
1
Gy
1.60 10
44.
1p
10

= 1.0 10 p
6
J 1.2 10 eV
The counting rate will be 85% of 35% of the activity.

3.7 1010 decays/s 1
(0.035 106 Ci)

(0.35)(0.85) = 385.3 counts/s 390 counts/s
1 Ci
1 decay
45.
The two definitions of roentgen are 1.6 1012 ion pairs/g produced by the radiation and the newer
definition of 0.878 102 J/kg deposited by the radiation. Start with the current definition and relate
them by the value of 35 eV per ion pair.
1 R = (0.878 102 J/kg)(1 kg/1000 g)(1 eV/1.60 1019 J)(1 ion pair/35 eV)
= 1.567 1012 ion pairs/g
The two values of ion pairs per gram are within about 2% of each other.
46.
We approximate the decay rate as constant and find the time to administer 32 Gy. If that calculated
time is significantly shorter than the half-life of the isotope, then the approximation is reasonable. If
1.0 mCi delivers about 10 mGy/min, then 1.6 mCi would deliver 16 mGy/min.
dose = rate time time =
1 day
dose
32 Gy
=
= 1.39 days 1.4 days

rate 16 103 Gy/min 1440 min
This is only about 10% of a half-life, so our approximation is reasonable.
47.
31-15
Since the half-life is long (5730 yr), we can consider the activity as constant over a short period of
time. Use the definition of the curie from Section 315.
3.70 1010 decays/s
N 0.693
4
(2.50 106 Ci)
=
N
= 9.25 10 decays/s =
t
1
Ci
T1
2
T
1
N
5730 yr
2
= (9.25 104 decays/s)
(3.156 107 s/yr) = 2.414 1016 nuclei
N=
t 0.693
0.693
0.0140 kg
10
kg = 0.561 g
2.414 1016 nuclei
= 5.61 10
23
6.02 10 nuclei
48.
Each decay releases one gamma ray of energy 122 keV. Half of that energy is deposited in the body. The
activity tells at what rate the gamma rays are released into the body. We assume that the activity is constant.
1
/s
16
(1.55 106 Ci) 3.70 1010
J/keV)
(86, 400 s/day)(0.50)(122 keV/ )(1.60 10

Ci
65 kg
= 7.44 107
49.
J/kg
Gy
7.4 107
day
day
Use the dose, the mass of the beef, and the energy per electron to find the number of electrons.
1 MeV
1 J/kg
(4.5 103 Gy)
(5 kg)
13
1 Gy
1.60 10
50.
(a)
According to Appendix B,
131
53 I
(b)
131
54 Xe +
decays by beta decay.
+v
The number of nuclei present is given by Eq. 304, with N = 0.05 N 0 .

N = N 0 e t
(c)
131
53 I
1 e
16
16
= 8.78 10 e 9 10 e

1.6
MeV
J
t=
ln N /N 0
T1/2 ln N /N 0
(8.0 d) ln 0.05
=
= 34.58 d 35 d
0.693
0.693
The activity is given by N /t = N . This can be used to find the number of nuclei, and then
the mass can be found.
N /t = N
(T1/2 )(N /t ) (8.0 d)(86, 400 s/d)(1 103 Ci)(3.70 1010 decays/s)
=
0.693
0.693
0.131 kg
= 3.69 1013 nuclei; m = 3.69 1013 nuclei
= 8 1012 kg
6.02 1023 nuclei
N=
51.
N /t
The activity is converted to decays per day, then to energy per year, and finally to a dose per year. The
potassium decays by gammas and betas, according to Appendix F. Gammas and betas have an RBE
of 1, so the number of Sv is the same as the number of Gy, and the number of rem is the same as the
number of rad.
31-16
Chapter 31
3600 s
12 Ci
10 decays/s
6 decays
(12 h)
= 1.598 10
2000 10
3.70 10
0.5
L
1 Ci
day
day
13
days
MeV 1.60 10
J
6 decays
5 J
= 1.40 10
1.598 10
365
(0.10) 1.5

