SATELLITE

JESSIE JAYE R. BALBIN, ECE, MEP-ECE

DIRECTOR, Q-POINT REVIEW CENTER

 In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is

an object which has been placed into orbit
by human endeavor. Such objects are
sometimes called artificial satellites to
distinguish them from natural satellites
such as the Moon.

A full size model of the Earth observation satellite ERS 2

History
Early conceptions
The first fictional depiction of a satellite
being launched into orbit is a short story
by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon.
The story was serialized in The Atlantic
Monthly, starting in 1869.The idea
surfaces again in Jules Verne's The
Begum's Millions (1879).

History
In 1903 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (18571935) published

(The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means
of Reaction Devices), which is the first academic treatise
on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft.
He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal
orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a multi-stage
rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be used to
achieve this. He proposed the use of liquid hydrogen and
liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.

History
In 1928 Herman Potonik (18921929) published his
sole book, Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums der Raketen-Motor (The Problem of Space Travel The
Rocket Motor), a plan for a breakthrough into space and
a permanent human presence there. He conceived of a
space station in detail and calculated its geostationary
orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for
detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground
and described how the special conditions of space could
be useful for scientific experiments. The book described
geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky)
and discussed communication between them and the
ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using
satellites for mass broadcasting and as
telecommunications relays.

History
In a 1945 Wireless World article the English
science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (19172008) described in detail the possible use of
communications satellites for mass
communications.Clarke examined the logistics of
satellite launch, possible orbits and other
aspects of the creation of a network of worldcircling satellites, pointing to the benefits of highspeed global communications. He also
suggested that three geostationary satellites
would provide coverage over the entire planet.

History of artificial satellites

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1,
launched by the Soviet Union on 4
October 1957, and that started the whole
Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei
Korolev as chief designer. This triggered
the Space Race between the Soviet Union
and the United States.

 Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high

atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital
change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in
the ionosphere.
Because the satellite's body was filled with pressurized
nitrogen, Sputnik 1 also provided the first opportunity for
meteoroid detection, as a loss of internal pressure due to
meteoroid penetration of the outer surface would have
been evident in the temperature data sent back to Earth.
The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success
precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and
ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

 Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3,

1957 and carried the first living passenger
into orbit, a dog named Laika.

 In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of

an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite
vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one
of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century
On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S.
intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became
known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that
they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National
Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military
interest picked up and in early 1955 the Air Force and Navy were
working on Project Orbiter, which involved using a Jupiter C rocket
to launch a satellite. The project succeeded, and Explorer 1 became
the United States' first satellite on January 31, 1958
The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the
International Space Station.

Timeline of artificial satellites

and space probes

Key: Year - Origin - Target - Status - Description

1950s

1957 - Soviet Union - Earth - Success - Sputnik 1 is launched, the first

Earth orbiting satellite
1957 - Soviet Union - Earth - Partial success - Sputnik 2 is launched,
the first Earth orbiting satellite with an animal (Laika)
1958 - USA - Earth - Success - Explorer 1
1958 - USA - Moon - Failure - Pioneer 1 orbiter
1958 - USA - Moon - Failure - Pioneer 3 flyby
1959 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 1 flyby launched, it
discovered solar wind
1959 - USA - Moon - Partial success - Pioneer 4 flyby
1959 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 2 impactor launched, it
was the first spacecraft to impact onto the surface of the moon
1959 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 3 flyby launched, it
returned the first image of the Moon's hidden side

1960s

1960 - USA - Sun - Pioneer 5 solar monitor

1960 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1960A probe
1960 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1960B probe
1961 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - 1VA (proto-Venera) flyby
1961 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Venera 1 flyby
1961 - USA - Earth - Success - OSCAR1 First Amateur Satellite
1962 - USA - Venus - Success - Mariner 2 launched and became the
first satellite to return data about Venus
1962 - USA - Earth - Success - Telstar 1 is launched
1962 - Canada - Earth - Success - Alouette 1 is launched, the first
Canadian satellite
1962 - UK - Earth - Success 1962 - USA - Moon - Failure - Ranger 3 photographic mission
1962 - USA - Moon - Partial Failure - Ranger 4 photographic mission
(impacted lunar surface)
1962 - USA - Moon - Partial Failure - Ranger 5 photographic mission
(became flyby)
1962 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1962A flyby
1962 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1 flyby
1962 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 1962B lander

