Ch29 Giancoli7e Manual

MOLECULES AND SOLIDS
29
Responses to Questions
1.
(a)
The bond in an N 2 molecule is expected to be covalent.
(b)
(c)
The bond in the HCl molecule is expected to be ionic.

The bond between Fe atoms in a solid is expected to be metallic.
2.
Ca has two s subshell electrons in the outer shell, and each Cl is only missing one electron from its
outer shell. These three atoms share their electrons in such a way as to have filled outer shells. Look at
Fig. 294 and Fig. 295. Each of the two outer electrons of Ca will fit into the extra electron position
of the two Cl atoms, forming strong ionic bonds.
3.
Neither the H 2 nor the O 2 molecule has a permanent dipole moment. The outer electrons are shared
equally between the two atoms in each molecule, so there are no polar ends that are more positively or
negatively charged. The H 2 O molecule does have a permanent dipole moment. The electrons
associated with the hydrogen atoms are pulled toward the oxygen atom, leaving each hydrogen with a
small net positive charge and the oxygen with a small net negative charge. Because of the shape of the
H 2 O molecule (see Fig. 296), one end of the molecule will be positive and the other end will be
negative, resulting in a permanent dipole moment.
4.
The H3 molecule has three electrons, and only two of them can be in the 1s state (and then only if they
have opposite spins, according to the Pauli exclusion principle). Accordingly, the third electron cannot
be in the 1s state, so it is farther from the nucleus and not held as tightly as the other two electrons.
This contributes to the instability of H3 . On the other hand, the H3+ ion only has two electrons, and, if
they have opposite spins, the Pauli exclusion principle will allow them to both be in the lower energy
1s state, resulting in a 1s 2 closed shell and a spherically symmetric distribution. This makes H3+
relatively more stable than H3 .
5.
Yes, H +2 should be stable. The two positive nuclei share the one negative electron. The electron spends
most of its time between the two positive nuclei (basically holding them together).
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29-1
29-2
Chapter 29
6.
The electron configuration of carbon is 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 . The inner two electrons are held tightly and
closely bound to the nucleus. The four remaining electrons are basically spread around the outside of
the atom in four different directions (they repel each other). These four electrons can each form a
simple hydrogen-like bond with four atoms that each have only one electron in an s orbital. Another
way to consider this is that the C atom has two electrons in the outer 2p subshell. That subshell would
be full, so would be stable, if it had six electrons in it. Therefore, the C atom has the capability to
share electrons in its outer shell with four hydrogen atoms.
7.
The four categories of molecular energy are translational kinetic energy, electrostatic potential energy,
rotational kinetic energy, and vibrational kinetic energy.
8.
The conduction electrons are not strongly bound to particular nuclei, so a metal can be viewed as a
collection of positive ions and a negative electron gas. (The positive ions are just the metal atoms without
their outermost electrons, since these free electrons make up the gas.) The electrostatic attraction between
the freely roaming electrons and the positive ions keeps the electrons from leaving the metal.
9.
As temperature increases, the thermal motion of ions in a metal lattice will increase. More electrons
collide with the ions, increasing the resistivity of the metal. When the temperature of a semiconductor
increases, more electrons are able to move into the conduction band, making more charge carriers
available and thus decreasing the resistivity. The thermal motion also increases the resistance in
semiconductors, but the increase in the number of charge carriers is a larger effect.
10.
From Fig. 2930, it takes about 0.6 V to get a significant current to flow through the diode in the
forward bias direction and about 12 V to get current to flow through the diode in the reverse bias
direction. Thus, to get the same current to flow in either direction:
Vforward = IRforward
Vreverse = IRreverse
Rreverse /Rforward = 12 V/0.6 V = 20
Thus, reverse bias resistance is approximately 20 larger than the forward bias resistance. This is very
approximate based on estimates from reading the graph.
11.
The base current (between the base and the emitter) controls the collector current (between the
collector and the emitter). If there is no base current, then no collector current flows. Thus, controlling
the relatively small base current allows the transistor to act as a switch, turning the larger collector
current on and off.
12.
When the top branch of the input circuit is at the high voltage (current is flowing in this direction for
half the cycle), the bottom branch of the output is at the high voltage. The current follows the path
through the bridge in the diagram on the left. When the bottom branch of the input circuit is at the high
voltage (current is flowing in this direction during the other half of the cycle), the bottom branch of the
output is still at high voltage. The current follows the path through the bridge in the diagram on the right.
Molecules and Solids
29-3
13.
The main difference between n-type and p-type semiconductors is the type of atom used for the doping
impurity. When a semiconductor such as Si or Ge, each atom of which has four electrons to share, is
doped with an element that has five electrons to share (such as As or P), then it is an n-type
semiconductor since an extra electron has been inserted into the lattice. When a semiconductor is
doped with an element that has three electrons to share (such as Ga or In), then it is a p-type
semiconductor since an extra hole (the lack of an electron) has been inserted into the lattice.
14.
The partially filled shell in Na is the 3s shell, which has one electron in it. The partially filled shell in
Cl is the 2p shell, which has five electrons in it. In NaCl the electron from the 3s shell in Na is
transferred to the 2p shell in Cl, which results in filled shells for both ions. Thus when many ions are
considered, the resulting bands are either completely filled (the valence band) or completely empty
(the conduction band). Thus a large energy is required to create a conduction electron by raising an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
15.
In the circuit shown in Fig. 2941, the baseemitter junction is forward biased (the current will easily
flow from the base to the emitter) and the basecollector junction is reverse biased (the current will not
easily flow from the base to the collector).
16.
The energy comes from the power supplied by the collector/emitter voltage source, % C. The input
signal to the base just regulates how much current, and therefore how much power, can be drawn from
the collectors voltage source.
17.
The phosphorus atoms will be donor atoms. Phosphorus has five valence electrons. It will form four
covalent bonds with the silicon atoms around it and will have one extra electron that is weakly
bound to the atom and can be easily excited up to the conduction band. This process results in extra
electrons in the conduction band, so silicon doped with phosphorus is an n-type semiconductor.
18.
They do not obey Ohms law. Ohmic devices (those that obey Ohms law) have a constant resistance
and therefore a linear relationship between voltage and current. The voltagecurrent relationship for
diodes is not linear (Fig. 2930). The resistance of a diode operated in reverse bias is very large. The
same diode operated in a forward-bias mode has a much smaller resistance. Since a transistor can be
thought of as made up of diodes, it is also non-ohmic.
19.
A diode cannot be used to amplify a signal. A diode does let current flow through it in one direction
easily (forward biased) and it does not let current flow through it in the other direction (reverse bias),
but there is no way to connect a source of power to use it to amplify a signal (which is how a transistor
amplifies a signal).
Responses to MisConceptual Questions

