HEAT TREATMENT (Compatibility Mode)

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Plain Carbon Steel
01/34
An alloy of iron & carbon
-Low carbon steel 0.1 0.25% of carbon
-Medium carbon steel 0.25 0.65% of carbon
-High carbon steel 0.65 1.5% of carbon
Alloy Steels
An alloy of iron, carbon, and other alloying elements

Alloy Steels are classified in to three groups according to their uses.
-Structural steels
-hot rolled steel
-cold rolled steel
-cast steel
-Tool steels
-water hardening steel
-shock resistance steel
-cold work tool steel
-hot work tool steel
-high speed steel
-Special purpose steel
-stainless steel
-spring steel
02/34

Low Carbon Steel
-contains up to 0.25% of carbon
-accounts for 90% of total plain carbon steel
-hardly any martensite is formed

-classified in to two groups
Carbon % up to 0.10%
Carbon % from 0.1 to 0.25%
03/34

Low Carbon Steel
Carbon up to 0.1%
-annealing plays an important role during manufacture
of cold rolled sheets.
-a special annealing (1000-12000C) is adopted with a long
holding period for using as magnetic material.
-excellent formability
-general engineering work involve severe cold
deformation such as bending, riveting, deep drawing
-cold rolled sheets
-automobile, furniture, refrigerator industries, tin cans,
tin plates, galvanized sheets
-low cost
04/34

Low Carbon Steel
Carbon from 0.1 0.25%
-on case carburizing, steel develops a hard and
wear resistance case with a tough core
-carburized steel always subjected to further
heat treatment to refine case, core or both
-Normalizing to be done in order to improve machinability.
-used for light duty general engineering purpose
-typical applications include ship plates, boiler plates,
cams, shafts, stay bolts, wheel hub, break housing.
05/34

Heat treatment temperature of Low Carbon Steel
Description
composition
0.10 - 0.15% C
0.15 - 0.25% C
Annealing
Temperature(0C)
880 - 930
880 920
Normalizing
Temperature(0C)
880 - 930
880 920
Hardening
Temperature(0C)
770 - 800
770 800
Quenching media
water
Water
Carburizing
Temperature(0C)
880 - 930
880 930
Heating to 760-7800C,
followed by water
quenching
Heating to 7607800C, followed by

water quenching
150 - 200
150 - 200
Refining
treatment after
curburizing
Tempering
temp.(0C)
06/34
07/34
Medium Carbon Steel

-contains carbon from 0.25 to 0.65%
-responds to HT is much better
-always used in heat treated conditions
-depending on their responds to HT, it can be divided in to two
0.25-0.50% carbon content
0.50-0.65% of carbon content
-Normalizing is employed for improving machinanility for the first group

-Typical example of first group include railway coupling,
driving ring and flanges, hand tools, sockets, levers, cams,
tube for bicycle, automobile and aircrafts.
08/34

Medium Carbon Steel
Steel with 0.50-0.65% of carbon
-annealing is employed for improving machinability
-can be surface hardened by flame or induction hardening
to get hardened wear resistant case with tough core.
-typical example includes spindles of machine tools, gears,

bolts, shafts, axles, pinions, cylinder liners, cams, crank shafts,
keys, riffle barrels.
09/34
Heat treatment temperature for Medium Carbon Steel

Composition
% of carbon
Annealing Normalizing
(0C)
(0C)
Hardening
(0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
(0C)
0.25 0.30
880 - 900
880 - 900
860 880
850 870
Oil
water
500 - 650
0.30 0.35
870 890 870 890
850 870
840 860
Oil
water
500 - 650
0.35 0.40
860 880 860 880
850 870
840 860
Oil
water
500 - 650
0.40 0.45
850 870 850 870
840 860
830 850
Oil
water
500 - 650
0.45 0.50
840 860 840 860
830 850
820 840
Oil
water
500 - 650
0.50 0.55
830 850 830 850
820 840
810 830
Oil
water
500 - 650
0.55 0.60
820 840 820 840
810 830
800 820
Oil
water
500 - 650
0.60 0.65
810 - 830
800 820
790 810
Oil
water
500 - 650
810 - 830

