Ch30 Giancoli7e Manual

NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIOACTIVITY
30
Responses to Questions
1.
Different isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons and electrons. Because they
have the same number of electrons, they have almost identical chemical properties. Each isotope has
a different number of neutrons from other isotopes of the same element. Accordingly, they have
different atomic masses and mass numbers. Since the number of neutrons is different, they may
have different nuclear properties, such as whether they are radioactive or not.
2.
Identify the element based on the atomic number.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Uranium
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Strontium
Fermium
(Z = 92)
(Z = 7)
(Z = 1)
(Z = 38)
(Z = 100)
3.
The number of protons is the same as the atomic number, and the number of neutrons is the mass
number minus the number of protons.
(a) Uranium:
92 protons, 140 neutrons
(b) Nitrogen:
7 protons, 11 neutrons
(c) Hydrogen: 1 proton, 0 neutrons
(d) Strontium: 38 protons, 48 neutrons
(e) Fermium: 100 protons, 152 neutrons
4.
With 87 nucleons and 50 neutrons, there must be 37 protons. This is the atomic number, so the element
is rubidium. The nuclear symbol is
5.
87
37 Rb.
The atomic mass of an element as shown in the Periodic Table is the average atomic mass of all
35
37
naturally occurring isotopes. For example, chlorine occurs as roughly 75% 17
Cl and 25% 17
Cl, so its
atomic mass is about 35.5 (= 0.75 35 + 0.25 37). Other smaller effects would include the fact that
the masses of the nucleons are not exactly 1 atomic mass unit and that some small fraction of the mass
energy of the total set of nucleons is in the form of binding energy.
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30-1
30-2
Chapter 30
6.
The alpha particle is a very stable nucleus. It has less energy when bound together than when split
apart into separate nucleons.
7.
The strong force and the electromagnetic (EM) force are two of the four fundamental forces in nature.
They are both involved in holding atoms together: the strong force binds quarks into nucleons and
binds nucleons together in the nucleus; the EM force is responsible for binding negatively charged
electrons to positively charged nuclei and for binding atoms into molecules. The strong force is the
strongest fundamental force; the EM force is about 100 times weaker at distances on the order of
1017 m. The strong force operates at short range and is negligible for distances greater than about
the size of the nucleus. The EM force is a long-range force that decreases as the inverse square of the
distance between the two interacting charged particles. The EM force operates only between charged
particles. The strong force is always attractive; the EM force can be attractive or repulsive. Both of
these forces have mediating field particles associated with themthe gluon for the strong force and
the photon for the EM force.
8.
Quoting from Section 303, radioactivity was found in every case to be unaffected by the strongest
physical and chemical treatments, including strong heating or cooling and the action of strong
chemical reagents. Chemical reactions are a result of electron interactions, not nuclear processes.
The absence of effects caused by chemical reactions is evidence that the radioactivity is not due to
electron interactions. Another piece of evidence is the fact that the particle emitted in many
radioactive decays is much heavier than an electron and has a different charge than the electron, so it
cant be an electron. Therefore, it must be from the nucleus. Finally, the energies of the electrons or
photons emitted from radioactivity are much higher than those corresponding to electron orbital
transitions. All of these observations support radioactivity being a nuclear process.
9.
The resulting nuclide for gamma decay is the same isotope in a lower energy state.
64
29 Cu*
64
29 Cu +
The resulting nuclide for decay is an isotope of zinc,

64
29 Cu
64
30 Zn + e
64
30 Zn.
+v
The resulting nuclide for + decay is an isotope of nickel,

64
29 Cu
64
+
28 Ni + e
64
28 Ni.
+v
10.
238
92 U
11.
Alpha () particles are helium nuclei. Each particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and
therefore has a charge of +2e and an atomic mass value of 4 u. They are the most massive of the three.
decays by alpha emission into
234
90Th,
which has 144 neutrons.
Beta () particles are electrons ( ) or positrons ( + ). Electrons have a charge of e and positrons
have a charge of +e. In terms of mass, beta particles are much lighter than protons or neutrons, by a
factor of about 2000, so are lighter than alpha particles by a factor of about 8000. Their emission is
always accompanied by either an antineutrino ( ) or a neutrino ( + ). Gamma () particle are
photons. They have no mass and no charge.
Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity
12.
(a)
45
20 Ca
45
21Sc + e
(b)
58
29 Cu
58
29 Cu +
(c)
46
24 Cr
46
+
23 V + e
(d)
234
94 Pu
230
92 U +
(e)
239
93 Np
239
94 Pu + e
+v
30-3
Scandium-45 is the missing nucleus.

Copper-58 is the missing nucleus.
+v
The positron and the neutrino are the missing particles.

Uranium-230 is the missing nucleus.
+ v The electron and the antineutrino are the missing particles.
13.
The two extra electrons held by the newly formed thorium will be very loosely held, as the number of
protons in the nucleus will have been reduced from 92 to 90, reducing the nuclear charge. It will be
easy for these extra two electrons to escape from the thorium atom through a variety of mechanisms.
They are in essence free electrons. They do not gain kinetic energy from the decay. They might get
captured by the alpha nucleus, for example.
14.
When a nucleus undergoes either or + decay, it becomes a different element, since it has
converted either a neutron to a proton or a proton to a neutron. Thus its atomic number (Z) has
changed. The energy levels of the electrons are dependent on Z, so all of those energy levels change to
become the energy levels of the new element. Photons (with energies on the order of tens of eV) are
likely to be emitted from the atom as electrons change energies to occupy the new levels.
15.
In alpha decay, assuming the energy of the parent nucleus is known, the unknowns after the decay are
the energies of the daughter nucleus and the alpha. These two values can be determined by energy and
momentum conservation. Since there are two unknowns and two conditions, the values are uniquely
determined. In beta decay, there are three unknown postdecay energies since there are three particles
present after the decay. The conditions of energy and momentum conservation are not sufficient to
exactly determine the energy of each particle, so a range of values is possible.
16.
In electron capture, the nucleus will effectively have a proton change to a neutron. This isotope will
then lie to the left and above the original isotope. Since the process would only occur if it made the
nucleus more stable, it must lie BELOW the line of stability in Fig. 302.
17.
Neither hydrogen nor deuterium can emit an particle. Hydrogen has only one nucleon (a proton) in
its nucleus, and deuterium has only two nucleons (one proton and one neutron) in its nucleus. Neither
one has the necessary four nucleons (two protons and two neutrons) to emit an particle.
18.
Many artificially produced radioactive isotopes are rare in nature because they have decayed away
over time. If the half-lives of these isotopes are relatively short in comparison with the age of Earth
(which is typical for these isotopes), then there wont be any significant amount of these isotopes left
to be found in nature. Also, many of these isotopes have a very high energy of formation, which is
generally not available under natural circumstances.
19.
After two months the sample will not have completely decayed. After one month, half of the sample
will remain, and after two months, one-fourth of the sample will remain. Each month, half of the
remaining atoms decay.
20.
For Z > 92, the short range of the attractive strong nuclear force means that no number of neutrons is
able to overcome the long-range electrostatic repulsion of the large concentration of protons.
30-4
21.
Chapter 30
There are a total of 4 protons and 3 neutrons in the reactant. The particle has 2 protons and 2
neutrons, so 2 protons and 1 neutron are in the other product particle. It must be 32 He.
6
1
3 Li + 1 p
4
2
+ 23 He
22.
The technique of 146 C would not be used to measure the age of stone walls and tablets. Carbon-14
dating is only useful for measuring the age of objects that were living at some earlier time.
23.
The decay series of Fig. 3011 begins with a nucleus that has many more neutrons than protons and
lies far above the line of stability in Fig. 302. The alpha decays remove both 2 protons and 2
neutrons, but smaller stable nuclei have a smaller percentage of neutrons. In + decay, a proton is
converted to a neutron, which would take the nuclei in this decay series even farther from the line of
stability. Thus, + decay is not energetically preferred.
24.
There are four alpha particles and four particles (electrons) emitted, no matter which decay path is
206
chosen. The nucleon number drops by 16 as 222
86 Rn decays into 82 Pb, indicating that four alpha
decays occurred. The proton number only drops by four, from Z = 86 to Z = 82, but four alpha decays
would result in a decrease of eight protons. Four decays will convert four neutrons into protons,
making the decrease in the number of protons only four, as required. (See Fig. 3011.)
25.
(i)
Since the momentum before the decay was 0, the total momentum after the decay will also be 0.
Since there are only two decay products, they must move in opposite directions with equal
magnitude of momentum. Thus, (c) is the correct choice: both the same.
(ii) Since the products have the same momentum, the one with the smallest mass will have the
greater velocity. Thus (b) is the correct choice: the alpha particle.
(iii) We assume that the products are moving slowly enough that classical mechanics can be used. In
that case, KE = p 2 /2m. Since the particles have the same momentum, the one with the smallest
mass will have the greater kinetic energy. Thus, (b) is the correct choice: the alpha particle.
Responses to MisConceptual Questions