day
yr
MeV
yr
decay
(a)
For the adult, use a mass of 60 kg.
J 1 1 Gy 1 Sv
Effective dose = 1.40 105
yr
60 kg 1 J/kg 1 Gy
105 mrem
2
= 2.33 107 Sv/yr
= 2.33 10 mrem/yr
Sv
2 107 Sv/yr or 2 102 mrem/yr

mrem
year
2 104 times the allowed dose
mrem
100
year
2.33 102
Fraction of allowed dose =
(b)
For the baby, the only difference is that the mass is 10 times smaller, so the effective dose is
10 times bigger. The results are as follows:
2 106 Sv/yr , 0.2 mrem/yr , and 2 103 times the allowed dose
52.
(a)
The reaction has Z = 86 and A = 222 for the parent nucleus. The alpha has Z = 2 and A = 4, so the
daughter nucleus must have Z = 84 and A = 218. That makes the daughter nucleus
218
84 Po .
(b)
From Fig. 3011, polonium-218 is radioactive. It decays via both alpha and beta decay. The
half-life for the alpha decay is 3.1 minutes.
(c)
The daughter nucleus is not a noble gas, so it is chemically reacting. It is in the same group as
oxygen, so it might react with many other elements chemically.
(d)
The activity is given by Eq. 303b, R = N =
ln 2
N.
T1/2
N 0.693
0.693
6.02 1023 nuclei
=
N=
(1.4 109 g)
t
T1
(3.8235 d)(86, 400 s/d)
222 g
2
= 7.964 106 decays/s 8.0 106 Bq
1 Ci
10
3.70 10
Bq
= 2.2 104 Ci
To find the activity after 1 month, use Eq. 305.

N N
=
e
t t 0
0.693
t
T1/ 2
3.5 104 Bq
= (7.964 10 decays/s)e
1 Ci
3.70 1010 Bq
0.693
(30 d)
(3.8235 d)
= 3.465 104 decays/s
= 9.4 107 Ci
53.
31-17
The frequency is given in Section 319 as 42.58 MHz. Use that to find the wavelength.
c= f
c 2.998 108 m/s

=
= 7.041 m
f
42.58 106 Hz
This lies in the radio wave portion of the spectrum.

54.
(a)
The mass of fuel can be found by converting the power to energy to number of nuclei to mass.
3.156 107
(2100 106 J/s)(1 yr)
1 yr
s 1 MeV

13
1.60 10
1 fission atom
0.235 kg

J 200 MeV 6.02 1023 atom
= 808.5 kg 810 kg
(b)
The product of the first five factors above gives the number of U atoms that fission.
3.156 107
6
Sr
nuclei
0
06(2100
10
J/s)(1
yr)
# 90
=
.
38
1 yr
= (1.24 1026 )
90
38Sr
s 1 MeV

13
1.60 10
1 fission atom

J 200 MeV
nuclei
The activity is given by the absolute value of Eq. 303b.

N
0.693
0.693
decays
= N =
(1.24 1026 ) = 9.389 1016
N=
7
t
s
T1/2
(29 yr)(3.156 10 s/yr)
1 Ci
= (9.389 1016 decays/s)
= 2.5 106 Ci
3.70 1010 decays/s
55.
(a)
The reaction is 94 Be + 42 He n + ?. There are 6 protons and 13 nucleons in the reactants, so

there must be 6 protons and 13 nucleons in the products. The neutron is 1 nucleon, so the other
product must have 6 protons and 12 nucleons. Thus, it is
(b)
12
6C .
Q = m9 Be c 2 + m 4 He c 2 mn c 2 m12 C c 2
4
MeV/c 2
= [9.012183 u + 4.002603 u 1.008665 u 12.000000 u ] 931.5
56.
If KE = kT , then to get from kelvins to keV, use the Boltzmann constant. It must be put in the proper
units.
k = 1.381 1023
57.
2
c = 5.702 MeV
J
1 eV
1 keV
= 8.620 108 keV/K