1.
(c)
Due to the small masses of the atoms, the gravitational force is much too weak to hold them
together. Most atoms have very small magnetic fields and therefore could not be held together by
magnetic forces. Nuclear forces hold the nuclei of the atoms together but do not act on a
molecular scale. The exchange and sharing of electrons by the electric force hold molecules
together.
2.
(c)
In the H 2 molecule the two electrons orbit both atoms. In order for those two electrons to not
violate the Pauli exclusion principle, they must have different quantum numbers. Each atom
initially had one electron and the molecule has two, so no electrons are lost. When the atoms are
separated by one bond length, the energy is a minimum (not a maximum) and the molecule has
less total energy than the two atoms separately. This decrease in energy is the binding energy.
29-4
Chapter 29
3.
(c)
The shared electrons cannot have the same spin state. One electron must be spin up and the other
spin down.
4.
(b)
Covalent bonding is the sharing of atoms between molecules. When one atom has excess
electrons in its outer shell and another atom lacks electrons in the outer shell, the atom with
excess transfers the electrons to the other atom, making a positive ion and a negative ion, and
thus creating an ionic bondan attraction between the two ions.
5.
(a, d) Because the ADP molecule has a positive activation energy, as the phosphate group approaches
the ADP molecule it is first repelled and then attracted. The phosphate group must initially have
kinetic energy to overcome the repulsion. Some of this kinetic energy is stored as potential
energy in the ATP molecule. The binding energy is negative, as some of the initial kinetic energy
is stored as positive potential energy. When the ATP molecule is broken apart, this energy is
released and is available to instigate other reactions.
6.
(d)
For the DNA to replicate properly, the bond holding the two strands together must be a very
weak bond. Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds. The van der Waals bond is a weak bond
that hold the DNA together.
7.
(d)
A hole is a positive region in the semiconductor that is formed when an electron is missing from
the periodic molecular structure.
8.
(c)
A common misconception is that the resistance of materials decreases because fewer electrons
collide with the crystal lattice. As a conductor is heated, the electrons actually collide more
frequently with the lattice, which results in a greater resistance. In a semiconductor, the
resistance also increases with heating because the collisions are more frequent. However, as a
semiconductor is heated, additional electrons can jump the band gap and increase the number of
conduction electrons available. This has the net effect of decreasing the resistance.
9.
(a)
To be used for doping silicon, the element should have one more or one less electron in its outer
shell than silicon. Silicon has two electrons in its outer p shell. Boron and gallium each have one
electron in their outer p shell, one fewer than silicon. Phosphorus and arsenic each have three
electrons in their outer p shells, one more than silicon. Germanium has two electrons in its outer
p shell (the same as silicon), so it would not be a good choice as a doping impurity.
10.
(a)
A common misconception is that metals have free electrons because they have more electrons
than protons. Actually, metals are electrically neutral in that they have the same number of
electrons as protons. In metals, the outer electrons are not tightly bound to a single atom but can
move between atoms in the metal lattice. Since the electrons can move easily between atoms,
metals make good conductors of electricity.
Solutions to Problems
Note: The following factor appears in the analysis of electron energies:
e2
= ke 2 = (9.00 109 N m 2 /C2 )(1.60 1019 C) 2 = 2.30 1028 J m
4 0
1.
29-5
We calculate the binding energy as the opposite of the electrostatic potential energy. We use a
relationship from Section 292 for the potential energy.
Binding energy = PE = k
q1 q2
(+1.0e)(1.0e) 2.30 1028 J m
= 2k
=
r
0.28 109 m
0.28 109 m
= 8.214 1019 J 8.2 1019 J
1 eV
= 8.214 1019 J
1.60 1019
2.
= 5.134 eV 5.1 eV
J
From Problem 1, the point electron binding energy is 5.1 eV (only 2 significant figures). With the
repulsion of the electron clouds included, the actual binding energy is 4.43 eV. Use these values to
calculate the contribution of the electron clouds.
5.134 eV 4.43 eV = 0.704 eV 0.7 eV
3.
4.
We follow the procedure outlined in the statement of the Problem.