1.
(a)
A common misconception is that the elements of the Periodic Table are distinguished by the
number of electrons in the atom. This misconception arises because the number of electrons in a
neutral atom is the same as the number of protons in its nucleus. Elements can be ionized by
adding or removing electrons, but this does not change what type of element it is. When an
element undergoes a nuclear reaction that changes the number of protons in the nucleus, the
element does transform into a different element.
2.
(b)
The role of energy in binding nuclei together is often misunderstood. As protons and neutrons
are added to the nucleus, they release some mass energy, which usually appears as radiation or
kinetic energy. This lack of energy is what binds the nucleus together. To break the nucleus
apart, the energy must be added back in. As a result, a nucleus will have less energy than the
protons and neutrons that made up the nucleus.
3.
(c)
30-5
Large nuclei are typically unstable, so increasing the number of nuclei does not necessarily make
the nucleus more stable. Nuclei such as
stable as
16
8 O.
14
8O
have more protons than neutrons, yet
14
8O
is not as
Therefore, having more protons than neutrons does not necessarily make a
nucleus more stable. Large unstable nuclei, such as
238
94 Pu,
have a much larger total binding
energy than small stable nuclei such as 42 He, so the total binding energy is not a measure of
stability. However, stable nuclei typically have large binding energies per nucleon, which means
that each nucleon is more tightly bound to the others.
4.
(e)
The Coulomb repulsive force does act inside the nucleus, pushing the protons apart. Another
larger attractive force is thus necessary to keep the nucleus together. The force of gravity is far
too small to hold the nucleus together. Neutrons are not negatively charged. It is the attractive
strong nuclear force that overcomes the Coulomb force to hold the nucleus together.
5.
(b)
The exponential nature of radioactive decay is a concept that can be misunderstood. It is

sometimes thought that the decay is linear, such that the time for a substance to decay
completely is twice the time for half of the substance to decay. However, radioactive decay is not
linear but exponential. That is, during each half-life, half of the remaining substance decays. If
half the original decays in the first half-life, then half remains. During the second half-life, half
of what is left decays, which would be one-quarter of the initial substance. In each subsequent
half-life, half of the remaining substance decays, so it takes many half-lives for a substance to
effectively decay away. The decay constant is inversely related to the half-life.
6.
(e)
The half-life is the time it takes for half of the substance to decay away. The half-life is a
constant determined by the composition of the substance and not by the quantity of the initial
substance. As the substance decays away, the number of nuclei is decreasing and the activity
(number of decays per second) is decreasing, but the half-life remains constant.
7.
(d)
A common misconception is that it would take twice the half-life, or 20 years, for the substance
to completely decay. This is incorrect because radioactive decay is an exponential process. That
is, during each half-life, 1/2 of the remaining substance decays. After the first 10 years, 1/2
remains. After the second 10-year period, 1/4 remains. After each succeeding half-life another
half of the remaining substance decays, leaving 1/8, then 1/16, then 1/32, and so forth. The
decays stop when none of the substance remains, and this time cannot be exactly determined.
8.
(e)
During each half-life, 1/2 of the substance decays, leaving 1/2 remaining. After the first day, 1/2
remains. After the second day, 1/2 of 1/2, or 1/4, remains. After the third day, 1/2 of 1/4, or 1/8,
remains. Since 1/8 remains, 7/8 of the substance has decayed.
9.
(c)
A common misconception is that after the second half-life none of the substance remains.
However, during each half-life, 1/2 of the remaining substance decays. After one half-life, 1/2
remains. After two half-lives, 1/4 remains. After three half-lives, 1/8 remains.
10.
(a)
The decay constant is proportional to the probability of a particle decaying and is inversely
proportional to the half-life. Therefore, the substance with the larger half-life (Tc) will have the
smaller decay constant and smaller probability of decaying. The activity is proportional to the
amount of the substance (number of atoms) and the decay constant, so the activity of Tc will be
smaller than the activity of Sr.
30-6
11.
Chapter 30
(d)
The element with the largest decay constant will have the shortest half-life. Converting each of
the choices to decays per second yields the following: (a) 100/s, (b) 1.6 108 /s, (c) 2.5 1010 /s,
(d) 8.6 1013 /s. Answer (d) has the largest decay rate, so it will have the smallest half-life.
12.
(d)
If U-238 only decayed by beta decay, the number of nucleons would not change. Pb-206 has 32
nucleons less than U-238, so all decays cannot be beta decays. In each alpha decay, the number
of nucleons decreases by four and the number of protons decreases by two. U-238 has 92 protons
and Pb-206 has 82 protons, so if only alpha decays occurred, then the number of nucleons would
need to decrease by 20. But Pb-206 has 32 fewer nucleons than U-238. Therefore, the sequence
is a combination of alpha and beta decays. Gamma decays are common, since some of the alpha
and beta decays leave the nuclei in excited states where energy needs to be released.
13.
(d)
A common misconception is that carbon dating is useful for very long time periods. C-14 has a
half-life about 6000 years. After about 10 half-lives only about 1/1000 of the substance remains.
It is difficult to obtain accurate measurements for longer time periods. For example, after
600,000 years, or about 100 half-lives, only one part in 1030 remains.
14.
(b)
The half-life of radon remains constant and is not affected by temperature. Radon that existed
several billion years ago will have completely decayed away. Small isotopes, such as carbon-14,
can be created from cosmic rays, but radon is a heavy element. Lightning is not energetic enough
to affect the nucleus of the atoms. Heavy elements such as plutonium and uranium can decay
into radon and thus are the source of present-day radon gas.
15.
(d)
The gravitational force between nucleons is much weaker (about 50 orders of magnitude weaker)
than the repulsive Coulomb force; therefore, gravity cannot hold the nucleus together. Neutrons
are electrically neutral and therefore cannot overcome the Coulomb force. Covalent bonds exist
between the electrons in molecules, not among the nucleons. The actual force that holds the
nucleus together is the strong nuclear force, but this was not one of the options.
16.
(a)
The nature of mass and energy in nuclear physics is often misunderstood. When the neutron and
proton are close together, they bind together by releasing mass energy that is equivalent to the
binding energy. This energy comes from a reduction in their mass. Therefore, when the neutron
and proton are far from each other, their net mass is greater than their net mass when they are
bound together.
Solutions to Problems
1.
Convert the units from MeV/c 2 to atomic mass units.
1u
m = (139 MeV/c 2 )
= 0.149 u
2
931.5 Me V/c
2.
The particle is a helium nucleus and has A = 4. Use Eq. 301.

r = (1.2 1015 m) A 3 = (1.2 1015 m)(4) 3 = 1.9 1015 m = 1.9 fm
1
3.
30-7
The radii of the two nuclei can be calculated with Eq. 301. Take the ratio of the two radii.
1/3
r238 (1.2 1015 m)(238)1/3 238

=
=
r232 (1.2 1015 m)(232)1/3 232
So the radius of
4.
238
92 U
= 1.00855
is 0.855% larger than the radius of
232
92 U.
Use Eq. 301 for both parts of this problem.

(a)
r = (1.2 1015 m) A1/3 = (1.2 1015 m)(112)1/3 = 5.8 1015 m = 5.8 fm
(b)
r = (1.2 1015 m) A1/3
5.
3
r
3.7 1015 m
A=
= 29.3 29
=
1.2 1015 m 1.2 1015 m
To find the mass of an particle, subtract the mass of the two electrons from the mass of a helium atom:
m = mHe 2me
931.5 MeV/c 2
= (4.002603 u)
1u
6.
2
2
2(0.511 MeV/c ) = 3727 MeV/c
Each particle would exert a force on the other through the Coulomb electrostatic force (given by
Eq. 161). The distance between the particles is twice the radius of one of the particles.
2
(8.988 109 N m 2 /C 2 ) (2)(1.60 1019 C)
= 63.41 N 63 N
=
F =k
2
2
(2r )
(2) 41/3 (1.2 1015 m)
Q Q
( )
The acceleration is found from Newtons second law. We use the mass of a bare alpha particle as
calculated in Problem 5.
F = ma a =
7.
F
=
m
63.41 N
= 9.5 1027 m/s 2
27
1.6605 10
kg
3727 MeV/c 2
931.5 MeV/c 2
First, we calculate the density of nuclear matter. The mass of a nucleus with mass number A is
approximately (A u) and its radius is r = (1.2 1015 m) A1/3 . Calculate the density.
m A(1.6605 1027 kg/u) A(1.6605 1027 kg/u)

=
=
= 2.294 1017 kg/m3
4 r3
4 (1.2 10 15 m)3 A
V
3
3
We see that this is independent of A. The value has 2 significant figures.