K 1.602 1019 J 1000 eV
From Eq. 139, the average speed of a gas molecule (root-mean-square speed) is inversely
proportional to the square root of the mass of the molecule, if the temperature is constant. We assume
that the two gases are in the same environment and therefore at the same temperature. We use UF6
molecules for the calculations.
235 UF
92
238 UF
92
m 238 UF
92
m 235 UF
92
238.05 + 6(19.00)
= 1.0043 :1
235.04 + 6(19.00)
31-18
58.
Chapter 31
(a)
We assume that the energy produced by the fission was 200 MeV per fission, as in Problems 18,
19, and 20.
5 1012 J 1 MeV
(20 kilotons TNT)

13
1 kiloton 1.60 10
1 fission atom
0.235 kg

23
J 200 MeV 6.02 10 atoms
= 1.220 kg 1 kg
(b)
Use E = mc 2 .
E = mc 2
59.
5 1012 J
(20 kilotons TNT)
1 kiloton
E
= 1.11 103 kg 1 g
m= 2 =
c
(3.0 108 m/s) 2
The effective dose (in rem) is equal to the actual dose (in rad) times the RBE factor.
dose(rem) = (32 mrad/yr X-ray, -ray)(1) + (3.4 mrad/yr)(10) = 66 mrem/yr
60.
Because the RBE factor for gamma rays is 1, the dose in rem is equal in number to the dose in rad.
Since the intensity falls off as r 2 (the square of the distance), the exposure rate times r 2 will be
constant.
5.0 rem 1 rad 1 yr 1 week
3 rad
Allowed dose =
= 2.747 10
yr 1 rem 52 weeks 35 h
h
3 rad 2
2 rad
2
2.747 10
r = 4.8 10
(1 m)
h
h
2 rad
2
4.8 10
(1 m)
h
r=
= 4.180 m 4.2 m
3 rad
2.747 10
61.
(a)
The reaction is of the form ? 42 He + 222

86 Rn. There are 88 protons and 226 nucleons as
products, so there must be 88 protons and 226 nucleons as reactants. The parent nucleus is
226
88 Ra.
226
88 Ra
(b)
4
222
2 He + 86 Rn
If we ignore the KE of the daughter nucleus, then the KE of the alpha particle is the Q-value of the
reaction.
KE
= m 226 Ra c 2 m 4 He c 2 m 222 Rn c 2
88
86
MeV/c 2 2
= [ 226.025410 u 4.002603 u 222.017578 u ] 931.5
c = 4.871 MeV
(c)
31-19
From momentum conservation, the momentum of the alpha particle will be equal in magnitude
to the momentum of the daughter particle. At the energy above, the alpha particle is not
p2
relativistic, so KE =
pa = 2ma KE a .
2m
931.5 MeV/c 2
p = 2ma KE a = 2(4.002603 u)
1u
(4.871 MeV) = 190.6 MeV/c
The momentum of the daughter nucleus is the same as that of the alpha, 190.6 MeV/c .
(d)
Since p = pdaughter ,
KE daughter
KE daughter
2
pdaughter
2mdaughter
p2
2mdaughter
p2
2mdaughter
(190.6 MeV/c) 2
931.5 MeV/c 2
2(222.0 u)
1u
= 8.78 102 MeV
Thus we see that our original assumption of ignoring the kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus
is valid. The kinetic energy of the daughter is less than 2% of the Q-value.
62.
This heat of combustion is 26.2 MeV/4 hydrogen atoms.

26.2 MeV 1.60 1013
4 H atoms 1 MeV
J 1 H atom
1u
14

= 6.26 10 J/kg

27
1.007825
u
kg
1.66 10
This is about 2 107 times the heat of combustion of coal.

63.
(a)
The energy is radiated uniformly over a sphere with a radius equal to the orbit radius of the Earth.
(1300 W/m 2 )4 (1.496 1011 m) 2 = 3.656 1026 W 3.7 1026 W
(b)
After subtracting the energy of the neutrinos, the reaction of Eq. 317 releases 26.2 MeV for
every 4 protons consumed.
26
3.656 10
J 4 protons 1 MeV
s 26.2 MeV 1.6 1013
38
= 3.489 10 protons/s
J
3.5 1038 protons/s
(c)
Convert the Suns mass to a number of protons and then use the above result to estimate the
Suns lifetime.
1 proton
1s
1 yr
2.0 1030 kg
1.673 1027 kg 3.489 1038 protons