HN:
1 (d
2 H2
+ d N 2 ) = 12 (74 pm + 145 pm) = 110 pm
CN:
1 (d
2 C2
+ d N 2 ) = 12 (154 pm + 145 pm) = 150 pm
NO:
1 (d
2 N2
+ d O2 ) = 12 (145 pm + 121 pm) = 133 pm
We convert the units from kcal/mole to eV/molecule.

1
kcal 4186 J
1 eV
1 mole
eV
= 4.339 102
mole 1 kcal 1.602 1019 J 6.022 1023 molecules
molecule
Now convert 4.43 eV per molecule of KCl into kcal per mole.
4.43
5.
eV
1 kcal/mol
= 102 kcal/mol
molecule 4.339 102 eV/molecule
0.66e
We calculate the binding energy as the difference between
the energy of two isolated hydrogen atoms and the energy of the
p
p
bonded combination of particles. We estimate the energy of
d
the bonded combination as the negative potential energy of the two
electronproton combinations plus the positive potential energy of the protonproton combination. We
approximate the electrons as a single object with a charge of 0.33 of the normal charge of two
electrons, since the electrons only spend that fraction of time between the nuclei. A simple picture
illustrating our bonded model is shown. When the electrons are midway between the protons, each
electron will have a potential energy PE ep due to the two protons.
PE ep =
(2)(0.33)ke2
( 12 d )
(4)(0.33)(2.30 1028 J m)
(0.074 109 m)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
= 25.6 eV
The protons themselves have this potential energy:

PE pp = +
ke2
(2.30 1028 J m)
=+
= +19.4 eV
r
(0.074 109 m)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
29-6
Chapter 29
When the bond breaks, each hydrogen atom will be in the ground state with an energy E1 = 13.6 eV.
Thus, the binding energy is as follows:
Binding energy = 2 E1 (2 PE ep + PE pp ) = 2(13.6 eV) [ 2(25.6 eV) + 19.4 eV ] = 4.6 eV
This is close to the actual value of 4.5 eV quoted in the text.

6.
(a)
The neutral He atom has two electrons in the ground state, n = 1, = 0, m = 0. Thus the two
electrons have opposite spins, ms = 12 . If we try to form a covalent bond, then we see that an
electron from one of the atoms will have the same quantum numbers as one of the electrons on the
other atom. From the exclusion principle, this is not allowed, so the electrons cannot be shared.
(b)
We consider the He2+ molecular ion to be formed from a neutral He atom and an He+ ion. It
will have three electrons. If the electron on the ion has a certain spin value, then it can have the
opposite spin of one of the electrons on the neutral atom. Thus those two electrons can be in the
same spatial region (because their quantum numbers are not identical), so a bond can be formed.
(J s) 2
7.
The MKS units of
are
(kg m 2 )
J2
(kg m/s 2 )m
J2
J2
=
= J. The final unit is joules, which
(N m) J
is an energy unit.
8.
(a)
We first write an expression for the moment of inertia of

O 2 about its CM and then calculate the characteristic
rotational energy.
I = 2mO
2
2I
( 12 r )
mO r
mO
CM
mO
= 12 mO r 2
(1.055 1034 J s) 2
(16.0 u)(1.66 10
27
kg/u)(0.121 109 m) 2 (1.60 1019 J/eV)
= 1.789 104 eV 1.79 104 eV
(b)
From Fig. 2916, the energy involved in the l = 3 to l = 2 transition is 3

E =
E = h
9.
3
I
=6
2I
r=
Erot mN
( 12 r )
=
/I .
= 6(1.789 104 eV) = 1.0734 103 eV 1.07 103 eV
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hc
=
= 1.16 103 m
E (1.0734 103 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
Use the rotational energy and the moment of inertia of N 2

about its CM to find the bond length. See the adjacent diagram.
I = 2mN
= 12 mN r 2 ; Erot =
2I
mN r
mN
CM
(1.055 1034 J s)
(2.48 10
eV)(1.60 10
19
J/eV)(14.01 u)(1.66 10
mN
27
kg/u)
= 1.10 1010 m
10.
The moment of inertia of H 2 about its CM is

I = 2mH
( 12 r )
mH
= 12 mH r 2 . See the adjacent diagram. The
2I
mH r 2
(1.055 1034 J s) 2
(1.67 1027 kg)(0.074 109 m) 2
2I
= 1.217 1023 J = 7.607 103 eV
The rotational energy change (equal to the photon energy) is given in Eq. 292, Erot =
2
=2
2I
(a)
, where
is the value for the upper state. Note that =
=1
c hc hc
=
=
.
f hf E
=2
3
2
= 2(7.607 10 eV) = 1.5 10 eV
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)
=
= 8.17 105 m = 0.082 mm
E (1.60 1019 J/eV)(1.52 102 eV)
= 1:
2
E = 2(2)
2I
=
(c)
= 0:
2
E = 2(1)
2I
(b)
mH
CM
characteristic rotational energy, as mentioned in Problem 9, is
29-7
=3
3
2
= 4(7.607 10 eV) = 3.0 10 eV
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hc
=
= 4.08 105 m = 0.041 mm
E (1.60 1019 J/eV)(3.04 102 eV)
= 2:
2
E = 2(3) = 6(7.607 103 eV) = 4.6 102 eV
2I

=
11.
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hc
=
= 2.73 105 m = 0.027 mm
E (1.60 1019 J/eV)(4.56 102 eV)
Use the value of the rotational inertia as calculated in Example 292. We also use Eq. 292.
E =
(6.63 1034 J s) 2
2
4 (1.46 10
46
kg m )
(5) = 3.813 1022 J
34
J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

c hc hc (6.63 10
=
=
=
= 5.22 104 m
f hf E
(3.813 1022 J)
29-8
12.
Chapter 29
First find the energies of the transitions represented by the wavelengths.