(a)
We set the density of the Earth equal to the density of nuclear matter.
Earth = nuclear =
matter
REarth
M Earth
4 R3
Earth
3
1/3
M
= 4 Earth
3 nuclear
matter
1/3
5.98 1024 kg
=
17
3
4
(2.294 10 kg/m )
3
= 183.9 m 180 m
30-8
Chapter 30
(b)
Set the density of Earth equal to the density of uranium, and solve for the radius of the uranium.
Then compare that with the actual radius of uranium, using Eq. 301, with A = 238.
M Earth
3
4R
Earth
3
mU
4r 3
U
3
1/3
mU
rU = REarth
M Earth
2.58 1010 m
(1.2 1015 )(238)1/3
8.
M Earth
REarth
mU
1/3
(238 u)(1.6605 1027 kg/u)

= (6.38 106 m)
(5.98 1024 kg)
= 2.58 1010 m
= 3.5 104
Use Eq. 301 to find the value for A. We use uranium-238 since it is the most common isotope.
runknown
(1.2 1015 m) A1/3
=
= 0.5
rU
(1.2 1015 m)(238)1/3
From Appendix B, a stable nucleus with A 30 is

9.
rU3
A = 238(0.5)3 = 29.75 30
31
15 P .
Use conservation of energy. Assume that the centers of the two particles are located a distance from
each other equal to the sum of their radii, and use that distance to calculate the initial electrical PE.
Then we also assume, since the nucleus is much heavier than the alpha, that the alpha has all of the
final KE when the particles are far apart from each other (so they have no PE).
KE i
KE
+ PE i = KE f + PE f
0+
= (8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )
q qFm
= KE + 0
4 0 (r + rFm )
1
(2)(100)(1.60 1019 C) 2
(41/3 + 2571/3 )(1.2 1015 m)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
= 3.017 107 eV
3.0 107 eV = 30 MeV
10.
(a)
The hydrogen atom is made of a proton and an electron. Use values from Appendix B.
mp
mH
(b)
1.007276 u
= 0.9994553 99.95%
1.007825 u
Compare the volume of the nucleus to the volume of the atom. The nuclear radius is given by
Eq. 301. For the atomic radius we use the Bohr radius, given in Eq. 2713.
3
3
(1.2 1015 m)
Vnucleus 34 rnucleus rnucleus
14
=
=
=
= 1.2 10
10
4 r3
Vatom
r
(0.53
10
m)
atom
atom
3
11.
Electron mass is negligible compared to nucleon mass, and one nucleon weighs about 1.0 atomic mass
unit. Therefore, in a 1.0-kg object, we find the following:
N=
(1.0 kg)(6.02 1026 u/kg)

6.0 1026 nucleons
1.0 u/nucleon
No, it does not matter what the element is, because the mass of one nucleon is essentially the same for
all elements.
12.
30-9
The initial kinetic energy of the alpha must be equal to the electrical potential energy when the alpha
just touches the uranium. The distance between the two particles is the sum of their radii.
KE i
KE
KE
= (8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )
+0 = 0+k
Q QU
(r + rU )
(2)(92)(1.60 1019 C) 2
1/3
(4
1/3
+ 232
)(1.2 10
15
m)(1.60 10
19
J/eV)
= 2.852 107 eV
29 MeV
13.
The text states that the average binding energy per nucleon between A 40 and A 80 is about
8.7 MeV. Multiply this by the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
(63)(8.7 MeV) = 548.1 MeV 550 MeV
14.
From Fig. 301, we see that the average binding energy per nucleon at A = 238 is 7.5 MeV.
Multiply this by the 238 nucleons.
(a)
(238)(7.5 MeV) = 1.8 103 MeV
From Fig. 301, we see that the average binding energy per nucleon at A = 84 is 8.7 MeV.
Multiply this by the 84 nucleons.
(b)
(84)(8.7 MeV) = 730 MeV

15.
15
7N
consists of seven protons and eight neutrons. We find the binding energy from the masses of the
components and the mass of the nucleus, from Appendix B.
( )
Binding energy = 7m 11 H + 8m
( 01n ) m ( 157 N ) c2
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [7(1.007825 u) + 8(1.008665 u) (15.000109 u)]c 2
= 115.49 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon = (115.49 MeV)/15 = 7.699 MeV
16.
Deuterium consists of one proton, one neutron, and one electron. Ordinary hydrogen consists of one
proton and one electron. We use the atomic masses from Appendix B, and the electron masses cancel.
( ) ( 01n ) m ( 21H ) c2
Binding energy = m 11 H + m
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(1.007825 u) + (1.008665 u) (2.014102 u)]c 2
= 2.224 MeV
30-10
17.
Chapter 30
We find the binding energy of the last neutron from the masses of the isotopes.
Binding energy = m
( 2211 Na ) + m ( 01n ) m ( 2311 Na ) c2
= [(21.994437 u) + (1.008665 u) (22.989769 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/c 2 )

= 12.42 MeV
18.
(a)
7
3 Li
consists of three protons and three neutrons. We find the binding energy from the masses,
using hydrogen atoms in place of protons so that we account for the mass of the electrons.
( )
( n ) m ( Li ) c
1
0
7
3
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [3(1.007825 u) + 4(1.008665 u) (7.016003 u)]c 2
= 39.25 MeV
Binding energy 39.25 MeV
=
= 5.607 MeV/nucleon
nucleon
7 nucleons
(b)
195
78 Pt
consists of 78 protons and 117 neutrons. We find the binding energy as in part (a).
( )
Binding energy = 78m 11 H + 117 m
( n) m(
1
0
195
78 Pt
) c
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [78(1.007825 u) + 117(1.008665 u) (194.964792 u)]c 2
= 1545.7 MeV 1546 MeV

=
= 7.927 MeV/nucleon
nucleon
195 nucleons
19.
23
11 Na
consists of 11 protons and 12 neutrons. We find the binding energy from the masses.
( )
( n) m(
1
0
23
11 Na
) c
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [11(1.007825 u) + 12(1.008665 u) (22.989769 u)]c 2
= 186.6 MeV
=
= 8.113 MeV/nucleon
nucleon
23
We do a similar calculation for
24
11 Na,
( )
consisting of 11 protons and 13 neutrons.
( n) m(
1
0
24
11 Na
) c
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [11(1.007825 u) + 13(1.008665 u) (23.990963 u)]c 2
= 193.5 MeV
=
= 8.063 MeV/nucleon
nucleon
24
By this measure, the nucleons in

23
11 Na
20.
to be more stable than
23
11 Na
are more tightly bound than those in
24
11 Na.
30-11
Thus we expect
24
11 Na.
We find the required energy by calculating the difference in the masses.

(a) Removal of a proton creates an isotope of carbon. To balance electrons, the proton is included as
a hydrogen atom:
15
7N
11H + 146 C.
Energy needed = m
( 146 C ) + m ( 11 H ) m ( 157 N ) c2
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(14.003242 u) + (1.007825 u) (15.000109 u)]
= 10.21 MeV
(b)
Removal of a neutron creates another isotope of nitrogen:

Energy needed = m
15
7N
( N ) + m ( n ) m ( N ) c
14
7
1
0
15
7
1
14
0 n + 7 N.
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(14.003074 u) + (1.008665 u) (15.000109 u)]
= 10.83 MeV
The nucleons are held by the attractive strong nuclear force. It takes less energy to remove the
proton because there is also the repulsive electric force from the other protons.
21.
(a)
We find the binding energy from the masses.

Binding energy = 2m
4
2 He
) m ( Be ) c
8
4
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [2(4.002603 u) (8.005305 u)]c 2
= 0.092 MeV
Because the binding energy is negative, the nucleus is unstable. It will be in a lower energy state
as two alphas instead of a beryllium.
(b)
We find the binding energy from the masses.

Binding energy = 3m
4
2 He
) m ( C) c
12
6
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [3(4.002603 u) (12.000000 u)]c 2
= +7.3 MeV
Because the binding energy is positive, the nucleus is stable.

22.
The wavelength is determined from the energy change between the states.
E = hf = h
hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

=
= 2.6 1012 m
E (0.48 MeV)(1.60 1013 J/MeV)
30-12
23.
Chapter 30
For the decay 116 C 105 B + 11 p, we find the difference of the initial and the final masses. We use
hydrogen so that the electrons are balanced.
m = m
( C) m ( B) m ( H )
11
6
10
5
1
1
= (11.011434 u) (10.012937 u) (1.007825 u) = 0.009328 u
Since the final masses are more than the original mass, energy would not be conserved.
24.
The decay is 13H
3
0
2 He + 1 e + v .
When we add one electron to both sides to use atomic masses, we
see that the mass of the emitted particle is included in the atomic mass of 23 He. The energy released
is the difference in the masses.
Energy released = m
( H) m (
3
1
3
2 He
) c
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(3.016049 u) (3.016029 u)]c 2
= 0.019 MeV
25.
The decay is 01 n 11 p + 01e + v . The electron mass is accounted for if we use the atomic mass of 11 H
as a product. If we ignore the recoil of the proton and the neutrino, and any possible mass of the
neutrino, then we get the maximum kinetic energy.
KE max
= m
931.5 MeV/c 2
m 11 H c 2 = [(1.008665 u) (1.007825 u)]c 2
( ) ( )
1
0n
= 0.782 MeV
26.
For each decay, we find the difference of the final masses and the initial mass. If the final mass is more
than the initial mass, then the decay is not possible.
(a)
m = m
232
92 U
) + m( n) m(
1
0
232
92 U
) = 232.037156 u + 1.008665 u 233.039636 u = 0.006185 u
Because an increase in mass is required, the decay is not possible.