High Carbon Steel
-carbon content varies from 0.65 to 1.5%
-steel with more than 1.3% of carbon is rarely used as they
posses brittleness
-brittleness can be reduced to some extend by sperodizing
annealing by sacrificing strength and hardness.
-steels with 0.65 to 1.0% of carbon used for making springs
-two common methods adopted for fabrication of springs
1) hot rolled and 2) cold rolled(drawn)
-springs made out of hot rolling process are subjected to
hardening and tempering
-hardening temperature mainly depend on the chemical
composition and final properties requirement.
10/34
11/34

High Carbon Steel
continued
-a hardness of 56 60 HRC is obtained after hardening & tempering

-because of low hardenability, used for light springs
-high strength can be achieved by cold drawn
-very high tensile strength can be obtained by combining patenting
& cold drawn operations
-tempering at 200-2500C will result in improving elastic limit
-for enhance toughness & ductility, steel to temper at above 4000C
12/34

Heat treatment temperature of High Carbon Spring Steel
Composition
% of carbon
Annealing
Temp(0C)
Normalizing
Temp(0C)
Hardening
Temp.(0C)
Quenching Medium
Tempering
Temp.(0C)
0.65 - 0.75%
810-830
820-850
810-830
Oil or water(depends
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
0.75 - 0.85%
810-830
820-850
810-830
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
0.85 - 0.95%
800-820
820-850
800-820
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
0.95 -1.05%
800-820
820-850
800-820
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
13/34

Tool Steel
Water hardening tool steel
-high carbon content as high as 1.4% C
-high carbon steel have less impact strength but
high tensile strength and hardness level
-extensively used for making tools as they are cheap
and posses good machinability
-as machining is an important property, steel are given
spheroidization annealing treatment.
-speroidized steels are subjected to water quenching
from hardening temperature.
-sometimes distortion happens.
14/34

Tool Steel
Water hardening tool steel - continued
-possibility of forming retained austenite in hardened
structure and grain coarsening
-to add chromium(strong carbide formation),vanadium and molybdenum
-chromium improves both hardness and hardenability
-vanadium prone to coarse graining.
-tempering can alter grain structure.
-tempering temperature 170 2200C
Application
Heavy forging hammers, forging dies
Large blanking dies, chisels, scissors, knife blades, hand hammers
Cutting dies, bending dies, milling cutters, boring tools, lathe centers.
15/34
Heat treatment temperatures for Water hardening tool steels

Composition
%of carbon
Hardening
temp.(0C)
Hardness
after
hardening
(HRC)
Tempering temp(0C)
as per the use
Minimum
hardness
after
tempering
0.70 - 0.80
800 - 820
65 - 67
Between 175 275 in general
56 HRC
0.80 0.90
790 - 810
65 - 67
56 HRC
0.90 1.05
780 - 800
65 - 67
56 HRC
1.05 1.20
760 - 780
65 - 67
56 HRC
1.20 1.35
760 - 780
65 - 67
56 HRC
0.80- 0.95%C
0.15-0.3%V
790 - 810
65 - 67
Between 150-400 in general
48 HRC
0.95-1.1%C
0.15-0.3%V
780 - 800
65 - 67
48 HRC
1.10-1.4%C
0.3-0.6%Cr
0.30%V
790 - 810
65 - 67
48 HRC
16/34
Tool Steel
Shock resistance tool steel
-good toughness to resist shock
-carbon content kept low as 0.5 0.6%
-hardness is imparted by alloying elements
-chromium, molybdenum, tungsten are some of the alloying elements
-improve hardenability also
-water or oil hardened
-tempering temperature depends on final properties required.
-for optimum combination of toughness and hardness,
low tempering temperature is recommended.
-high tempering temp. for high toughness and low hardness
Application
Chisel, pneumatic chisel, punches, shear blades
17/34
Heat treatment temperature for shock resistance tool steel

composition
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
As
quenched
hardness
HRC
Tempering
temp (0C)
Minimum
hardness after
tempering
HRC
0.50%C
1.5%Cr
2.5%W
900-950
oil
56 - 60
150 - 540
45
o.50%C
1.00%Si
0.50%Mo
840-860
870-890
Water
oil
60 62
58 - 60
150 260
150 - 260
45
54
0.55%C
0.80%Mn
2.00%Si
845-870
870-910
Water
oil
60 62
58 - 60
150 345
150 - 345
54
54
0.55%C
0.80%Mn
2.00%Si
0.40%Mo
845-870
870-910
Water
oil
60 62
58 - 60
150 345
150 - 345
54
54
18/34