E1 =
E2 =
E3 =
hc
hc
hc
=
=
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 10
19
m)
34
J s)(3.00 10 m/s)
19
J/eV)(11.6 103 m)
(6.63 10
(1.60 10
J/eV)(23.1 10
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 1019 J/eV)(7.71 103 m)
= 5.381 105 eV
= 10.717 105 eV
= 16.124 105 eV
E3 16.124
E2 10.717
=
= 1.992 2 and
=
= 2.996 3, from the energy levels indicated in
E1
5.381
E1
5.381
Fig. 2916, and from the selection rule that = , we see that these three transitions must represent
the = 1 to = 0 transition, the = 2 to = 1 transition, and
mNa
mCl
CM
the = 3 to = 2 transition. Thus E1 = 2 /I . We use that
relationship along with the rotational inertia about the center

r1
r2
of mass to calculate the bond length. Use the adjacent diagram
r
to help in the calculation of the rotational inertia.
Since
r1 =
[mNa (0) + mCl r ]

(35.5 u)r
=
= 0.607 r
(mNa + mCl )
(23.0 u + 35.5 u)
r2 = r r1 = 0.393r
I = mNa r12 + mCl r2 2 = (23.0 u)(0.607r ) 2 + (35.5 u)(0.393r ) 2 (1.66 1027 kg/u)
= (2.317 1026 r 2 ) kg m 2
E1 =
r=
13.
(a)
(5.381 105 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV) =
/I
(6.63 1034 J s) 2
(2.317 1026 r 2 )kg m 2
(1.055 1034 J s) 2
(2.317 1026 kg)( 5.381 105 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
= 2.36 10210 m
The curve for PE = 12 kx 2 is shown in

Fig. 2917 as a dashed line. This line crosses
the PE = 0 axis at about 0.120 nm. To fit the
expression PE = 12 kx 2 , which is always
positive, we shift the graph upward by 4.5 eV
so that the potential energy is 0 at the lowest
point and 4.5 eV for the radial positions
where it currently crosses the axis. We also
need to make the vertex point be at r = r0 .
4.5eV
0 eV
Thus the equation should be parameterized as PE = 12 k (r r0 ) 2 . A data point that fits this graph
is r = 0.120 nm and PE = 4.5 eV. See the diagram, which is a modified version of Fig. 2917.
There may be some variance due to differences in reading the graph.
2
PE = 1 k ( r r0 )
2
k=
2 PE
(r r0 ) 2
2(4.5 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)

(0.120 nm 0.074 nm)(109 m/nm)
= 680 N/m
(b)
The classical formula for the frequency of the oscillator is = 2 f = k /m . The statement of
the problem says to only use half the mass of a hydrogen atom. One H atom has a mass of one
atomic mass unit.
14.
29-9
c
c
m
=
= 2 c
= 2 (3.00 108 m/s)
f
k
1 k
2 m
1 (1.66 1027
2
kg)
680 N/m
= 2.1 106 m
Each ion is at the corner of a cube of side length s, the distance between ions. From Fig. 2920, a cube
of side length s would have four NaCl pairs. But each ion is part of eight cubes that share a common
corner. So any one cube has only the equivalent of one-half of an NaCl molecule. Use this to find the
density, which is mass per unit volume.
1 (m
NaCl )
2
3
1/3
1 mNaCl
s = 2
( 12 molecule/cube) (58.44 g/mole)

3
(2.165 g/cm )
1/3
molecules
1 mole
23
6.02 10
= 2.82 108 m
Note that Problem 16 quotes this value as 2.4 108 m.

15.
Each ion is at the corner of a cube of side length s, the distance between ions. From Fig. 2920, a cube
of side length s would have four KCl pairs. But each ion is part of eight cubes that share a common
corner. So any one cube has only the equivalent of one-half of a KCl molecule. Use this to find the
density, which is mass per unit volume. From the Periodic Table, the molecular weight of KCl is
74.55.
1
2
( mKCl )
1 mKCl
s= 2

16.
s3
1/3
( 12 molecule/cube ) (74.55 g/mole)

(1.99 g/cm3 )
1/3
molecules
1 mole
23
6.02 10
= 3.15 108 m
The NaCl crystal is illustrated in Fig. 2920. Consider four of the labeled ions Na +
from Fig. 2920. See the adjacent diagram. The distance from an Na ion to a
Cl ion is labeled as d, and the distance from an Na ion to the nearest neighbor
Na ion is the diagonal distance D.
Cl
D = d 2 = (0.24 nm) 2 = 0.34 nm
17.
The photon with the minimum frequency for conduction must have an energy
equal to the energy gap.
Eg = hf =
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 1019 J/eV)(620 109 m)
Cl
= 2.0 eV
Na
29-10
18.
Chapter 29
The photon with the longest wavelength or minimum frequency for conduction must have an energy
equal to the energy gap.
=
19.
c hc hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

=
=
=
= 1.11 106 m = 1.11 m
19
f hf Eg
(1.60 10
J/eV)(1.12 eV)
The energy of the photon must be greater than or equal to the energy gap. The lowest energy
corresponds to the longest wavelength that will excite an electron.
c hc hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

=
=
=
= 1.7 106 m = 1.7 m
19
f hf Eg
(1.60 10
J/eV)(0.72 eV)
Thus, the wavelength range is 1.7 m .