(b)
m = m
( 137 N ) + m ( 01n ) m ( 137 N ) = 13.005739 u + 1.008665 u 14.003074 u = 0.011330 u

(c)
m = m
( K) + m( n) m(
39
19
1
0
40
19 K
) = 38.963706 u + 1.008665 u 39.963998 u = 0.008373 u

27.
24
11Na
(a)
From Appendix B,
(b)
The decay reaction is
is a emitter .
24
11 Na
24
12 Mg +
+ v . We add 11 electrons to both sides in order to
use atomic masses. Then the mass of the beta is accounted for in the mass of the magnesium.
The maximum kinetic energy of the corresponds to the neutrino having no kinetic energy
(a limiting case). We also ignore the recoil of the magnesium.
KE
= m
24
11 Na
) m(
24
12 Mg
) c
30-13
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(23.990963 u) (23.985042 u)]c 2
= 5.515 MeV
28.
(a)
We find the final nucleus by balancing the mass and charge numbers.
Z ( X ) = Z (U) Z (He) = 92 2 = 90
A( X ) = A(U) A(He) = 238 4 = 234
234
90 Th
Thus the final nucleus is

(b)
If we ignore the recoil of the thorium, then the kinetic energy of the particle is equal to the
difference in the mass energies of the components of the reaction. The electrons are balanced.
( 23892 U ) m ( 23490Th ) m ( 24 He ) c2
KE
238
4
m ( 234
90Th ) = m ( 92 U ) m ( 2 He ) 2
c
KE
= m
4.20 MeV
1u
= 238.050788 u 4.002603 u
2
c
931
5
. MeV/c 2
= 234.043676 u
This answer assumes that the 4.20-MeV value does not limit the significant figures of the
answer.
29.
60
The reaction is 60
27 Co 28 Ni + + v . The kinetic energy of the will be maximum if the
(essentially) massless neutrino has no kinetic energy. We also ignore the recoil of the nickel.
KE
= m
60
27 Co
) m(
60
28 Ni
) c
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(59.933816 u) (59.930786 u)]c 2
30.
We add three electron masses to each side of the reaction 74 Be +
= 2.822 MeV
0
1 e
37 Li + v. Then for the mass of
the product side, we may use the atomic mass of 37 Li. For the reactant side, including the three
electron masses and the mass of the emitted electron, we may use the atomic mass of 74 Be. The energy
released is the Q-value.
Q = m
( Be ) m ( Li ) c
7
4
7
3
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(7.016929 u) (7.016003 u)]c 2
= 0.863 MeV
30-14
31.
Chapter 30
For alpha decay we have

Q = m
218
84 Po
214
4
82 Pb + 2 He.
We find the Q-value, which is the energy released.
( 21884 Po ) m ( 21482 Pb ) m ( 24 He ) c2
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [218.008973 u 213.999806 u 4.002603 u]c 2
= 6.114 MeV
218
0
For beta decay we have 218
84 Po 82 At + 1 e + v . We assume that the neutrino is massless, and find
the Q-value. The original 84 electrons plus the extra electron created in the beta decay means that there
are 85 total electrons on the right side of the reaction, so we can use the mass of the astatine atom and
automatically include the mass of the beta decay electron.
Q = m
218
84 Po
) m(
218
85 At
) c
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [218.008973 u 218.008695 u]c 2
32.
(a)
= 0.259 MeV
We find the final nucleus by balancing the mass and charge numbers.
Z ( X ) = Z (P) Z (e) = 15 (1) = 16
A( X ) = A(P) A(e) = 32 0 = 32
Thus the final nucleus is

(b)
32
16 S .
If we ignore the recoil of the sulfur and the energy of the neutrino, then the maximum kinetic
32
energy of the electron is the Q-value of the reaction. The reaction is 32

15 P 16 S + + v . We
add 15 electrons to each side of the reaction, and then we may use atomic masses. The mass of
the emitted beta is accounted for in the mass of the sulfur.
KE
33.
= m
( P ) m ( S) c
32
15
32
16
( S) = m ( P ) c
32
16
32
15
KE
2
1.71 MeV
1u
= (31.973908 u)
= 31.97207 u
c2
931.5 MeV/c 2
We find the energy from the wavelength.

E=
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.15 1013 m)(1.602 1013 J/MeV)
= 10.8 MeV
This has to be a ray from the nucleus rather than a photon from the atom. Electron transitions do not
involve this much energy. Electron transitions involve energies on the order of a few eV.
34.
The emitted photon and the recoiling nucleus have the same magnitude of momentum. We find the
recoil energy from the momentum. We assume that the energy is small enough that we can use
classical relationships.
p =
KE K
35.
E
c
=
= pK = 2mK KE K
E2
2mK c 2
30-15
(1.46 MeV) 2
= 2.86 105 MeV = 28.6 eV
2
931.5 MeV/c 2
2(39.963998 u)
c
The kinetic energy of the + particle will be its maximum if the (almost massless) neutrino has no
kinetic energy. We ignore the recoil of the boron. Note that if the mass of one electron is added to the
mass of the boron, then we may use atomic masses. We also must include the mass of the + . (See
Problem 36 for details.)
( 115 B + 01e ) + 10 + + v
11
11
0
0 +
2
11
11
0
2
KE = m ( 6 C ) m ( 5 B ) m ( 1 e ) m ( 1 ) c = m ( 6 C ) m ( 5 B ) 2m ( 1 e ) c
11
6C
931.5 MeV/c 2
= [(11.011434 u) (11.009305 u) 2(0.00054858 u)]c 2
= 0.9612 MeV
If the + has no kinetic energy, then the maximum kinetic energy of the neutrino is also
0.9612 MeV . The minimum energy of each is 0, when the other has the maximum.
36.
For the positron emission process, ZA N Z A1 N + e + + v. We must add Z electrons to the nuclear
mass of N to be able to use the atomic mass, so we must also add Z electrons to the reactant side. On
the reactant side, we use Z 1 electrons to be able to use the atomic mass of N. Thus we have 1
extra electron mass and the particle mass, which means that we must include 2 electron masses
on the right-hand side. We find the Q-value given this constraint.
Q = [ M P ( M D + 2me )]c 2 = ( M P M D 2me )c 2
37.
We assume that the energies are low enough that we may use classical kinematics. In particular, we
will use p = 2m KE . The decay is
238
92 U
234
4
90Th + 2 He.
If the uranium nucleus is at rest when it
decays, then the magnitude of the momentum of the two daughter particles must be the same.
p = pTh ;
KE Th
p 2
2m K
m
pTh 2
= = =
2mTh 2mTh
2mTh
mTh
KE
4u
=
(4.20 MeV) = 0.0718 MeV
234 u
The Q-value is the total kinetic energy produced.
Q = KE + KE Th = 4.20 MeV + 0.0718 MeV = 4.27 MeV
30-16
38.
Chapter 30
(a)
The decay constant can be found from the half-life, using Eq. 306.
=
(b)
ln 2
ln 2
=
= 1.5 1010 yr 1 = 4.9 1018 s 1
T1/2 4.5 109 yr
The half-life can be found from the decay constant, using Eq. 306.
ln 2
T1/2 =
39.
ln 2
3.2 105 s 1
= 21, 660 s = 6.0 h
We find the half-life from Eq. 305 and Eq. 306.

2
R = R0 e t = R0 e
40.
ln 2
t
T1/ 2
T1/2 =
ln 2
ln 2
(3.6 h) = 1.2 h
t=
140
R
ln
ln
1120
R0
We use Eq. 304 and Eq. 306 to find the fraction remaining.
ln 2
N = N0 e
(ln 2)(2.5 yr)(12 mo/yr)
9 mo
N
= e t = e T1/ 2 = e
N0
= 0.0992 0.1 10%
Only 1 significant figure was kept since the Problem said about 9 months.
41.
The activity at a given time is given by Eq. 303b. We also use Eq. 306. The half-life is found in
Appendix B.
dN
ln 2
ln 2
N=
(6.5 1020 nuclei) = 2.5 109 decays/s
= N =
7
dt
T1/2
(5730 yr)(3.16 10 s/yr)
42.
For every half-life, the sample is multiplied by one-half.