Cold worked Tool Steel
-intended for cold applications

-non-deforming non-distorting steel
-chemical composition and hardening heat treatment is
so adjusted to have minimum distortion.
-divided in to three groups
-Oil hardening steel
-Air hardening steel
-High carbon high chromium steel
19/34

Oil hardening steel:
-carbon manganese steel
-chromium & tungsten added occasionally to improve hardness,
hardenability and wear resistance
-used in oil hardened and tempered condition
-enable to be shaped in complicated shapes by machining
to a high precision
-blanking and stamping dies, reamers, taps are some of the applications
Air hardening steel:
-primarily Chromium-Manganese-Molybdenum steel
-all elements are for improving hardenability

Air hardening steel - continued
-distortion is less than oil hardening steel
-improved wear resistance and non-deforming properties.
-applications similar to oil hardened steels.
High Carbon High Chromium steel
-contains minimum 1%C and 1.2%Cr
-will not show grain coarsening up to 10400C
-high chromium content enable the steel to develop
martensite structure on air cooling, thus minimize distortion
-chromium imparts very high hardness and abrasion resistance
due to formation of chromium carbide.
20/34
21/34
Heat treatment temperature for Cold work oil hardening tool steel
composition
Hardening
temp. (0C)
As-quenched
hardness
HRC
Tempering
temp. (0C)
Minimum
hardness
on
tempering
(0C)
0.90% C
1.00%Mn
0.50%W
0.50Cr
790 - 815
63 - 65
150 - 425
50
0.90%C
1.60%Mn
770 - 790
63 - 65
190 - 260
57
1.45%C
0.80%Mn
1.00%Si
0.25%Mo
790 - 815
63 - 65
150 - 425
50
1.20% C
1.75%W
0.75% Cr
790 - 830
63 - 66
100 - 300
58
22/34
Heat treatment temperature for Cold worked Air hardened tool steel
composition
Hardening
temp. (0C)
As-quenched
hardness
HRC
Tempering
temp. (0C)
Minimum
hardness
on
tempering
(0C)
1.00% C
1.00%Mo
5.00Cr
940 - 970
61 - 63
300 - 375
57
1.00%C
2.00%Mn
1.00% Mo
1.00%Cr
820 - 860
62 - 64
150 - 425
54
0.70%C
2.00%Mn
1.25%Mo
1.00%Cr
820 - 860
62 - 64
150 - 425
54
23/34

Heat treatment temperature for cold work
High Carbon High Chromium tool steel
composition
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
As
quenched
hardness
HRC
Temperin
g temp
(0C)
Minimum
hardness after
tempering
HRC
1.50% C
1.00%Mo
12.00%Cr
1.00%V
980 - 1025
air
61 - 63
200 375
58
2.25%C
12.00%Cr
950 - 980
oil
62 - 64
200 375
58
1.50%C
1.00%Mo
12.00%Cr
3.00%Co
980 - 1025
air
60 - 62
200 375
57
2.35% C
1.00%Mo
12.00% Cr
4.00% V
1010 - 1065
air
63 - 65
150
250
450 550
64
58
24/34

Hot Work Tool Steel:
Tool Steel
-classified in to three groups depending on the principle alloying elements

(Chromium base, tungsten base molybdenum base)
-employed for hot working applications such as hot forging and hot extrusion
-also used for die casting dies
-red hardness, wear resistance, erosion resistance, thermal cracking
(heat checking) due to thermal shock are the main considerations
-red hardness imparted by tungsten