 1963 - USA - Earth - Failure - Syncom 1 is launched

1963 - USA - Earth - Success - Syncom 2 is launched; the first
geosynchronous orbit
1963 - Soviet Union - Moon - Partial Failure - Luna 4 lander
(became probe)
1964 - USA - Earth - Success - Syncom 3 is launched; the first
geostationary orbit
1964 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Zond 1 flyby
1964 - USA - Moon - Failure - Ranger 6 photographic mission
1964 - USA - Moon - Success - Ranger 7 photographic mission
1964 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mariner 3 flyby
1964 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 4 flyby, the first
successful Mars mission
1964 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Zond 2 flyby

 1965 - USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 6 solar probe

1965 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Venera 2 flyby
1965 - Soviet Union - Venus - Failure - Venera 3 atmospheric
probe
1965 - USA - Moon - Success - Ranger 8 photographic mission
1965 - USA - Moon - Success - Ranger 9 photographic mission
1965 - Canada - Earth - Success - Alouette 2 is launched
aboard a U.S. rocket
1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 5 lander
1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 6 lander
1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 3 flyby
1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 7 lander
1965 - France - Satellite - Success - Astrix satellite
1965 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 8 lander
1965 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 4 sends the first clear
pictures of Mars

 1966 - USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 7 solar probe

1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 9 lander returned
the first photographs from the surface of the Moon
1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 10 becomes the
first spacecraft to orbit the Moon
1966 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 1 lander
1966 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 1 orbiter
1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 11 orbiter
1966 - USA - Moon - Failure - Surveyor 2
1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 12 orbiter
1966 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 2 orbiter
1966 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 13 lander

 1967 - Australia - Earth - Success - WRESAT is launched from

Woomera on a U.S. Redstone rocket, the first Australian
satellite
1967 - USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 8 solar probe
1967 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 4 sends the
first data from below the clouds of Venus
1967 - USA - Venus - Success - Mariner 5 flyby
1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 3 orbiter
1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 2 lander
1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 4 orbiter
1967 - USA - Moon - Failure - Surveyor 3 lander
1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Explorer 35 orbiter
1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Orbiter 5 orbiter
1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 5 lander
1967 - USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 6 lander, also took off
from the Moon's surface
1967 - USA - Success - The gamma-ray satellite discovers
gamma-ray emission from the plane of the Milky Way

1968 1968 1968 1968 1968 1969 probe

1969 probe
1969 1969 1969 1969 1969 -

USA - Sun - Success - Pioneer 9 solar probe

USA - Moon - Success - Surveyor 7 lander
Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 14 orbiter
Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 5 flyby
Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 6 flyby
Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 5 atmospheric
Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 6 atmospheric
USA - Moon - Success - Apollo 10 manned orbiter
Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 15 lander
Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 7 flyby
USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 6 flyby
USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 7 flyby

1970s
1970 - Japan - Earth - Success - Osumi the first Japanese
satellite
1970 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 7, the first
successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet
1970 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 16 lander is the
first automated return of samples from the Moon
1970 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Zond 8 flyby
1970 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 17/Lunokhod 1
lander/rover is the first automated surface exploration of the
Moon
1970 - USA - Success - Launch of Uhuru, the first dedicated Xray satellite
1970 - China - Success - Launch of Dong Fang Hong I, the first
Chinese satellite

1971 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 18 lander

1971 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 19 orbiter
1971 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mariner 8 flyby
1971 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Cosmos 419 probe
1971 - Soviet Union - Mars - Partial Failure - Mars 2 orbiter and
lander, created the first human artifact on Mars
1971 - Soviet Union - Mars - Partial Success - Mars 3 orbiter and
lander, first successful landing on Mars
1971 - USA - Mars - Success - Mariner 9 orbiter, first pictures
of Mars' moons (Phobos and Deimos) taken
1971 - UK - Earth - Success - Prospero X-3 satellite, first and
only satellite launched by Britain using a British rocket
1972 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 8 lander
1972 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 20 lander
1972 - Success - Launch of the Copernicus ultraviolet satellite
1972 - USA - Sun - Success - Explorer 49 solar probe

 1973 - USA - Venus/Mercury - Success - Mariner 10 launched,

it passed by and photographed Mercury, also was the first dual
planet probe
1973 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 21/Lunokhod 2
lander/rover
1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 4 orbiter
1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Success - Mars 5 orbiter
1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 6 orbiter and lander
1973 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Mars 7 orbiter and lander
1974 - Germany - Sun - Success - Helios 1 solar probe
1974 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 22 orbiter
1974 - Soviet Union - Moon - Failure - Luna 23 probe
1974 - Success - Launch of the Ariel V X-ray satellite