N
=
N0
43.
( 12 ) = ( 12 )
n
= 0.03125 = 1/32 = 3.125%
We need the decay constant and the initial number of nuclei. The half-life is found in Appendix B. Use
Eq. 306 to find the decay constant.
ln 2
ln 2
=
= 9.99668 107 s 1
T1/2 (8.0252 days)(24 h/day)(3600 s/h)
(782 106 g)
23
18
N0 =
(6.02 10 atoms/mol) = 3.5962 10 nuclei
(130.906
g/mol)
(a)
We use Eq. 303b and Eq. 304 to evaluate the initial activity.
Activity = N = N 0 e t = (9.99668 107 s 1 )(3.5962 1018 )e0 = 3.5950 1012 decays/s
3.60 1012 decays/s
(b)
30-17
We evaluate Eq. 305 at t = 1.5 h.

R = R0 e
12
= (3.5950 10
3600 s
(9.99668 107 s 1 )(1.5 h)
h
decays/s)e
3.58 1012 decays/s
(c)
We evaluate Eq. 305 at t = 3.0 months. We use a time of 1/4 year for the 3.0 months.
R = R0 e t = (3.5950 1012 decays/s)e(9.99668 10
s 1 )(0.25yr)(3.156107 s/yr)
= 1.3497 decays/s 1.34 109 decays/s
44.
We find the number of nuclei from the activity of the sample, using Eq. 303b and Eq. 306. The halflife is found in Appendix B.
N
ln 2
N
= N =
T1/2
t
N=
45.
T1/2 N (4.468 109 yr)(3.156 107 s/yr)

=
(420 decays/s) = 8.5 1019 nuclei
ln 2 t
ln 2
Each emission decreases the mass number by 4 and the atomic number by 2. The mass number
changes from 235 to 207, a change of 28. Thus there must be 7 particles emitted. With the 7
emissions, the atomic number would have changed from 92 to 78. Each emission increases the
atomic number by 1, so to have a final atomic number of 82, there must be 4 particles emitted.
46.
We use the decay constant often, so we calculate it here: =

(a)
We find the initial number of nuclei from an estimate of the atomic mass.
N0 =
(b)
(8.7 106 g)
(6.02 1023 atoms/mol) = 4.223 1016 4.2 1016 nuclei
(124 g/mol)
Evaluate Eq. 304 at t = 2.6 min .

N = N 0 e t = (4.223 1016 )e (0.022505 s
(c)
ln 2
ln 2
=
= 0.022505 s 1.
T1/2 30.8 s
)(2.6 min)(60 s/ min)
= 1.262 1015 1.3 1015 nuclei
The activity is found from using the absolute value of Eq. 303b.
N = (0.022505 s 1 )(1.262 1015 ) = 2.840 1013 decays/s 2.8 1013 decays/s

(d)
We find the time from Eq. 304.
N = N 0 e t
1 decay/s
N
ln
ln
1
16
N0
(0.022505 s )(4.223 10 ) decays/s
t=
=
= 1532 s 26 min
0.022505 s 1
30-18
47.
Chapter 30
Find the initial number of nuclei from the initial decay rate (activity) and then the mass from the
number of nuclei.
ln 2
N0
initial decay rate = 2.0 105 decays/s = N 0 =
T1/2
N0 =
T1/2
(1.248 109 yr)(3.156 107 s/yr)
(2.4 105 s 1 ) =
(2.4 105 s 1 ) = 1.364 1022 nuclei
ln 2
ln 2
m = N0
48.
(atomic weight) g/mol

6.02 10
23
nuclei/mol
= (1.364 1022 nuclei)
(39.963998 g)
(6.02 1023 )
= 0.91 g
The number of nuclei is found from the mass and the atomic weight. The activity is then found from
the number of nuclei and the half-life.
(6.7 106 g)
23
17
N=
(6.02 10 atoms/mol) = 1.261 10 nuclei
(31.9739 g/mol)
N =
49.
(a)
ln 2
ln 2
17
10
N=
(1.261 10 ) = 7.1 10 decays/s
6
T1/2
(1.23 10 s)
The decay constant is found from Eq. 306.
=
(b)
ln 2
ln 2
=
= 1.381 1013 s 1 1.38 1013 s 1
T1/2 (1.59 105 yr)(3.156 107 s/yr)
The activity is the decay constant times the number of nuclei.

60 s
1 min
N = (1.381 1013 s 1 )(4.50 1018 ) = 6.215 105 decays/s

= 3.73 107 decays/ min
50.
We use Eq. 305.

R = 16 R0 = R0 e t
T1/2 = 2
51.
ln 2
ln
( )
1
6
t=
ln 2
ln
( 16 )
1
6
= e t
ln
( 16 ) = t = 2 Tln 2 t
1/2
(9.4 min) = 3.6 min
Because the fraction of atoms that are 146 C is so small, we use the atomic weight of
number of carbon atoms in the sample. The activity is found from Eq. 303b.
1.3
N 14 C = 12
6
10
N =
12
6C
to find the
1.3 (345 g)
23
13
N 126 C = 12 (12 g/mol) (6.02 10 nuclei/mol) = 2.250 10 nuclei
10
ln 2
ln 2
13
N=
(2.250 10 ) = 86 decays/s
7
T1/2
(5730 yr)(3.156 10 s/yr)
52.
30-19
We first find the number of nuclei from the activity and then find the mass from the number of nuclei
and the atomic weight. The half-life is found in Appendix B.
ln 2
N = 4.20 102 decays/s
Activity = N =
T1/2
N=
(4.468 109 yr)(3.156 107 s/yr)(4.20 102 decays/s)

= 8.544 1019 nuclei
ln 2
(8.544 1019 nuclei)

2
m=
(238.05 g/mol) = 3.38 10 g = 33.8 mg
23
(6.02 10 atoms/mol)
53.
We assume that the elapsed time is much smaller than the half-life, so we can approximate the decay
rate as being constant. We also assume that the
87
37 Rb
rocks were formed. Thus every atom of

NSr = N Rb = N Rb t
t =
87
38 Sr
is stable, and there was none present when the
that decayed is now an atom of
87
38 Sr.
NSr T1/2
4.75 1010 yr
= (0.0260)
= 1.78 109 yr
N Rb ln 2
ln 2
This is 4% of the half-life, so our original assumption is valid.

54.
We are not including the neutrinos that will be emitted during beta decay.
First sequence:
232
90Th
228
88 Ra
+ 42 ;
228
90Th
224
88 Ra
+ 42 ;
235
92 U
Second sequence:
227
89 Ac
55.
231
90Th
+ 42 ;
227
90Th
Because the fraction of atoms that are
224
88 Ra
231
90Th
+ ;
14
6C
228
88 Ra
227
90Th
228
89 Ac
+ ;
220
86 Rn
231
91 Pa
228
90Th
+ ;
+ 24
+ ;
223
88 Ra
228
89 Ac
231
91 Pa
227
89 Ac
+ 24 ;
+ 42
is so small, we use the atomic weight of
12
6C
14
6C
to find the
number of carbon atoms in 73 g. We then use the given ratio to find the number of
atoms present
when the club was made. Finally, we use the activity as given in Eq. 305 to find the age of the club.
(73 g)
23
24
N 12 C =
(6.02 10 atoms/mol) = 3.662 10 atoms
6
(12
g/mol)
N 14 C = (1.3 1012 )(3.662 1024 ) = 4.761 1012 nuclei

6
( N C )
14
6
t=
today
ln
= N 14 C
6
( N C )
( N C )
14
6
)e
today
14
6
N 14 C
6
T1/2
today
ln
ln 2 ln 2
N 14 C
T1/2 6 0
5730 yr
(7.0 decays/s)
ln
= 7921 yr 7900 yr
ln 2
ln 2
12
(4.761 10 nuclei)
7
(5730 yr)(3.156 10 s/yr)
0
30-20
56.
Chapter 30
The decay rate is given by Eq. 303b,
emission.
N
= N . We assume equal numbers of nuclei decaying by
t
N
T1/2
(1.6 104 s)
214
t 218 218 N 218 218
=
=
=
=
= 8.6 107
N
214 N 214 214 T1/2 (3.1 min)(60 s/ min)
218
t 214
57.
The activity is given by Eq. 305. The original activity is N 0 , so the activity 31.0 hours later is
0.945 N 0 .
0.945 N 0 = N 0 et
T1/2 =
58.
ln 0.945 = t =
1d
ln 2
(31.0 h) = 379.84 h
= 15.8 d
ln 0.945
24 h
The activity is given by Eq. 305.
T
R
R
53 d 25 decays/s
2
= 1/2 ln
=
ln
= 201.79 d 2.0 10 d
R0
ln 2 R0
ln 2 350 decays/s
(a)
R = R0et
(b)
We find the mass from the activity. Note that N A is used to represent Avogadros number, and
A is the atomic weight.
t=
ln
R0 = N 0 =
m=
59.
ln 2
t
T1/2
ln 2 m0 N A
T1/2 A
R0T1/2 A (350 decays/s)(53 d)(86, 400 s/d)(7.017 g/mole)

=
= 2.7 1014 g
N A ln 2
(6.02 1023 nuclei/mole) ln 2
The number of radioactive nuclei decreases exponentially, and every radioactive nucleus that decays
becomes a daughter nucleus.
N = N 0 et ; N D = N 0 N = N 0 (1 et )
60.
The activity is given by Eq. 305, with R = 0.01050 R0 .