-larger the tungsten content, higher the the red hardness
-chromium improves hardness and oxidation resistance
-cobalt is added to improve erosion resistance
25/34
Heat treatment temperature for hot work tool steel Chromium base
composition
Pre-heat
temp (0C)
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
temp (0C)
Working
hardness
HRC
0.35% C
5.00% Cr
0.40% V
1.50% Mo
810 - 820
1000-1025
Air
550-650
38-54
o.35% C
5.00%Cr
1.50% Mo
1.00% V
810 - 820
1000-1050
Air
550-650
38-54
0.40% C
5.00% Cr
5.00% W
810 - 820
1000-1075
Air
600-650
40-47
0.40% C
5.00% Cr
7.00% W
810 - 820
1150-1275
Air or oil
600-650
36-49
0.40% C
7.00% Cr
7.00% W
810 - 820
1125-1275
Air or oil
550-675
45-60
26/34
Heat treatment temperature for hot work tool steel Tungsten base
composition
Pre-heat
temp (0C)
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
temp (0C)
Working
hardness
HRC
0.35% C
3.50% Cr
9.00% V
810 - 820
1095-1260
Air or oil
550-650
38-54
o.30% C
12.00%Cr
12.00% W
840 - 850
1200-1275
Air or oil
550-650
38-54
0.25% C
4.00% Cr
15.00% W
810 - 820
1150-1275
Air or oil
600-650
40-47
0.50% C
4.00% Cr
18.00% W
1.00% V
860 - 880
1175-1275
Air or oil or
salt bath
600-650
36-49
27/34
Heat treatment temperature for hot work tool steel Molybdenum base
composition
Pre-heat
temp (0C)
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
temp (0C)
Working
hardness
HRC
0.65% C
4.00% Cr
1.00% V
1.50% W
8.00% Mo
780 - 800
1090-1190
Air or oil
or
salt bath
550-650
50 - 60
0.60% C
4.00%Cr
2.00% V
6.00 W
5.00% Mo
780 - 800
1120-1220
Air or oil
or
salt bath
550-650
50 - 60
0.55% C
4.00% Cr
2.00% V
8.00% Mo
780 - 800
1090-1190
Air or oil
or
salt bath
600-650
45 - 58
28/34
Tool Steel
High Speed Steel
-well suited for manufacturing cutting tools which can operated at high speed
-demand high red hardness and elevated temperature wear resistance
-by adding carbide forming elements like chromium, tungsten,
vanadium, molybdenum
-alloying elements to be added so that all the carbon may
combine with them to form alloy carbide
-cobalt is added to enhance cutting ability of the tool
-material with poor machinability can be cut by this type of tool
-total alloy content vary from 20% to 40% in HSS
-carbon varies from 0.70% to 1.5%
-application includes HSS cutting tools, heavy cut tools, milling cutters,
reamers, lathe centers, wear plates

Tool Steels
High Speed Steel: continued
-most popular grade is 18-4-1 contains 18% Tungsten,
4% Chromium, 1% Vanadium
-heat treatment of 18-4-1 HSS is given below
2minutes
Temperature 0C
1200
850
650
550
400
4-5hours
20minutes Tempering 1
(1hour)
Salt bath
time
Tempering 2
(1hour)
29/34

Tool Steel
High Speed Steel - continued
-due to high cost of tungsten, the steel has been replaced by
tungsten-molybdenum steel
-all HSS are heated to the maximum possible temperature
for hardening varying from 1150 to 13500C
-to avoid poor thermal conductivity, steels are heated in stages
-pre heat to 4000C then to 8000C, then quickly transferred
into another furnace where the maximum temp. is set.
-the holding time is 20-30 seconds for every 1mm dia or thickness
-the holding time of final temperature is maximum 5 minutes.
-salt bath furnace is preferred for quenching to avoid oxidation
30/34
31/34
HEAT TREATMENT
COMMERCIAL
STEELS
SpecialOF
purpose
steels
Stainless Steel
-high alloy steel posses excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance.
-due to these, it is used in nuclear plants, power generating units,
pulp and paper manufacturing plants, food processing units,
petrochemical industries.
-classified in to three groups