1975 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 9 returns the first

pictures of the surface of Venus
1975 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 10 orbiter and lander
1975 - USA - Mars - Partial Success - Viking 1 orbiter and lander; lands on
Mars 1976
1975 - USA - Mars - Success - Viking 2 orbiter and lander; lands on Mars
1976
1975 - India - Earth - Success - Aryabhata India, launched by USSR
1975 - India - India's first rocket SLV launched
1976 - Germany - Sun - Success - Helios 2 solar probe
1976 - Soviet Union - Moon - Success - Luna 24 lander
1976 - Earth - Success - Hermes Communications Technology Satellite
prototype for testing direct broadcast TV
1976 - Success - The Vela and ANS X-ray satellites discover X-ray
bursts
1976 - Success - The X-ray satellite shows that X-ray bursts have
blackbody spectra

 1977 - Success - Launch of the X-ray satellite

1978 - USA - Venus - Success - Pioneer Venus 1 orbiter
1978 - USA - Venus - Success - Pioneer Venus 2 atmospheric
probe
1978 - Soviet Union - Venus - Partial Success - Venera 11 flyby
and lander
1978 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 12 flyby and
lander
1978 - Success - Launch of the International Ultraviolet
Explorer satellite
1978 - Success - Launch of the Einstein X-ray satellite (HEAO-2)
is the first X-ray photographs of astronomical objects
1979 - Success - Launch of the Hakucho X-ray satellite ()
1979 - Success - Launch of the cosmic-ray and X-ray satellite
1979 - USA - Jupiter - Success - Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 send
back images of Jupiter and its system

1980s
1980 - USA - Sun - Failure- Solar Maximum Mission solar probe
succeeded after being repaired in Earth orbit
1981 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 13 launched, it
returned the first colour pictures of the surface of Venus
1981 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 14 flyby and
lander
1983 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 15 orbiter
1983 - Soviet Union - Venus - Success - Venera 16 orbiter
1983 - Success - Launch of the EXOSAT X-ray satellite
1983 - Success - Launch of the Tenma X-ray satellite (ASTRO-B)
1983 - Success - Launch of the IRAS satellite
1984 - Soviet Union - Venus/Halley's Comet - Success - Vega 1
flyby, atmospheric probe and lander
1984 - Soviet Union - Venus/Halley's Comet - Success - Vega 2
flyby, atmospheric probe and lander

1986 - Europe - Halley's Comet - Success - Giotto flyby

1987 - Success - Launch of the Ginga X-ray satellite (ASTRO-C)
1988 - Soviet Union - Mars - Failure - Phobos 1 orbiter and lander
1988 - Soviet Union - Mars - Partial Failure - Phobos 2 flyby and
lander
1989 - Venus - Success - Magellan orbiter launched which mapped
99 percent of the surface of Venus (300 m resolution)
1989 - USA - Venus/Earth/Moon/Gaspra/Ida/Jupiter - Failure Galileo flyby, orbiter and atmospheric probe
1989 - USA - Neptune - Success - Voyager 2 sends back images of
Neptune and its system
1989 - Success - Launch of the Granat gamma-ray and X-ray
satellite
1989 - Europe - Success - Launch of the Hipparcos satellite
1989 - Success - Launch of the COBE satellite

1990s
1990 - USA - Sun - Success - Ulysses solar flyby
1990 - Japan - Moon - - MUSES-A probe, this was the
first non-U.S. or USSR probe to reach the Moon
1990 - USA/ Europe - Success - Launch of the Hubble
Space Telescope
1990 - Germany - Success - Launch of the ROSAT Xray satellite is the first imaging X-ray sky survey
1991 - Japan - Sun - Success - Yohkoh solar probe
1991 - USA - Success - Launch of the Compton
Gamma-Ray Observatory satellite
1992 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mars Observer orbiter
1993 - Japan - Success - Launch of the ASCA
(ASTRO-D) X-ray satellite