20.
(a)
For the glass to be transparent to the photon, the photons energy must be < 1.12 eV, so the
wavelength of the photon must be longer than the wavelength corresponding to 1.12 eV.
Eband gap =
min =
hc
min
hc
Eband gap
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.12 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
= 1.11 106 m
> 1.11 106 m
The minimum wavelength for transparency is in the infrared region of the spectrum. Since IR
has longer wavelengths than visible light, the silicon would not be transparent for visible light.
The silicon would be opaque, as in Example 295.
(b)
The minimum possible band gap energy for light to be transparent would mean that the band gap
energy would have to be larger than the most energetic visible photon. The most energetic
photon corresponds to the shortest wavelength, which is 400 nm in this Problem. We treat the
wavelength as being accurate to 2 significant figures.
Eband gap > Emin =
21.
min
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(400 109 m)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
= 3.1078 eV 3.1 eV
The minimum energy provided to an electron must be equal to the energy gap. Divide the total
available energy by the energy gap to estimate the maximum number of electrons that can be made to
jump.
N=
22.
hc
(a)
hf (830 103 eV)

=
= 1.2 106 electrons
Eg
(0.72 eV)
In the 2s shell of an atom,
= 0, so there are two states: ms = 12 . When N atoms form bands,
each atom provides two states, so the total number of states in the band is 2N .
(b)
In the 2p shell of an atom,
= 1, so there are three states from the m values: m = 0, 1; each
of which has two states from the ms values: ms = 12 , for a total of six states. When N atoms
form bands, each atom provides six states, so the total number of states in the band is 6N .
(c)
In the 3p shell of an atom,
29-11
= 1, so there are three states from the m values: m = 0, 1; each
of which has two states from the ms values: ms = 12 , for a total of six states. When N atoms
form bands, each atom provides six states, so the total number of states in the band is 6N .
(d)
In general, for a value of , there are 2 + 1 states from the m values: m = 0, 1, , . For
each of these, there are two states from the ms values: ms = 12 , for a total of 2(2 + 1) states.
When N atoms form bands, each atom provides 2(2 + 1) states, so the total number of states in
the band is 2 N (2 + 1).
23.
Calculate the number of conduction electrons in a mole of pure silicon. Also calculate the additional
conduction electrons provided by the doping, and then take the ratio of those two numbers of
conduction electrons.
(28.09 103 kg/mol) 16
3
11
NSi =
(10 electrons/m ) = 1.206 10 electrons/mol
(2330 kg/m3 )
(6.02 1023 atoms)
N doping =
N doping
NSi
24.
(4.013 1017 )
(1.206 1011 )
The photon will have an energy equal to the energy gap.

hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 1019 J/eV)(730 109 m)
= 1.7 eV
The band gap is the energy corresponding to the emitted wavelength.

E=
27.
= 3.33 106 3 106
c hc hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

=
=
=
= 9.56 107 m = 0.96 m
f hf Eg
(1.60 1019 J/eV)(1.3 eV)
Eg = hf =
26.
= 4.013 1017 added conduction electrons/mol
The wavelength is found from the energy gap.
=
25.
1.5 106
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.3 106 m)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
= 0.96 eV
From the currentvoltage characteristic graph in Fig. 2930, we see that a current of 14 mA means a
voltage of about 0.68 V across the diode. The battery voltage is the sum of the voltages across the
diode and the resistor.
Vbattery = Vdiode + VR = 0.68 V + (0.014 A)(960 ) = 14.12 V 14 V
28.
(a)
For a half-wave rectifier without a capacitor, the current is zero for half the time. We
approximate the average current as half of the full rms current.
I avg =
1 Vrms
2 R
1
2
(120 V)
= 1.9 mA
(31 k)
29-12
Chapter 29
(b)
For a full-wave rectifier without a capacitor, the current is positive all the time. We approximate
the average current as equal to the full rms current.
I avg =
29.
Vrms (120 V)
=
= 3.9 mA
R
(31 k)
The battery voltage is the sum of the voltages across the diode and the
resistor.
Vbattery = Vdiode + VR ;
2.0 V = Vdiode + I (180 ) I =
Vdiode 2.0 V
+
180 180
This is the equation for a straight line passing through the points
(0 V, 11.1 mA) and (0.8 V, 6.67 mA). The line has a y intercept of
11.1 mA and a slope of 5.6 mA/V. If the operating voltage of the
diode is about 0.68 V, then the current is about 7.3 mA. There is some
approximation involved in reading the graph.
30.
31.
R ()
In the first diagram we have copied the graph 0.8 V ( volts )
for V > 0 and rotated it so that it shows V as a
function of I. The resistance is the slope of
0.6
20
that first graph. The slope, and thus the
15
0.4
resistance, is very high for low currents and
decreases for larger currents, approaching 0.
10
0.2
As an approximate value, we see that the
5
I ( mA )
voltage changes from about 0.55 V to 0.65 V
as the current goes from 0 to 10 mA. That
30
10
20
10
20 30
makes the resistance about 10 ohms when the
I (mA)
current is about 5 mA. The second diagram is a sketch of the resistance.
(a)
The time constant for the circuit is 1 = RC1 = (33 103 )(28 106 F) = 0.924 s. As seen in
Fig. 2932c, there are two peaks per cycle. The period of the rectified voltage is
1 s = 0.0083 s. Because
T , the voltage across the capacitor will be essentially
T = 120
1
constant during a cycle, so the average voltage is the same as the peak voltage. The average
current is basically constant.
I avg =
(b)
Vavg
R
Vpeak
R
2Vrms
2(120 V)
=
= 5.1 mA
R
(33 103 )
With a different capacitor, the time constant for the circuit changes.
2 = RC2 = (33 103 )(0.10 106 F) = 0.0033 s