R = R0 et
ln R /R0 ln 2
=
t
T1/2
T1/2 =
From Appendix B we see that the isotope is

61.
t ln 2
(4.00 h) ln 2
=
= 0.6085 h = 36.5 min
ln R /R0
ln 0.01050
211
82 Pb .
Because the carbon is being replenished in living trees, we assume that the amount of 146 C is constant
until the wood is cut, and then it decays. Use Eq. 304 and Eq. 307 to find the age of the tool.
N = N0e
= N0e
0.693t
T1/ 2
= 0.045 N 0
t=
T1/2 ln(0.045)
(5730 yr) ln (0.045)
=
= 2.6 104 yr
0.693
0.693
62.
(a)
The mass number is found from the radius, using Eq. 301.
3
r = (1.2 10
(b)
30-21
15
1/3
m) A
5000 m
r
=
= 7.23 1055 7 1055
A=
1.2 1015 m 1.2 1015 m
The mass of the neutron star is the mass number times the atomic mass unit conversion in kg.
m = A(1.66 1027 kg/u) = (7.23 1055 u)(1.66 1027 kg/u) = 1.20 1029 kg 1 1029 kg
Note that this is about 6% of the mass of the Sun.

(c)
The acceleration of gravity on the surface of the neutron star is found from Eq. 55 applied to
the neutron star.
g=
63.
Gm
r2
(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )(1.20 1029 kg)

(5000 m) 2
Because the tritium in water is being replenished, we assume that the amount is constant until the wine
is made, and then it decays. We use Eq. 304.
N = N 0 e t
64.
= 3.20 1011 m/s 2 3 1011 m/s 2
(a)
ln
=
N
N 0 ln 2
=
t
T1/2
t=
T1/2
N
(12.3 yr) ln 0.10
=
= 41 yr
ln
ln 2 N 0
ln 2
We assume a mass of 70 kg of water and find the number of protons, given that there are
10 protons in a water molecule.
(70 103 g water)
23 molecules water 10 protons

N protons =
6.02 10
(18
g
water/mol
water)
mol
water
water
molecule
= 2.34 1028 protons
We assume that the time is much less than the half-life so that the rate of decay is constant.
ln 2
N
= N =
N
t
T1/2
t =
1033 yr
N T1/2
1 proton
4
= 6.165 10 yr 60, 000 yr
=
28
N ln 2 2.34 10 protons ln 2
This is about 880 times a normal life expectancy.

(b)
Instead of waiting 61,650 consecutive years for one person to experience a proton decay,
we could interpret that number as there being 880 people, each living 70 years, to make that
61,650 years (since 880 70 61, 650). We would then expect one person out of every 880 to
experience a proton decay during their lifetime. Divide 7 billion by 880 to find out how many
people on Earth would experience proton decay during their lifetime.
7 109
= 7.95 106 8 million people
880
30-22
65.
Chapter 30
We assume that all of the kinetic energy of the alpha particle becomes electrostatic potential energy at
the distance of closest approach. Note that the distance found is the distance from the center of the
alpha to the center of the gold nucleus.
KE i
r=k
Q QAu
KE
KE
+0 = 0+k
= (8.988 109 N m 2 /C2 )
Q QAu
r
(2)(79)(1.60 1019 C) 2
(7.7 MeV)(1.60 10
13
J/MeV)
= 2.951 1014 m
3.0 1014 m
We use Eq. 301 to compare to the size of the gold nucleus.

rapproach
rAu
2.951 1014 m
1971/3 (1.2 1015 m)
= 4.2
So the distance of approach is about 4.2 the radius of the gold nucleus.
66.
Use Eq. 305 and Eq. 306.

R = R0 e
= R0 e
t ln 2
T1/ 2
= 0.0200 R0
t
ln (0.0200)
=
= 5.64
ln 2
T1/2
It takes 5.64 half-lives for a sample to drop to 2.00% of its original activity.
67.
The number of 40
19 K nuclei can be calculated from the activity, using Eq. 303b and Eq. 305. The
half-life is found in Appendix B. A subscript is used on the variable N to indicate the isotope.
R = N 40
N 40
The mass of
40
19 K
3.156 107
decays
9
42
(1.248
10
yr)
s
1 yr
R RT1/2
= =
=
ln 2
ln 2
= 2.387 1018 nuclei
in the milk is found from the atomic mass and the number of nuclei.
m40 = (2.387 1018 )(39.964 u)(1.66 1027 kg/u) = 1.583 107 kg 0.16 mg
From Appendix B, in a natural sample of potassium, 0.0117% is

number of
39
19 K
40
19 K
and 93.2581% is
nuclei and then use the atomic mass to find the mass of
N 40 = (0.0117%) N total ; N 39 = (93.2581%) N total
39
19 K
39
19 K.
Find the
in the milk.
(93.2581%)
(93.2581%)
18
22
N39 =
N 40 = (0.0117%) (2.387 10 nuclei) = 1.903 10 nuclei
(0.0117%)
The mass of
39
19 K
is the number of nuclei times the atomic mass.
m39 = (1.903 1022 )(38.964 u)(1.66 1027 kg/u) = 1.231 103 kg 1.2 g
68.
30-23
In the Periodic Table, Sr is in the same column as Ca. If Sr is ingested, then the body may treat it
chemically as if it were Ca, which means it might be stored by the body in bones. Use Eq. 304 to find
the time to reach a 1% level.
ln
N = N 0 e t
N
N0 ln 2
T
(29 yr) ln 0.01
N
=
t = 2 1/2 ln
=
= 192.67 yr 200 yr
ln 2 N0
ln 2
t
T1/2
Assume that both the Sr and its daughter undergo beta decay, since the Sr has too many neutrons.
90
38 Sr
69.
90
0
39 Y + 1 e +
90
39 Y
90
0
40 Zr + 1 e +
The number of nuclei is found from Eq. 305 and Eq. 303b. The mass is then found from the number
of nuclei and the atomic weight. The half-life is given.
R = N =
ln 2
N
T1/2
N=
T1/2
T
R; m = N (atomic weight) = 1/2 R (atomic weight)
ln 2
ln 2
24 h 3600 s
(87.37 d)
1 d 1 h
m=
(4.28 104 decays/s)(34.969 u)(1.66 1027 kg/u)
ln 2
= 2.71 1014 kg = 2.71 1011 g
70.
(a)
We find the daughter nucleus by balancing the mass and charge numbers.
Z ( X ) = Z (Os) Z (e ) = 76 (1) = 77
A( X ) = A(Os) A(e ) = 191 0 = 191
The daughter nucleus is
71.
191
77 Ir .
191
76 Os
(0.14 MeV)
(0.042 MeV)
(0.129 MeV)
191
77 Ir*
191
77 Ir*
(b)
See the diagram.
(c)
Because there is only one energy, the

decay must be to the higher excited state.
(a)
The number of nuclei is found from the mass of the sample and the atomic mass. The activity is
found from the half-life and the number of nuclei, using Eq. 303b and Eq. 305.
191
77 Ir
1.0 g
23
21
N =
(6.02 10 nuclei/mol) = 4.599 10 nuclei
130.91 g/mol
0.693
21
15
R = N =
(4.599 10 ) = 4.6 10 decays/s
4
(8.02
d)(8.64
10
s/d)
(b)
Follow the same procedure as in part (a).
1.0 g
23
21
N =
(6.02 10 nuclei/mol) = 2.529 10 nuclei
238.05
g/mol
0.693
21
4
R = N =
(2.529 10 ) = 1.2 10 decays/s
9
7
(4.47 10 yr)(3.16 10 s/yr)
30-24
72.
Chapter 30
From Fig. 301, the average binding energy per nucleon at A = 63 is ~8.6 MeV. Use the average
atomic weight as the average number of nucleons for the two stable isotopes of copper to find the total
binding energy for one copper atom.
(63.5 nucleons)(8.6 MeV/nucleon) = 546.1 MeV 550 MeV
Convert the mass of the penny to a number of atoms and then use the above value to calculate the
energy needed.
Energy = (# atoms)(energy/atom)
(3.0 g)
23
6
19
=
J/eV)
(6.02 10 atoms/mol)(546.1 10 eV/atom)(1.60 10
(63.5
g/mol)
= 2.5 1012 J
73.
(a)
( 42 He ) = m ( 42 He ) A ( 42 He ) = 4.002603 u 4 = 0.002603 u
= (0.002603 u)(931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = 2.425 MeV/c 2
(b)
( 126 C ) = m ( 126 C ) A ( 126 C ) = 12.000000 u 12 = 0
(c)
( 8638 Sr ) = m ( 8638 Sr ) A ( 8638 Sr ) = 85.909261 u 86 = 0.090739 u