3.156 107
64.
11
1.1 10 yr
s
For the net proton cycle, Eq. 317, there are two neutrinos produced for every four protons consumed.
Thus the net number of neutrinos generated per second from the Sun is just half the value of protons
consumed per second. That proton consumption rate is calculated in Problem 63b.
(3.423 1038 protons/s)(2v /4p) = 1.712 1038 v /s
31-20
Chapter 31
Assume that the neutrino distribution is spherically symmetric, centered at the Sun. The fraction that
would pass through the area of the ceiling can be found by a ratio of areas, assuming that the ceiling is
perpendicular to the neutrino flux. But since the ceiling is not perpendicular, a cosine factor is included
to account for the angle difference, as discussed in Eq. 211. Finally, we adjust for the one-hour
duration, assuming that the relative angle is constant over that hour.
(1.712 1038 v /s)
65.
180 m 2
4 (1.496 1011 m) 2
(cos 44)(3600 s) = 2.8 1020 v
Use the common value of 200 MeV of energy released per fission, as used in Problems 18, 19, and 20.
Multiply that by the number of fissions, which is 5.0% of the number of U-238 atoms.
235
1.602 1013 J
U nuclei
200 MeV
0.05 92
2.0 kg 238
U)
(
92
235
238
1 MeV
1 nucleus of 92 U
92 U nuclei
Total energy =
23
238
6.022 10 nuclei of 92 U nuclei
238

0.238
kg
U
92

= 8.107 1012 J 8 1012 J
66.
(a)
The energy released is given by the Q-value.
MeV/c 2 2
Q = 2m12 C c 2 m 24 Mg c 2 = [ 2(12.000000 u) 23.985042 u ] 931.5
c = 13.93 MeV
6
12
u
(b)
The total KE of the two nuclei must equal their PE when separated by 6.0 fm.
2KE =
Q1Q2
4 0 r
(6)(1.60 1019 C)
Q1Q2 1
= 6.912 1013 J
9
2 2
1
KE =
= 2 (9.0 10 N m /C )
2 4
r
6.0 1015 m
0
1
= 6.912 1013 J(1 eV/1.60 1019 J)(1 MeV/106 eV) = 4.23 MeV 4.3 MeV
(c)
The kinetic energy and temperature are related by Eq.138.

KE
67.
(a)
= 32 kT
T=
2 KE
3 k
2
3
6.912 1013 J
1.38 10
23
J/K
= 3.3 1010 K
A Curie is 3.7 1010 decays/s.

(0.10 106 Ci)(3.7 1010 decays/s) = 3700 decays/s
(b)
The beta particles have an RBE factor of 1. We calculate the dose in Gy and then convert to Sv.
The half-life is over a billion years, so we assume that the activity is constant.
31-21
1
(3700 decays/s)(1.4 MeV/decay)(1.60 1013 J/MeV)(3.156 107 s/yr)
65 kg
= 4.024 104 J/kg/yr = 4.024 104 Gy/yr = 4.0 104 Sv/yr
This is about
68.
70.
3.6 103 Sv/yr
= 0.11 or 11% of the background rate.
The surface area of a sphere is 4 r 2 .

Activity
69.
4.024 104 Sv/yr
2.0 107 Ci
2
4 rEarth
(2.0 107 Ci)(3.7 1010 decays/s)

6
4 (6.38 10 m)
= 1.4 103
decays/s
m2
MeV/c 2 2
Q = 3m 4 He c 2 m12 C c 2 = [3(4.002603 u) 12.000000 u ] 931.5
c = 7.274 MeV
2
6
u
Since the half-life is 30 years, we assume that the activity does not change during the 1.4 hours of
exposure. We calculate the total energy absorbed and then calculate the effective dose. The two
energies can be added directly since the RBE factor for both gammas and betas is about 1.
6
10 decays
(1.2 10 Ci) 3.7 10
(1.4 h) 3600
s
1 h
= 3.043 105 J
Energy =
eV
J
19
850 103
1.60 10
decay
eV
dose =
71.
3.043 105 J 100 rad
= 4.909 105 rad 4.9 105 rem