 1994 - USA - Moon - Success - Clementine orbiter

mapped the surface of the Moon (resolution 125-150m)
and allowed the first accurate relief map of the Moon to
be generated
1995 - USA - Sun - Success - SOHO solar probe
1996 - USA - Mars - Mars Global Surveyor orbiter
1996 - USA - Mars - Success - Mars
Pathfinder/Sojourner lander/rover, the first automated
surface exploration another planet
1996 - Russia - Mars - Failure - Mars 96 orbiter and
lander
1997 - USA/Europe - Success - Saturn and Titan Cassini-Huygens - arrived in orbit on July 1, 2004,
landed on Titan January 14, 2005
1997 Philippines Moon Success Aguila 2 satellite

 1998 - North Korea - Unknown - Claimed launch of

Kwangmyongsong by North Korea though no
independent source was able to verify its existence
1998 - USA - Moon - Success - Lunar Prospector
orbiter
1998 - Japan - Mars - Failure - Nozomi (Planet B)
orbiter, the first Japanese spacecraft to reach another
planet
1998 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mars Climate Orbiter
1999 - USA - Mars - Failure - Mars Polar Lander
1999 - USA - Mars - Failure - Deep Space 2 (DS2)
penetrators

2000s
2001 - USA - Sun - Partial Success - Genesis solar wind sample
return - crash-landed on return
2001 - USA - Success - Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) performs cosmological observations.
2001 - USA - Mars - Success - Mars Odyssey
2003 - Canada - Earth - Success - MOST the smallest space
telescope in orbit
2003 - USA - Comet Encke - Failure - CONTOUR launched, but
lost during early trajectory insertion.
2003 - Europe - Moon - Success - Smart 1 orbiter
2003 - Europe - Mars - Partial Success - Mars Express orbiter
(successfully reached orbit) and failed lander, the Beagle 2
2003 - USA - Mars - Success - Mars Exploration Rovers successful launches, Spirit successfully landed, Opportunity
successfully landed

 2004 - ESA - Comet 67P - Rosetta space probe

launched - yet to arrive
2004 - USA - Mercury - MESSENGER orbiter launched - yet to arrive
2004 - USA - Success - Launch of the Swift Gamma ray
burst observatory.
2005 - Iran - Earth - Sinah-1 - launched, first Iranianbuilt satellite
2005 - USA - Comet Tempel 1 - Deep Impact successful comet impact
2005 - USA - Mars - Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter - in
orbit
2005 - Europe - Venus - Venus Express - in orbit

 2006 - USA - Pluto - New Horizons - launched - yet to

arrive
2006 - France/ESA - Earth - COROT - launched,
telescope to search for extrasolar planets
2007 - USA - Mars - Success - Phoenix - launched and
successfully landed
2007 - Japan - Moon - SELENE orbiter and lander - in
lunar orbit since October 3, 2007
2007 - USA - Vesta/Ceres- Dawn - launched - yet to
arrive
2007 - China - Moon - Chang'e-I - in lunar orbit since
November 5, 2007
2008 - India - Moon - Chandrayaan (work in progress)

List of communications satellite

firsts
1928- Herman Potocnik describes a space station in
geosynchronous orbit

1945- Arthur C. Clarke proposes a station in geosynchronous orbit

to relay communications and broadcast television
1957- Sputnik 1- first satellite equipped by radio-transmitters
1958- Project SCORE -America's first communications satellite
August, 1960- Echo I - first passive reflector satellite

 October, 1960- Courier 1B - first active repeater satellite

July, 1962 Telstar - first satellite designed to transmit
television and high-speed data communications
1963- Syncom - first communications satellite in
geosynchronous orbit1
March, 1965- OSCAR-III - first amateur radio
communications satellite
October, 1965- Molniya - first Soviet communication
satellite, highly elliptic orbit

 April, 1965- Early Bird- INTELSAT's first satellite for

commercial service
November, 1967- Orbita -first national TV network based
on satellite television
1973- Anik 1- first national satellite television system,
Canada
April, 1945 - Westar 1-USA's first geosynchronous
communications satellite

December 19, 1974- Symphonie - first geostationary

communications satellite to be three-axis stabilized

 1976- Ekran - first serial Direct-To-Home TV

communication satellite
July 8, 1976 - Palapa A1- first Indonesia communications
satellite
1983- TDRSS - first satellite designed to provide
communications relay services for other spacecraft.
February 2, 1985 - Arabsat-1A - first communications
satellite for the Arab League
August 10, 1994 - Turksat 1B -first communications
satellite for Turkey
January 14, 2005 - Cassini spacecraft relays to Earth
images from the Huygens probe as it lands on Saturn's
moon, Titan, the longest relay to date.
NICOMSAT1 1ST Nigeria Communication Satellite

Non-Military Satellite Services

Fixed Satellite Service
Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of
billions of voice, data, and video
transmission tasks across all countries
and continents between certain points on
the earths surface

Mobile Satellite Systems

Mobile satellite systems help connect
remote regions, vehicles, ships and
aircraft to other parts of the world and/or
other mobile or stationary communications
units, in addition to serving as navigation
systems

Scientific Research Satellite (commercial

and noncommercial)
Scientific research satellites provide us
with meteorological information, land
survey data (e.g., remote sensing), and
other different scientific research
applications such as earth science, marine
science, and atmospheric research.