Now the period of the rectified voltage is about 2.5 time constants, so the voltage across the
capacitor will be rippled, decreasing to almost 0 during each half cycle, so that the average
voltage will be close to the rms voltage.
I avg =
Vrms
(120 V)
=
= 3.6 mA
R
(33 103 )
32.
29-13
The arrow at the emitter terminal, E, indicates the direction of current I E . The current into the
transistor must equal the current out of the transistor.
IB + IC = I E
33.
For a pnp transistor, both the collector and the base voltages
are negative, and holes move from the emitter to the
collector. The diagram for a pnp amplifier looks just like
Fig. 2941, with the polarity of % B and % C reversed, I B
and I C flowing in opposite directions, and the emitter arrow
pointing toward the base.
34.
By Ohms law, the ac output (collector) current times the

output resistor will be the ac output voltage.
Vout = iC RC
35.
RC =
Vout Vout
0.42 V
=
=
= 4421 4400
iC
I iB 95(1.0 106 A)
By Ohms law, the ac output (collector) current times the output resistor will be the ac output voltage.
Vout = iC RC = I iB RC = (85)(2.0 106 A)(3800 ) = 0.646 V 0.65 V
36.
By Ohms law, the ac output (collector) current times the output resistor will be the ac output voltage.
V Vinput 75(0.080 V)
V
Vout = iC R iC = out =
=
= 2.4 104 A = 0.24 mA
3
R
R
25 10
37.
(a)
The voltage gain is the collector ac voltage divided by the base ac voltage.
V =
(b)
38.
7.8 k
VC iC RC
R
=
= I C = 65
= 133.4 130
VB iB RB
RB
3.8 k
The power amplification is the output power divided by the input power.
i V
P = C C = I V = (65)(133.4) = 8672 8700
iBVB
For an electron confined in one dimension, we find the uncertainty in the momentum from the
uncertainty principle, p
. The momentum of the electron must be at least as big as the
uncertainty in the momentum, so we approximate p

KE =
. Finally, we calculate the kinetic energy by
p2
. Find the difference in the two kinetic energies based on the two position uncertainties.
2m
KE =
2
p2
=
2m 2m(x) 2
KE = KE in atoms KE molecule =
=
1
1
2
2m (x)in
(x) 2molecule
atoms
2
(1.055 1034 J s) 2
1
1
1
31
9
9
19
2
2
2(9.11 10 kg) (0.053 10 m)in atoms (0.074 10 m) molecule 1.60 10
J/eV
= 6.62 eV
29-14
Chapter 29
There are two electrons, and each one has this kinetic energy difference, so the total kinetic energy
difference is 2(6.62 eV) = 13.2 eV 13 eV .
39.
40.
41.
We find the temperature from the given relationship.

(a)
KE = 3 kT
T=
2 KE 2(4.0 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)

=
= 3.1 104 K
23
3k
3(1.38 10
J/K)
(b)
KE = 3 kT
T=
2 KE 2(0.12 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)

=
= 930 K
3k
3(1.38 1023 J/K)
The diagram here is similar to Fig. 2910. The

activation energy is the energy needed to get the
(initially) stable system over the barrier in the
potential energy. The activation energy is 1.4 eV for
this molecule. The dissociation energy is the energy
that is released when the bond is broken. The
dissociation energy is 1.6 eV for this molecule.
(a)
1.3eV
1.6eV
The potential energy for the point charges is