= (0.090739 u)(931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = 84.52 MeV/c 2
(d)
( 23592 U ) = m ( 23592 U ) A ( 23592 U ) = 235.043930 u 235 = 0.043930 u

= (0.043930 u)(931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = 40.92 MeV/c 2
(e)
From Appendix B, we see the following:

0 for 0 Z 8 and Z 85;
< 0 for 9 Z 84
74.
0 for 0 A 15 and A 218;

< 0 for 16 A < 218
The reaction is 11 H + 01 n 21 H. If we assume that the initial kinetic energies are small, then the energy
of the gamma is the Q-value of the reaction.
( ) ( 01n ) m ( 21H ) c2
Q = m 11 H + m
= [(1.007825 u) + (1.008665 u) (2.014102 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = 2.224 MeV
75.
30-25
The mass of carbon 60,000 years ago was 1.0 kg. Find the number of carbon atoms at that time and
then find the number of 146 C atoms at that time. Use that with the half-life to find the present activity,
using Eq. 305 and Eq. 306.
N=
(1.0 103 g)(6.02 1023 atoms/mol)

= 5.017 1025 C atoms
12 g/mol
N14 = (5.017 1025 )(1.3 1012 ) = 6.522 1013 nuclei of

ln 2
ln 2
R = N =
N=
N0e
T1/2
T1/2
ln 2
t
T1/ 2
14
6C
= N0
ln 2
13
(5730 yr)(3.16 107 s/yr)
(6.522 10 )e
ln 2(60,000 yr)
(5730 yr)
= 0.1759 decays/s 0.2 decays/s
76.
The energy to remove the neutron would be the difference in the masses of the 42 He and the
combination of 32 He + n. It is also the opposite of the Q-value for the reaction. The number of
electrons doesnt change, so atomic masses can be used for the helium isotopes.
931.5 MeV/c 2
QHe = (mHe-3 + mn mHe-4 )c 2 = (3.016029 u + 1.008665 u 4.002603 u)c 2
= 20.58 MeV
Repeat the calculation for the carbon isotopes.

931.5 MeV/c 2
QC = (mC-12 + mn mC-13 )c 2 = (12.000000 u + 1.008665 u 13.003355 u)c 2
= 4.946 MeV
The helium value is 4.16 greater than the carbon value.

77.
(a)
Take the mass of the Earth and divide it by the mass of a nucleon to find the number of nucleons.
Then use Eq. 301 to find the radius.
1/3
5.98 1024 kg
r = (1.2 1015 m) A1/3 = (1.2 1015 m)
27
kg
1.67 10
(b)
= 183.6 m 180 m
Follow the same process as above, but this time use the Suns mass.
1/3
r = (1.2 10
15
1/3
m) A
= (1.2 10
15
1.99 1030 kg
m)
27
kg
1.67 10
= 12, 700 m 1.3 104 m
30-26
78.
Chapter 30
(a)
14
12
.
6 C is 1.3 10
weight of 126 C to find the
From Section 3011, the usual fraction of
Because the fraction of atoms that
are 146 C is so small, use the atomic

Use Eq. 304 to find the time.
number of carbon atoms in 72 g.
72 g
23
24
N12 =
(6.02 10 atoms/mol) = 3.612 10 atoms
12 g/mol
N14 = (3.612 1024 atoms)(1.3 1012 ) = 4.6956 1012 atoms
N = N 0 et t =
(b)
ln
T
(5730 yr)
1
N
N
ln
= 1/2 ln
=
= 2.4 105 yr
ln 2 N 0
ln 2
N0
4.6956 1012
Do a similar calculation for an initial mass of 340 g.

340 g
23
12
13
N14 =
(6.02 10 atoms/mol)(1.3 10 ) = 2.217 10 atoms
12
g/mol
T
N
N
1
(5730 yr)
1
N = N 0 et t = ln
= 1/2 ln
=
= 2.5 105 yr
ln
ln 2 N 0
ln 2
N0
2.217 1013
For times on the order of 105 yr, the sample amount has fairly little effect on the age
determined. Thus, times of this magnitude are not accurately measured by carbon dating.
79.
(a)
(b)
This reaction would turn the protons and electrons in atoms into neutrons. This would eliminate
chemical reactions and thus eliminate life as we know it.
We assume that there is no kinetic energy brought into the reaction and solve for the increase of
mass necessary to make the reaction energetically possible. For calculating energies, we write
the reaction as 11 H 10 n + , and we assume that the neutrino has no mass or kinetic energy.
( ) ( )
Q = m 11 H m 10 n c 2 = [(1.007825 u) (1.008665 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/uc 2 )
= 0.782 MeV
This is the amount that the proton would have to increase in order to make this energetically
possible. We find the percentage change.
(0.782 MeV/c 2 )
m
(100) = 0.083%
(100) =
2
m
(938.27 MeV/c )
80.
We assume that the particles are not relativistic, so that p = 2mKE . The radius is given in
m
. Set the radii of the two particles equal. Note that the charge of the alpha
qB
particle is twice that of the electron (in absolute value). We also use the bare alpha particle mass,
subtracting the two electrons from the helium atomic mass.
Example 206 as r =
m m
=
2eB
eB
m = 2m
p = 2 p
KE
KE
p2
2m
2
4 p2
=
2m
81.
30-27
2m
4m
m
4(0.000549 u)
= 5.48 104
4.002603 u 2(0.000549 u)
2m
Natural samarium has an atomic mass of 150.36 grams per mole. We find the number of nuclei in the
natural sample and then take 15% of that to find the number of
of
147
147
62 Sm
nuclei. We first find the number
Sm nuclei from the mass and proportion information.

(0.15)(1.00 g)(6.02 10 23 nuclei/mol)
= 6.006 10 20 nuclei of
150.36 g/mol
N 147 Sm = (0.15) N natural =

62
147
62 Sm
The activity level is used to calculate the half-life.

Activity = R = N =
T1/2 =
82.
ln 2
N
T1/2
ln 2
ln 2
(6.006 1020 ) = 3.469 1018
N=
120 decays/s
R
1 yr
s
3.156 107
Since amounts are not specified, assume that today there is 0.720 g of
238
92 U.
100.000 0.720 = 99.280 g of
(a)
in our sample, and
Use Eq. 304.
Relate the amounts today to the amounts 1.0 109 years ago.
N = N0e
N 0 = Ne
( N 0 ) 235 = ( N 235 )e
( N 0 ) 238 = ( N 238 )e
The percentage of
(b)
235
92 U
11
= 1.1 10 yr
s
235
92 U
was
t
ln 2
T1/ 2
t
ln 2
T1/ 2
= Ne
t
ln 2
T1/ 2
= (0720 g)e
(1.0 109 yr)

ln 2
(7.04 108 yr)
= 1.927 g
= (99.280 g)e
(1.0 10 )
ln 2
(4.468 109 )
= 115.94 g
1.927
100% = 1.63% .
1.927 + 115.94
Relate the amounts today to the amounts 100 106 years from now.
N = N0e
( N 235 ) = ( N 0 ) 235 e
( N 238 ) = ( N 0 )238 e
The percentage of
t
T1/ 2
235
92 U
ln 2
t
ln 2
T1/ 2
= (99.280 g)e
will be
= (0.720 g)e
(100 106 yr)

ln 2
(7.04 108 yr)
(100 106 yr)
ln 2
(4.468 109 yr)
= 0.6525 g
= 97.752 g
0.6525
100% = 0.663% .
0.6525 + 97.752
30-28
83.
Chapter 30
We determine the number of

activity.
40
19 K
nuclei in the sample and then use the half-life to determine the
N 40 K = (0.000117) N naturally
19
occurring K
R = N =
84.
= (0.000117)
(420 103 g)(6.02 1023 atoms/mol)

= 7.566 1017
39.0983 g/mol
ln 2
ln 2
1 yr
= 13.14 decays/s 13 decays/s

N=
(7.566 1017 )
9
7
T1/2
1.265 10 yr
3.156 10 s
The kinetic energy of the electron will be at its maximum if the (essentially) massless neutrino has no
kinetic energy. We also ignore the recoil energy of the sodium. The maximum kinetic energy of the
reaction is then the Q-value of the reaction. Note that the emitted electron mass is accounted for by
using atomic masses.
KE
= Q = m
23
10 Ne
) m(
23
11 Na
) c
= [(22.9947 u) (22.9898 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/uc 2 )
= 4.6 MeV
If the neutrino were to have all of the kinetic energy, then the minimum kinetic energy of the electron
is 0. The sum of the kinetic energy of the electron and the energy of the neutrino must be the Q-value,
so the neutrino energies are 0 and 4.6 MeV, respectively.
85.
(a)
If the initial nucleus is at rest when it decays, then momentum conservation says that the
magnitude of the momentum of the alpha particle will be equal to the magnitude of the
momentum of the daughter particle. We use that to calculate the (nonrelativistic) kinetic energy
of the daughter particle. The mass of each particle is essentially equal to its atomic mass number,
in atomic mass units. Note that classically, p = 2mKE .
p = pD ;
KE D
KE
(b)
+ KE D
KE D
2m KE
p2
m
pD2
= = =
2mD 2mD
2mD
mD
4
AD
KE
4
KE +
A
D
We specifically consider the decay of

KE D
KE
+ KE D
1
1 + AD
1
4
KE
226
88 Ra.
1
1+
1 (222)
4
AD
4
KE
KE
KE
+ KE
A
AD
KE
4
AD
KE
1
1
4
1 + AD
The daughter has AD = 222.
= 0.017699 1.8%
Thus, the alpha particle carries away 1 0.0177 = 0.9823 = 98.2% .