62 kg
1 J/kg
The actual power created by the reaction of Eq. 318a must be 1000 MW/0.33 = 3030 MW. We
convert that to grams of deuterium using Eq. 318a.
Mass d = 3.03 109
J 2 d nuclei 1 MeV
s 4.03 MeV 1.60 1013
2 103 kg d 3.156 107
1 yr
J 6.02 1023 nuclei
= 985.4 kg d 990 kg d
72.
In the first scenario, slow neutrons have an RBE of 5, from Table 311. The maximum dose for a
radiation worker is given in the text as 50 mSv/yr, so this worker has been exposed to 50 mSv. Use
Eq. 3110b to convert the Sv to Gy and then convert that to J by the definition of Gy.
1 Gy 1 J/kg
Energy = Gy mass = (50 103 Sv)
(65 kg) = 0.65 J

5 Sv 1 Gy
In the second scenario, the RBE changes to a value of 2 for the protons.
1 Gy 1 J/kg
Energy = Gy mass = (50 103 Sv)
(65 kg) = 1.6 J

2 Sv 1 Gy
31-22
73.
Chapter 31
(a)
There are 92 protons in the reactants, so X must have 92 38 = 54 protons. There are 236 total
nucleons in the reactants, so X must have 236 92 3 = 141 total nucleons. Thus, X is
141
54 Xe .
(b)
If the reaction is barely critical, then every nucleus that fissions leads to another nucleus that
fissions. Thus one of the produced neutrons causes another fission. The other two either escape
the reactor vessel or are absorbed by some nucleus without causing a fission.
(c)
The masses needed are

Q-value.
141
54 Xe: 140.92665 u
and
92
38 Sr: 91.911038
u. Use those to calculate the
Q = (m 235 U + m 1 n m92 Sr m141 Xe 3m 1 n )c 2

92
38
54
= [ 235.043930 u + 1.008665 u 91.911038 u 140.92665 u 3(1.008665 u) ] c 2
MeV/c 2
= (0.188912 u) 931.5
= 176.0 MeV
74.
The half-life of the strontium isotope is 28.90 years. Use that with Eq. 305 to find the time for the
activity to be reduced to 15% of its initial value.
0.693
0.693
N N T1/ 2 t
N
N T1/ 2 t
=
0.15
0.15 = e
e
=
e
t t 0
t 0 t 0
T ln(0.15)
0.693
(28.90 yr)ln(0.15)
=
79 yr
ln(0.15) =
t t = 1/2
0.693
0.693
T1/2
75.
0.693
t
T1/ 2
Source B is more dangerous than source A because of its higher energy. Since the sources have the
same activity, they both emit the same number of gammas. Source B can deposit twice as much energy
per gamma and therefore causes more biological damage.
Source C is more dangerous than source B because the alphas have an RBE factor up to 20 times
larger than the gammas. Thus a number of alphas may have an effective dose up to 20 times higher
than the effective dose of the same number of like-energy gammas.
So from most dangerous to least dangerous, the ranking of the sources is C > B > A.
We might say that source B is twice as dangerous as source A, and source C is 20 times more
dangerous than source B.
76.
The whole-body dose can be converted into a number of decays, which would be the maximum
number of nuclei that could be in the Tc sample. The RBE factor of gammas is 1.
1 kg
1 eV
50 mrem = 50 mrad (50 103 rad)
(55 kg)
19
100 rad
1.60 10
17
= 1.719 10 eV
J
1 effective 2 decays 1 nucleus

12
(1.719 1017 eV)
= 2.455 10 nuclei
140 103 eV 1 effective
1
decay
This then is the total number of decays that will occur. The activity for this number of nuclei can be
calculated from Eq. 303b.
Activity =
N
0.693 N 0.693(2.455 1012 decays)
1 Ci
= N =
=
10
t
T1/2
(6 h)(3600 s/h)
3.70 10 decays/s
= 2.129 103 Ci 2 mCi