found in Section 292.
PE =
(b)
PE
e2
(2.30 1028 J m)
=
= 5.32 eV 5.3 eV
4 0 r
(0.27 109 m)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
1
Because the potential energy of the ions is negative, 5.32 eV is released when the ions are
brought together. The other energies quoted involve the transfer of the electron from the K atom
to the F atom. A total of 3.41 eV is released, and 4.34 eV is absorbed in the individual electron
transfer processes. Thus, the total binding energy is as follows:
Binding energy = 5.32 eV + 3.41 eV 4.34 eV = 4.39 eV 4.4 eV
42.
From Fig. 2916, a rotational absorption spectrum would show peaks at energies of
3 2 /I , etc. Adjacent peaks are separated by an energy of
energy to determine the rotational inertia.
E =
43.
I=
hf
h
4 2 f
/I , 2
/I ,
/I . We use the photon frequency at that
(6.63 1034 J s)
4 2 (8.9 1011 Hz)
= 1.9 1047 kg m 2
An O 2 molecule can be treated as two point masses, 16 u each, and each having a distance of
6.05 1011 m from the molecules center of mass.
I = mr 2 = 2[(16 u)(1.66 1027 kg/u)](6.05 1011 m) 2 = 1.94 1046 kg m 2
44.
The kinetic energy of the baton is
1
2
I 2 , and the quantum number can be found from Eq. 291. Let
the length of the baton be d. We assume that the quantum number will be very large. The rotational
inertia about the center of mass is the sum of the inertias for a uniform rod
masses 2mend
1
2
( 12 d )
29-15
( 121 mbar d 2 ) and two point
2 2
( + 1) 2
2I
2I
I
=
= 2mend 12 d
I 2 =
( )
1 m d2
+ 12
bar
2 f
2 (1.8 s 1 )
1 (0.23 kg)(0.32 m) 2
= 2(0.38 kg)(0.16 m)2 + 12
= 2.30 1033
(1.055 1034 J s)
The spacing between rotational energy levels is given by Eq. 292. We compare that value to the
rotational kinetic energy.
2
E
=
E
2 2
2
33
(2.30 10 )
= 8.7 1034
2I
This is such a small difference that it would not be detectable, so no, we do not need to consider
quantum effects.
45.
The photon with the maximum wavelength for absorption has an energy equal to the energy gap.
Eg = hf =
46.
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 1019 J/eV)(2.06 103 m)
= 6.03 104 eV
The photon with the maximum wavelength for conduction has an energy equal to the energy gap.
Eg = hf =
47.
hc
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 1019 J/eV)(226 109 m)
= 5.50 eV
The longest wavelength will be for the photon with the minimum energy, which corresponds to the gap
energy.
Eg =
hc
max
max =
hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

=
= 3.5 107 m
19
Eg
(3.6 eV)(1.60 10
J/eV)
So the photon must have 3.5 107 m .

48.
The photon with the longest wavelength has the minimum energy, which should be equal to the gap
energy.
Eg =
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 1019 J/eV)(1100 109 m)
= 1.130 eV 1.1 eV
If the energy gap is any larger than this, then some solar photons will not have enough energy to cause
an electron to jump levels. Those photons will not be absorbed, making the solar cell less efficient.
29-16
49.
Chapter 29
To use silicon to filter the wavelengths, wavelengths below the IR should cause the electron to be
raised to the conduction band, so the photon is absorbed in the silicon. We find the shortest wavelength
that will cause the electron to jump.
c hc hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

=
>
=
= 1.11 106 m = 1.11 m
19
f hf Eg
(1.60 10
J/eV)(1.12 eV)
Because this is in the IR region of the spectrum, the shorter wavelengths of visible light will excite the
electron and the photon would be absorbed. So silicon can be used as a window.
50.
51.
The energy gap is related to photon wavelength by Eg = hf = hc /. Use this for both colors of LED.
Green:
Eg =
Blue:
Eg =
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(1.60 1019 J/eV)(525 109 m)
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)
(1.60 1019 J/eV)(465 109 m)
= 2.37 eV
= 2.67 eV
From the diagram of the cubic lattice, we see that an atom inside the cube
is bonded to the six nearest neighbors. Because each bond is shared by
two atoms, the number of bonds per atom is three (as long as the sample
is large enough that most atoms are in the interior and not on the
boundary surface). We find the heat of fusion from the energy required to
break the bonds:
number of bonds number of atoms
LF =
Ebond
atom
mol
= (3)(6.02 1023 atoms/mol)(3.4 103 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)

= 982 J/mol 980 J/mol
Solutions to Search and Learn Problems

1.
Metallic bond theory says that the free electrons in metallic elements can vibrate at any frequency, so
when light of a range of frequencies falls on a metal, the electrons can vibrate in response and re-emit
light of those same frequencies. Hence, the reflected light will consist largely of the same frequencies
as the incident light, so it will not have a distinct color.
2.
The H 2 molecule does not have an activation energy. The two hydrogen atoms do not need an initial
kinetic energy to get close enough to bond. The potential energy of the H 2 molecule is less than the
potential energy of the atoms when they are infinitely apart. For the formation of ATP from ADP and
P, an activation energy is necessary. The two initial molecules must have an initial kinetic energy to
overcome the repulsion between them. It is part of the initial kinetic energy that is released causing
the ATP molecule to bond. Part of the initial kinetic energy of the atoms remains as potential energy
of the ATP molecule. That is, the potential energy of the ATP is greater than the potential energy when
the ADP and P are far apart.
3.
(a)
(b)
Weak bonds enable molecular structure to be modified easily, even by simple molecular
collisions. These can be accomplished at relatively low temperatures.
Heating the protein excessively will disassociate many of the weak bonds and may even
disassociate some of the stronger bonds, thereby changing the shape of the protein.
(c)
(d)
4.
(a)
The hydrogen bond is the strongest because the hydrogen atom is the smallest atom and can
therefore be approached the closest.
If these bonds were stronger, then the bonds could not be broken by simple molecular collisions.
That is, it would be difficult to break apart the DNA chain, which would prevent protein
synthesis from occurring at low temperatures.
The electrons will not be moving fast enough at this low temperature to use relativistic
expressions, so the momentum is just the mass times the speed. The kinetic energy of the
electrons can be found from the temperature, by Eq. 138. The kinetic energy is used to calculate
the momentum, and the momentum is used to calculate the wavelength.
p
KE = 3 kT =
2
=
(b)
5.
29-17
2m
p = 3mkT
(6.63 1034 J s)
h
h
=
=
= 6.27 109 m 6 nm
31
23
p
3mkT
3(9 10 kg)(1.38 10
J/K)(300 K)
The wavelength is much longer than the opening, so electrons at this temperature would
experience diffraction when passing through the lattice.
From Eq. 1810, the number of charge carriers per unit volume in a current is given by n =
I
,
ed A
where d is the drift speed of the charge carriers and A is the cross-sectional area through which the
VHall
, where VHall is the Hall
Bd
effect voltage and d is the width of the strip carrying the current (see Fig. 2021). The distance d is the
shorter dimension on the top of Fig. 2945. We combine these equations to find the density of
charge carriers. We define the thickness of the current-carrying strip as t = A/d .
carriers move. From Section 204, the drift speed is given by d =
n=
I
ed A
IBd
IB
(0.28 103 A)(1.5 T)
=
=
eVHall A eVHall t (1.60 1019 C)(0.018 V)(1.0 103 m)
= 1.458 1020 electrons/m3
The actual density of atoms per unit volume in the silicon is found from the density and the atomic
weight. We let that density be represented by N. That density is used to find the number of charge
carriers per atom.
6.02 1023 atoms