-austenitic stainless steel
-ferritic stainless steel
-martensitic stainless steel
-precipitation hardening stainless steel
32/34

Special purpose steels
Stainless Steel - continued

Austenitic Stainless Steel
-posses optimum combination of strength, ductility,and toughness
-most widely used of all verities of stainless steel
-most common grade is 0.08%C, 18-20%Cr, 8-10%Ni
-annealed to 1010-11250C
-stress relieving temp. 200-4000C
-no phase transformation with temperature
-not subjected to heat treatment
33/34
HEAT TREATMENT
OF
COMMERCIAL
STEELS
Special
purpose
steel
Spring Steel
-steel with high elastic limit, toughness and fatigue strengthsuitable for springs
-high quality springs from chromium-vanadium steel
-typical steel contains 0.5%C, 10%Cr., 0.2%V, 0.4%Si, 0.7%Mn.
-oil hardened from 8600C, followed by tempering at about 5000c
-heat treated chromium vanadium steel develop high elastic limit,
toughness, resistance to fatigue and machinability.
-application- automobile and aircraft engine valve springs,
high quality laminated and coil springs for motor cars

Special purpose steels
Spring Steels - continued
-for medium application 0.6%C, 0.7%Si, 0.6%Mn, ).8%Cr, is used.
-oil hardened from 8300C, followed by tempering at 550-6000C
-leaf springs and helical springs are some of the applications
-most commonly employed spring steel is silicon
manganese steel nowadays
-the most used steel is 0.5%C, 0.4%Si, 0.8%Mn, 1.0%Cr
-oil hardened from 8200C followed by tempering at 400-4500C
-properties can be improved by adding 0.1-0.2% vanadium,
or 0.15%-0.25% molybdenum or both
34/34
HEAT TREATMENT
HEAT TREATMENT
Introduction:What is Heat Treatment?
Heat Treatment is a sequence of heating and cooling operations
designed to get the desired combination of properties in
metals and alloys in solid state.
It is an important operation in the manufacturing process
of engineering components
By heat treatment, it is possible not only to change the properties of steel,
but also possible to impart high mechanical properties suitable for
sophisticated applications.
HEAT TREATMENT
Properties
Mechanical
Strength: It is the ability of the material to resist the action of external
loads of forces. This is the properties which prevent the tool from breaking
under the cutting force.
Three types of strength
Tensile Strength:- It is the maximum tensile load per unit area
that the material can withstand without failure
Compressive Strength:- It is the maximum compressive load
that the material can withstand without failure.
Shear Strength:- It is the maximum shear load that the material
can withstand without failure.
HEAT TREATMENT
Properties
Plasticity: It is the ability of the material to deform without breaking.
The material will deform under a load before it rupture.
Malleability:- The plastic flow of a material under compressive force is
known as malleability. It is the property that allow the material to be
rolled in to thin sheets.
Ductility:- It is the property that allows the material to be drawn in to a
small diameter wire.
Elasticity:- It is the ability of the material to recover its original shape
and size after it has been deformed under a load.
Stiffness:- It is the ability of a material to resist deformation.
Brittleness:- It is the property of a material to break without deformation.
HEAT TREATMENT
Properties
Toughness:- It is the property of the material that enable it to absorb
energy and deform plastically before failure..
Hardness:- It is the ability of the material to resist penetration, scratching,
abrasion or indentation
Machinability:- It is the property of a material to lend itself readily for
machining with ordinary cutting tool
Fatigue:- It is the failure of a material when subjected to many repeated
stresses, that are far below their ultimate tensile or compressive strength.
Creep:- It can be defined as the slow and progressive deformation of a
material with time under constant stress.
HEAT TREATMENT
Micro Constituents of Steel
Ferrite:- It is a pure iron containing only 0.06% of carbon. Ferrite is
strongly magnetic at room temperature and becomes paramagnetic at 7700C
Cementite:- It is a compound of iron and carbon. It is extremely hard and brittle.
It contains 93.33% iron and 6.67% carbon. It is magnetic at room temperature
and become paramagnetic at 2100C. It is also called Iron-carbide.
Pearlite:- It is an intimate mixture of Ferrite and Cementite and made up of
alternate layers of Ferrite and Cementite. Pearlite contains 88.5% Ferrite and
11.5% of Cementite. Pearlite exists at 7230C only.
Austenite:- It is a solid solution of carbon in iron. It can dissolve up to
2% of carbon at 11480C. It is soft and ductile but stronger and less ductile
than Pearlite. It is a non-magnetic and exists at temperature above 7270C.
Ledeburite:- Similar to Pearlite, it consists of mixture of two phases, Austenite
and Cementite and it exists between 11480C and 7270C.
HEAT TREATMENT
Micro Constituents of Steel
Martensite:- It is a micro constituent of steel, which is obtained when steel is
cooled rapidly from Austenite phase to room temperature. It represents a
needle like appearance under microscope and very hard and brittle.
Bainite:- It forms when steel is cooled rapidly from Austenite phase to a
temperature of 6500C to 5000C and held at that temperature for a long time.
It is an intimate mixture of Ferrite and Cementite and appears in the form
of tiny globules.
Troostite:- When alloy steels are tempered, Martensite structure decomposes
and a new structure called Troostite is formed. It has half hardness of Martensite.
Sorbite:- When hardened steel is tempered at a temperature between
4500C to 6500C, the Martensite structure gets softened and resulting
structure is called Sorbite.
HEAT TREATMENT
Diagram
13940C
Upper critical temperature