86.
The mass number changes only with decay, and it changes by 4. If the mass number is 4n, then
the new number is 4n 4 = 4(n 1) = 4n. There is a similar result for each family, as shown here.
4n 4n 4 = 4(n 1) = 4n
4n + 1 4n 4 + 1 = 4(n 1) + 1 = 4n + 1
30-29
4n + 2 4n 4 + 2 = 4(n 1) + 2 = 4n + 2
4n + 3 4n 4 + 3 = 4(n 1) + 3 = 4n + 3
Thus, the daughter nuclides are always in the same family.
Solutions to Search and Learn Problems

1.
The nucleus of an atom consists of protons (which carry a positive electric charge) and neutrons
(which are electrically neutral). The electric force between protons is repulsive and much larger than
the force of gravity. If the electric and gravitational forces are the only two forces present in the
nucleus, then the nucleus would be unstable, as the electric force would push the protons away from
each other. Nuclei are stable; therefore, another force must be present in the nucleus to overcome the
electric force. This force is the strong nuclear force.
2.
(a)
An einsteinium nucleus has 99 protons and a fermium nucleus has 100 protons. If the fermium
undergoes either electron capture or + decay, then a proton would in effect be converted into a
neutron. The nucleus would now have 99 protons and be an einsteinium nucleus.
(b)
3.
If the einsteinium undergoes decay, then a neutron would be converted into a proton. The
nucleus would now have 100 protons and be a fermium nucleus.
Take the momentum of the nucleon to be equal to the uncertainty in the momentum of the nucleon, as
given by the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty in position is estimated as the radius of the nucleus.
With that momentum, calculate the kinetic energy, using the classical formula. Iron has about 56
nucleons (depending on the isotope).
px =
KE
p p
= =
=
x r
=2
(1.055 1034 J s) 2
p2
=
=
2m 2mr 2 2(1.67 1027 kg) (561/3 )(1.2 1015 m) 2 (1.60 1013 J/MeV)
= 0.988 MeV 1 MeV
4.
(a)
From Fig. 3017, the initial force on the detected particle is down. Using the right-hand rule, the
force on a positive particle would be upward. Thus the particle must be negative, and the decay
is decay.
(b)
The magnetic force is producing circular motion. Set the expression for the magnetic force equal
to the expression for centripetal force and solve for the velocity.
q B =
5.
m 2
r
qBr (1.60 1019 C)(0.012 T)(4.7 103 m)

=
= 9.9 106 m/s
31
m
9.11 10 kg
In decay, an electron is ejected from the nucleus of the atom, and a neutron is converted into a
proton. The atomic number of the nucleus increases by one, and the element now has different
chemical properties. In internal conversion, an orbital electron is ejected from the atom. This does not
change either the atomic number of the nucleus or its chemical properties.
30-30
Chapter 30
Also, in decay, both a neutrino and an electron will be emitted from the nucleus. Because there are
three decay products (the neutrino, the particle, and the nucleus), the momentum of the particle
can have a range of values. In internal conversion, since there are only two decay products (the
electron and the nucleus), the electron will have a unique momentum and, therefore, a unique energy.
6.
If the Earth had been bombarded with additional radiation several thousand years ago, then there
would have been a larger abundance of carbon-14 in the atmosphere at that time. Organisms that died
in that time period would have had a greater percentage of carbon-14 in them than organisms that die
today. Since we assumed the amount of starting carbon-14 was the same, we would have previously
underestimated the age of the organisms. With the new discovery, we would re-evaluate the organisms
as older than previously calculated.
7.
(a)
The decay constant is calculated from the half-life using Eq. 306.
=
(b)
ln 2
ln 2
=
= 3.83 1012 s 1
T1/2 (5730 yr)(3.156 107 s/yr)
In a living organism, the abundance of 146 C atoms is 1.3 1012 per carbon atom. Multiply this
abundance by Avogadros number and divide by the molar mass of carbon to find the number of
carbon-14 atoms per gram of carbon.
N = 1.3 1012
14
6C
12
6C
atoms N A
= 1.3 1012
atoms M
= 6.516 atoms 146 C/g
(c)
12
6C
14
6C
12
6C
atoms (6.02 1023 atoms 126 C/mol)
atoms
12.0107 g 126 C/mol
6.5 1010 atoms 146 C/ g
12
6C
The activity in natural carbon for a living organism is the product of the decay constant and the
number of
14
6C
atoms per gram of
12
6 C.
Use Eq. 305 and Eq. 303b.
R = N = (3.83 1012 s 1 )(6.5 1010 atoms 146 C/g 126 C) = 0.249 decays/s/g 126 C
0.25 decays/s/g 126C
(d)
Take the above result as the initial decay rate (while Otzi was alive) and use Eq. 305 to find the
time elapsed since he died.
R = R0 e t
t=
R
1
1 yr
0.121
11
ln =
ln
1.884
10
s
=
7
12 1
0.249
R0
3.83 10
s
3.156 10
1
= 5970 yr 6000 yr
Otzi lived approximately 6000 years ago.

8.
Use Eq. 305 and 303b to relate the activity to the half-life, along with the atomic weight.
N
ln 2
= R = N =
N
t
T1/2
T1/2 =
6.02 10 23 nuclei
ln 2
ln 2
1 yr
N=
(1.5 107 g)

7
R
1 decay/s
152
g
3.156 10
21
= 1.3 10 yr
s

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIOACTIVITY

Identify the element based on the atomic number.

The resulting nuclide for decay is an isotope of zinc,

The resulting nuclide for + decay is an isotope of nickel,

decays by alpha emission into

which has 144 neutrons.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

Scandium-45 is the missing nucleus.

The positron and the neutrino are the missing particles.

Responses to MisConceptual Questions

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

have more protons than neutrons, yet

nucleus more stable. Large unstable nuclei, such as

have a much larger total binding

The exponential nature of radioactive decay is a concept that can be misunderstood. It is

Convert the units from MeV/c 2 to atomic mass units.

The particle is a helium nucleus and has A = 4. Use Eq. 301.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

r238 (1.2 1015 m)(238)1/3 238

r232 (1.2 1015 m)(232)1/3 232

is 0.855% larger than the radius of

Use Eq. 301 for both parts of this problem.

r = (1.2 1015 m) A1/3 = (1.2 1015 m)(112)1/3 = 5.8 1015 m = 5.8 fm

r = (1.2 1015 m) A1/3

(8.988 109 N m 2 /C 2 ) (2)(1.60 1019 C)

m A(1.6605 1027 kg/u) A(1.6605 1027 kg/u)

We see that this is independent of A. The value has 2 significant figures.

(238 u)(1.6605 1027 kg/u)

(5.98 1024 kg)

From Appendix B, a stable nucleus with A 30 is

= (8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )

3.0 107 eV = 30 MeV

(1.0 kg)(6.02 1026 u/kg)

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

= (8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )

(238)(7.5 MeV) = 1.8 103 MeV

(84)(8.7 MeV) = 730 MeV

( 2211 Na ) + m ( 01n ) m ( 2311 Na ) c2

= [(21.994437 u) + (1.008665 u) (22.989769 u)]c 2 (931.5 MeV/c 2 )

Binding energy = 78m 11 H + 117 m

= 1545.7 MeV 1546 MeV

Binding energy = 11m 11 H + 12m

We do a similar calculation for

consisting of 11 protons and 13 neutrons.

Binding energy = 11m 11 H + 13m

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

By this measure, the nucleons in

to be more stable than

are more tightly bound than those in

We find the required energy by calculating the difference in the masses.

Removal of a neutron creates another isotope of nitrogen:

We find the binding energy from the masses.

We find the binding energy from the masses.

Because the binding energy is positive, the nucleus is stable.

hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

= (11.011434 u) (10.012937 u) (1.007825 u) = 0.009328 u

The decay is 13H

When we add one electron to both sides to use atomic masses, we

) = 232.037156 u + 1.008665 u 233.039636 u = 0.006185 u

Because an increase in mass is required, the decay is not possible.

( 137 N ) + m ( 01n ) m ( 137 N ) = 13.005739 u + 1.008665 u 14.003074 u = 0.011330 u

Because an increase in mass is required, the decay is not possible.

) = 38.963706 u + 1.008665 u 39.963998 u = 0.008373 u