1 mole
28
3
N = (2330 kg/m3 )
= 4.994 10 atoms/m
28.0855 103 kg
1
mole
n 1.458 1020 electrons/m3

=
= 2.9 109 electrons/atom
28
3
N
4.994 10 atoms/m
6.
In a dielectric, Coulombs law becomes F =
ke2
2
e2
2
. Thus wherever e2 appears in an
r
4 K 0 r
equation, we divide by K. The arsenic ion has a charge of +1, since we consider the ion as having been
formed by removing one electron from the arsenic atom. Thus the effective Z will be 1, and we can use
the Bohr theory results for hydrogen.
29-18
Chapter 29
(a)
The energy of the electron is calculated by taking Eq. 2715a and Eq. 2715b and dividing the
expression by K 2 since it has a factor of e4 in the numerator.
E=
2 2 Z 2 e4 mk 2
2 2 2
K h n
(13.6 eV) Z 2
2 2
K n
(13.6 eV)(1)2
(12) 2 (1) 2
= 0.094 eV
Thus the binding energy is 0.094 eV.

(b)
The radius of the electron orbit is found from Eqs. 2712 and 2713, with the expression
multiplied by K.
r=
Kh 2 n 2
4 2 Ze 2 mk
Kn 2 (0.0529 nm) (12)(1) 2 (0.0529 nm)

=
= 0.63 nm
Z
(1) 2

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MOLECULES AND SOLIDS

The bond in an N 2 molecule is expected to be covalent.

The bond in the HCl molecule is expected to be ionic.

Rreverse /Rforward = 12 V/0.6 V = 20

Molecules and Solids

Responses to MisConceptual Questions

Molecules and Solids

= 8.214 1019 J 8.2 1019 J

We follow the procedure outlined in the statement of the Problem.

+ d N 2 ) = 12 (74 pm + 145 pm) = 110 pm

+ d N 2 ) = 12 (154 pm + 145 pm) = 150 pm

+ d O2 ) = 12 (145 pm + 121 pm) = 133 pm

We convert the units from kcal/mole to eV/molecule.

The protons themselves have this potential energy:

This is close to the actual value of 4.5 eV quoted in the text.

The MKS units of

We first write an expression for the moment of inertia of

kg/u)(0.121 109 m) 2 (1.60 1019 J/eV)

= 1.789 104 eV 1.79 104 eV

From Fig. 2916, the energy involved in the l = 3 to l = 2 transition is 3

= 6(1.789 104 eV) = 1.0734 103 eV 1.07 103 eV

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

Use the rotational energy and the moment of inertia of N 2

Molecules and Solids

The moment of inertia of H 2 about its CM is

= 12 mH r 2 . See the adjacent diagram. The

= 1.217 1023 J = 7.607 103 eV

is the value for the upper state. Note that =

characteristic rotational energy, as mentioned in Problem 9, is

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(5) = 3.813 1022 J

J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

First find the energies of the transitions represented by the wavelengths.

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

relationship along with the rotational inertia about the center

[mNa (0) + mCl r ]

(5.381 105 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV) =

The curve for PE = 12 kx 2 is shown in

2(4.5 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)

Molecules and Solids

( 12 molecule/cube) (58.44 g/mole)

Note that Problem 16 quotes this value as 2.4 108 m.

( 12 molecule/cube ) (74.55 g/mole)

D = d 2 = (0.24 nm) 2 = 0.34 nm

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

c hc hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

c hc hc (6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

Thus, the wavelength range is 1.7 m .

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

> 1.11 106 m

(6.63 1034 J s)(3.00 108 m/s)

hf (830 103 eV)

In the 2s shell of an atom,

= 0, so there are two states: ms = 12 . When N atoms form bands,

In the 2p shell of an atom,

= 1, so there are three states from the m values: m = 0, 1; each

Molecules and Solids

In the 3p shell of an atom,

= 1, so there are three states from the m values: m = 0, 1; each

(6.02 1023 atoms)

The photon will have an energy equal to the energy gap.