31-23
Solutions to Search and Learn Problems

1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3.
Three problems that must be overcome to make a functioning fission nuclear reactor:
(i) the neutrons must be moderated (slowed) so they will react with the fissionable nuclei;
(ii) the neutrons must be prevented from being absorbed by the wrong nuclei;
(iii) the neutrons must be prevented from escaping the reaction vessel.
Five environmental problems or dangers resulting from a nuclear fission reactor:
(i) thermal pollutionthe warming of the environment around the nuclear reactor;
(ii) the need for safe storage of fuel before using it in the reactor;
(iii) the safe disposal of radioactive waste;
(iv) radiation damage to the power plant itself;
(v) accidental release of radiation into the environment.
Breeder reactors make fissionable material that can be used in fission bombs.
For small nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon increases as the number of nucleons increases.
When two small nuclei are fused together, the total energy of the resulting nucleus is smaller
than the energy of the two initial nuclei, with the excess energy released in the fusion process.
The initial protonproton reaction has a much smaller probability of occurring than the other
reactions. Since the other reactions can take place relatively quickly compared with the first
reaction, it determines the time scale for the full fusion process.
Iron (Fe).
The force of gravity between all of the atoms in the Sun (or star) holds it together.
(i) A tokamak uses magnetic fields to confine the fusion material.
(ii) Lasers are used to heat the fusion material so quickly that the nuclei cannot move away
before they fuse (inertial confinement).
The oceans cover about 70% of the Earth, to an average depth of approximately 4 km. The density of
the water is approximately 1000 kg/m3 . The mass of water is found by multiplying the volume of
water by its density.
Mass of water = 0.7(surface area)(depth)(density)
= (0.7)4 (6.38 106 m) 2 (4000 m)(1000 kg/m3 ) = 1.43 1021 kg water

Dividing the mass by the molar mass of water and multiplying by Avogadros number gives the
number of water molecules. There are two hydrogen atoms per water molecule. Multiplying the
number of hydrogen atoms by the percentage of deuterium gives the number of deuterium atoms.
If the reactions of Eqs. 318a and 318b are carried out at the same rate, then 4 deuterons would
produce 7.30 MeV of energy. Use that relationship to convert the number of deuterons in the oceans to
energy.
(1.10 1043 d)
7.30 MeV 1.60 1013 J
= 3.21 1030 J 3 1030 J

4d
1 MeV
Based on Chapter 26, Problem 23, this is about 30 billion times the annual energy consumption of the
United States.
31-24
4.
Chapter 31
(a)
No carbon is consumed in this cycle because one
12
6C
nucleus is required in the first step of the
cycle, and one 126 C nucleus is produced in the last step of the cycle. The net effect of the cycle
can be found by adding all the reactants and all the products together and canceling those that
appear on both sides of the reaction.
12
1
13
6 C + 1H
7N +
+
13
13
7N
6C + e + v
13
1
14
6 C + 1H
7N +
14
1
15
7 N + 1H
8O +
+
15
15
8O
7N+e +v
15
1
12
4
7 N + 1H
6 C + 2 He
12
1
13
13
1
14
1
15
15
1
6 C + 1H + 7 N + 6 C + 1H + 7 N + 1H + 8 O + 7 N + 1H
137 N + + 136 C + e + + v + 147 N + + 158 O + + 157 N + e +
4 11 H 42 He + 2 e+ + 2v + 3
+ v + 126 C + 42 He
Eq. 317 shows the protonproton chain, which is only different from the carbon cycle by the
emission of one additional gamma ray in the carbon cycle.
(b)
To use the values from Appendix B, we must be sure that the number of electrons is balanced as
well as the number of protons and neutrons. The above net equation does not consider the
electrons that neutral nuclei would have, because it does not conserve charge. What the above
reaction really represents (ignoring the gammas and neutrinos) is the following:
4 11 H
4
+
2 He + 2 e
4 11p 2 11p + 2 10 n + 2e+
To use the values from Appendix B, we must add 4 electrons to each side of the reaction.
(411 p + 4e ) (211 p + 2e + 210 n) + 2e+ + 2e
411 H
4
+
2 He + 2e
+ 2e
The energy produced in the reaction is the Q-value.