Types of Satellites
Anti-satellite weapons/Killer Satellites
- are satellites that are armed, designed to take out
enemy warheads, satellites, other space assets.
They may have particle weapons, energy
weapons, kinetic weapons, nuclear and/or
conventional missiles and/or a combination of
these weapons. In fiction, one has been featured
in the movie Maximum Overdrive in which one of
these, disguised as a "Weather Satellite" had
taken out a UFO with Class IV nuclear weapons
and laser cannon.

 Astronomical satellites are satellites used for

observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer
space objects.
Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living
organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.
Communications satellites are satellites stationed in
space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern
communications satellites typically use geosynchronous
orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.

MILSTAR: A communication satellite

 Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low weights and

small sizes. New classifications are used to categorize these
satellites: minisatellite (500200 kg), microsatellite (below 200 kg),
nanosatellite (below 10 kg).
Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals
transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine
their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the
satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with everimproving electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to
measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real
time.
Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satellite or
communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence
applications. Little is known about the full power of these satellites,
as governments who operate them usually keep information
pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.

 Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military

uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making
etc.
Space stations are man-made structures that are designed for
human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is
distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major
propulsion or landing facilities instead, other vehicles are used as
transport to and from the station. Space stations are designed for
medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even
years.
Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another
satellite by a thin cable called a tether.

Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather

and climate

Orbit types
The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around
Earth and was therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is
the most common type of orbit with approximately 2456
artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits
may be further classified by their altitude, inclination and
eccentricity.
The commonly used altitude classifications are Low
Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and High
Earth Orbit (HEO). Low Earth orbit is any orbit below
2000 km, and Medium Earth Orbit is any orbit higher
than that but still below the altitude for geosynchronous
orbit at 35786 km. High Earth Orbit is any orbit higher
than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.

Centric classifications
Galactocentric orbit: An orbit about the center of a galaxy. Earth's
sun follows this type of orbit about the galactic center of the Milky
Way.

Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all
planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many
artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are
not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.
Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the
Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 2465
artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.
Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars, such as moons
or artificial satellites

Various earth orbits to

scale;
-cyan represents low
earth orbit,
-yellow represents
medium earth orbit,
-the black dashed line
represents
geosynchronous orbit,
-the green dash-dot line
the orbit of Global
Positioning System (GPS)
satellites, and
-the red dotted line the
orbit of the International
Space Station (ISS).

Altitude classifications
Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits
ranging in altitude from 02000 km (01240
miles)
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits
ranging in altitude from 2000 km (1240 miles) to
just below geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km
(22240 miles). Also known as an intermediate
circular orbit.
High Earth Orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits
above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit
35786 km (22240 miles).

Inclination classifications
Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in
reference to the equatorial plane is not zero
degrees.
Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly
above both poles of the planet on each
revolution. Therefore it has an inclination of (or
very close to) 90 degrees.
Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar
orbit that passes the equator at the same local
time on every pass. Useful for image taking
satellites because shadows will be nearly the
same on every pass.

Eccentricity classifications
Circular orbit: An orbit that has an
eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a
circle.
Hohmann transfer orbit: An orbital
maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one
circular orbit to another using two engine
impulses. This maneuver was named after
Walter Hohmann.

Eccentricity classifications
Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0
and less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.
Geosynchronous transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the
perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the
apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit.
Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee
is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the apogee at
the altitude of a geostationary orbit.
Molniya orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4 and
orbital period of half of a sidereal day (roughly 12 hours). Such a
satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the
planet.
Tundra orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4 and
orbital period of one sidereal day (roughly 24 hours). Such a
satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the
planet.