Q = 4m1 H c 2 m 4 He c 2 4me
1
MeV/c 2 2
= [ 4(1.007825 u) 4.002603 u 4(0.000549 u) ] 931.5
c = 24.69 MeV
As mentioned in the text, each positronelectron annihilation produces another 1.02 MeV, so the
total energy released is 24.69 MeV + 2(1.02 MeV) = 26.73 MeV .
(c)
In some reactions extra electrons must be added in order to use the values from Appendix B.
The first equation in the carbon cycle is electron-balanced, so Appendix B can be used directly.
Q = m12 C c 2 + m1 H c 2 m13 N c 2
6
MeV/c 2
= [12.000000 u + 1.007825 u 13.005739 u ] 931.5
2
c = 1.943 MeV
The second equation needs to have another electron, so that
13
7N
13
6C + e
31-25
+ e + + v.
Q = m13 N c 2 m13 C c 2 2me c 2

7
MeV/c 2 2
= [13.005739 u 13.003355 u 2(0.000549 u) ] 931.5
c = 1.198 MeV
We must include an electronpositron annihilation in this reaction.

1.198 MeV + 1.02 MeV = 2.218 MeV
The third equation of the carbon cycle is electron-balanced.

Q = m13 C c 2 + m1 H c 2 m14 N c 2
6
MeV/c 2 2
= [13.003355 u + 1.007825 u 14.003074 u ] 931.5
c = 7.551 MeV
The fourth equation of the carbon cycle is also electron-balanced.

Q = m14 N c 2 + m1 H c 2 m15 O c 2
7
MeV/c 2
= [14.003074 u + 1.007825 u 15.003066 u ] 931.5
The fifth equation needs to have another electron, so
15
8O
15
7N +e
2
c = 7.296 MeV
+ e + + v.
Q = m15 O c 2 m15 N c 2 2me c 2

8
MeV/c 2
= [15.003066 u 15.000109 u 2(0.000549 u) ] 931.5
2
c = 1.732 MeV
We must include an electronpositron annihilation in this reaction.

1.732 MeV + 1.02 MeV = 2.752 MeV
The sixth equation is electron-balanced.
Q = m15 N c 2 + m1 H c 2 m12 C c 2 m 4 He c 2
7
MeV/c 2 2
= [15.000109 u + 1.007825 u 12.000000 u 4.002603 u ] 931.5
c
= 4.966 MeV
The total energy released is found by summing the energy released in each process.
1.943 MeV + 2.218 MeV + 7.551 MeV + 7.296 MeV + 2.752 MeV + 4.966 MeV
= 26.73 MeV
(d)
This reaction requires a higher temperature than the protonproton reaction because the reactants
need to have more initial kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb repulsion between the nuclei.
In particular, the carbon and nitrogen nuclei have higher Z values, leading to a greater Coulomb
repulsion that must be overcome by a higher temperature (so that the nuclei are moving faster).
31-26
5.
Chapter 31
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
The advantages of nuclear fusion include that its by-products are not radioactive, but chemically
inert helium. Also, the source for fusion is hydrogen, which is a plentiful resource.
The major technological problem with fusion is developing a way to confine the nuclei at a
sufficiently high temperature and density for fusion to occur.
(i) Magnetic confinement (such as in a tokamak): A region with circular magnetic field lines is
created such that the charged particles are confined to orbit the field lines as they are heated
to very high temperatures.
(ii) Inertial confinement: A pellet containing a hydrogen-rich compound is bombarded with
lasers that heat the pellet to very high temperatures. The heating occurs so rapidly that the
inertia of the hydrogen holds it in place long enough for fusion to occur.
The preferred fuel for a fusion reactor is deuterium, a hydrogen isotope with one proton and one
neutron.
(e)
2
2
1H + 1H
(f)
When using the data in Appendix B, it is important that the electrons of the atoms be correctly
accounted for. The two hydrogen atoms each have one electron. The resulting helium atom has
two electrons. Since there are two electrons before the reaction and two after, the equation is
balanced, and the data from Appendix B can be used.
4
2 He
Q = 2m
( H) m (
2
1
4
2 He
) c
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [ 2(2.014102 u) 4.002603 u ]
1u
= 23.85 MeV
This agrees with the estimate made in Example 317.