Eccentricity classifications
Hyperbolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity greater
than 1. Such an orbit also has a velocity in excess of the
escape velocity and as such, will escape the
gravitational pull of the planet and continue to travel
infinitely.
Parabolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity equal to 1.
Such an orbit also has a velocity equal to the escape
velocity and therefore will escape the gravitational pull of
the planet and travel until its velocity relative to the
planet is 0. If the speed of such an orbit is increased it
will become a hyperbolic orbit.
Escape orbit (EO): A high-speed parabolic orbit where the
object has escape velocity and is moving away from the planet.
Capture orbit: A high-speed parabolic orbit where the object has
escape velocity and is moving toward the planet.

Synchronous classifications
Synchronous orbit: An orbit where the satellite has an
orbital period equal to the average rotational period
(earth's is: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds) of the
body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation
as that body. To a ground observer such a satellite would
trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO): An orbit with an
altitude of approximately 20200 km (12544.2 miles) and
an orbital period equal to one-half of the average
rotational period (earth's is approximately 12 hours) of
the body being orbited

Synchronous classifications
Geosynchronous orbit (GEO): Orbits with an altitude of
approximately 35786 km (22240 miles). Such a satellite would trace
an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
Geostationary orbit (GSO): A geosynchronous orbit with an
inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would
appear as a fixed point in the sky.
Clarke orbit: Another name for a geostationary orbit. Named after
scientist and writer Arthur C. Clarke.

Supersynchronous orbit: A disposal / storage orbit above

GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Also a synonym for Disposal
orbit.
Subsynchronous orbit: A drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO.
Satellites will drift east.
Graveyard orbit: An orbit a few hundred kilometers above
geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their
operation.
Disposal orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
Junk orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.

Synchronous classifications
Areosynchronous orbit: A synchronous orbit around
the planet Mars with an orbital period equal in length to
Mars' sidereal day, 24,6229 hours.
Areostationary orbit (ASO): A circular areosynchronous
orbit on the equatorial plane and about 17000 km(10557
miles) above the surface. To an observer on the ground
this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.
Heliosynchronous orbit: An heliocentric orbit about the
Sun where the satellite's orbital period matches the
Sun's period of rotation. These orbits occur at a radius of
24,360 Gm (0,1628 AU) around the Sun, a little less than
half of the of Mercury.

Special classifications
Sun-synchronous orbit: An orbit which
combines altitude and inclination in such a way
that the satellite passes over any given point of
the planets's surface at the same local solar
time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in
constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy,
and weather satellites.
Moon orbit: The orbital characteristics of earth's
moon. Average altitude of 384403 kilometres
(238857 mi), elliptical-inclined orbit.

Pseudo-orbit classifications
Horseshoe orbit: An orbit that appears to a ground observer to be
orbiting a certain planet but is actually in co-orbit with the planet.
Exo-orbit: A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches the height of
orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.
Suborbital spaceflight: A synonym for exo-orbit.

Lunar transfer orbit (LTO)

Prograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of less than 90. Or
rather, an orbit that is in the same direction as the rotation of the
primary.
Retrograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of more than 90. Or
rather, an orbit counter to the direction of rotation of the planet. Apart
from those in sun-synchronous orbit, few satellites are launched into
retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel required to launch them
is much greater than for a prograde orbit. This is because when the
rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward
component of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at
its launch latitude.
Halo orbit and Lissajous orbit: Orbits "around" Lagrangian points.

Satellite Modules
Spacecraft bus or service module
This first module consist of five subsystems:
The Structural Subsystems
The structural subsystem provides the mechanical
base structure, shields the satellite from extreme
temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage,
and controls the satellites spin functions.

The Telemetry Subsystems

The telemetry subsystem monitors the on-board
equipment operations, transmits equipment operation
data to the earth control station, and receives the
earth control stations commands to perform
equipment operation adjustments.

 The Power Subsystems

The power subsystem consists of solar panels and backup
batteries that generate power when the satellite passes into the
earths shadow.

The Thermal Control Subsystems

The thermal control subsystem helps protect electronic
equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or
the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the satellites body

The Attitude and Orbit Controlled Control

Subsystems
The attitude and orbit controlled subsystem consists of small
rocket thrusters that keep the satellite in the correct orbital
position and keep antennas positioning in the right directions.

 Communication Payload
The second major module is the communication
payload, which is made up of transponders.
A transponders is capable of :
Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth
satellite transmission stations (antennas).
Amplifying received radio signals
Sorting the input signals and directing the output
signals through input/output signal multiplexers
to the proper downlink antennas for
retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations
(antennas).