6.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Alpha and beta particles are charged particles and can ionize materials through electrical forces.
Gamma rays and energetic neutrons are not charged, but they can ionize materials by Compton
scattering off of the bound electrons in the materials.
Metals become brittle, and their strength is weakened by intense radiation, mostly due to atom
dislocations in the metals crystal structure.
Living cells can be damaged in two ways. First, the radiation can produce ions that interfere with
the normal function of the cell. When a few cells are damaged, they die and the body replaces
them. When many cells are damaged simultaneously, the body cannot replace them fast enough
and the person experiences radiation poisoning. In the second way, the radiation can ionize, and
therefore alter, the DNA within the cell. This can mutate genes within the cell and affect how the
cell functions. The result can be tumorous growths and/or cancer.

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NUCLEAR ENERGY; EFFECTS AND USES OF RADIATION

Conserve nucleon number: 1 + 137 = A + 0. Thus, A = 138. Conserve charge: 0 + 56 = Z + 0.

Conserve nucleon number: 1 + 137 = 137 + A. Thus, A = 1. Conserve charge: 0 + 56 = 55 + Z .

Conserve nucleon number: 2 + 2 = 4 + A. Thus, A = 0. Conserve charge: 1 + 1 = 2 + Z . Thus,

Conserve nucleon number: 4 + 197 = A + 2. Thus, A = 199. Conserve charge: 2 + 79 = Z + 1.

Thus, the full equation is

in the sample compared with

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

Responses to MisConceptual Questions

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

The fuel for fusion is hydrogen, which is a component of water.

by , according to this reaction:

Since the nucleus now has an extra neutron, it will decay

+ ve . Thus the product is

If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed.

Thus, the reaction is possible.

neutrons. Thus, the missing nucleus has 15 protons and 16 neutrons, so it is

= 1.6767873 104 MeV

If the Q-value is positive, then no threshold energy is needed.

18.00 MeV 9.468 MeV = 8.53 MeV of energy is released

Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction can occur.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

= KE reactants + Q = 3.1 MeV + 17.346 MeV = 20.4 MeV

= KE reactants + Q = 9.85 MeV 1.192 MeV = 8.66 MeV

The Q-value tells us whether the reaction requires or releases energy.

= KE reactants + Q = 41.4 MeV + 5.326 MeV = 46.7 MeV

electrons, we use the mass of 11 H for the proton

Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction is exothermic.

Since the Q-value is positive, the reaction is exothermic.

The reaction releases 17.35 MeV .

The reaction releases 5.702 MeV .

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

Compare the energy per fission with the mass energy.

(235 u)(931.5 MeV/c )c

Convert the 960 watts over a years time to a mass of uranium.

1 fission 0.235 kg 235

Q = m235 U c2 + mn c2 m133 Sb c2 m98 Nb c2 5mn c2

We find the number of collisions from the relationship En = E0

( 12 ) , where n is the number of

The Q-value gives the energy released in the reaction.

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

Calculate the Q-value for the reaction 12H + 21H

= 6.03 1023 MeV/g

= 4.89 1023 MeV/g

= 2.11 1024 MeV/g

Uranium fission (200 MeV per nucleus):

= 5.13 1023 MeV/g

Calculate the Q-value for the reaction

J 3.23 MeV 6.02 1023 d

= 3.923 104 kg = 0.39 g

The Q-value gives the energy released.

= 5586 kg/h 5600 kg/h

Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

+ KE n = KE total = 17.57 MeV

17.57 MeV = 3.536 MeV 3.5 MeV

= 17.57 MeV 3.54 MeV = 14.03 MeV 14 MeV

50 more than gasoline

For the dt reaction, Example 319 shows that

= 0.45 MeV. Find the ratio of the two

The kinetic energy is proportional to the temperature by

= 32 kT . Since the kinetic energy has

to increase by a factor of 5, so does the temperature. Thus we estimate T 1.5 109 K .

A gray is 1 joule per kilogram, according to Eq. 319.

= 2.129 103 Ci 2 mCi