9100C
Cementite
+
7230C Austenite
Austenite
Lower critical temperature
Ferrite
+
Pearlite
(less than 0.83% C

Steel)
Pearlite
0.83% C
steel
Cementite
+
Austenite
Cementite
+
Pearlite
(more than 0.83% C

Steel)
HEAT TREATMENT
Process
Firstly the steel is heated to a higher temperature called Austenizing

temperature. During heating, the previous structure of steel is converted in to
Austenite phase.
After reaching the Austenite temperature, steel is held at this temperature for
the specified duration which is called Soaking period. Soaking results in the
formation of homogeneous Austenite through out the cross section
Steel having a homogeneous Austenite structure is cooled back to room

temperature at a particular cooling rate up on the properties required.
If necessary, steel may be reheated to a higher temperature (but lower than

lower critical temperature) and cooled again.
HEAT TREATMENT
Purpose
To relieve internal stresses
To reduce the hardness
To improve machinability
To restore ductility
To obtain the desired micro structure and mechanical properties.
To refine the grains.
To homogenize the micro structure
To get the desired hardness
To reduce distortion
To remove machining stress
HEAT TREATMENT
Types
Stress Relieving
Annealing
Normalizing
Hardening
Tempering
Case Hardening
Surface Hardening
Other special types
HEAT TREATMENT
Stress Relieving
Definition:
Heating the steel uniformly to a temperature below
the lower critical temperature, holding at this temperature for
sufficient time , followed by uniform cooling
-Uniform cooling is important as non-uniform cooling will result
in the development of internal stresses. Temperature can be up to 6000C
Internal stresses are developed during
-solidification of casting
-welding
-machining
-surface hammering
-cold working
-case hardening
-electroplating.
Internal stress can cause
-stress corrosion cracks
-warpage
-dimensional instability
-reduction of fatigue strength.
Internal stresses cause more problems in brittle material than a ductile material
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Definition:
A process of heating the steel to Austenite phase, holding to a particular time,
then cooling slowly to room temperature, generally in the furnace itself by
switching off the supply.
Purpose of Annealing:
-To reduce hardness.
-To relieve internal stresses.
-To improve machinability.
-to facilitate further cold working by restoring ductility.
-to produce necessary microstructure having the desired mechanical, physical
or other properties.
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Annealing Temperature:
Less than 0.83% C steel
8200C 8700C
0.83% C and above
7900C 8400C
Soaking Time:
One hour for sections up to 25mm thick and 30 minutes for every additional
25mm thickness
Cooling Rate:
For Plain Carbon Steel
@500C/hour
For Alloy Steel
@300C/hour
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Types of Annealing
Full Annealing: Annealing for the sole purpose of removing the hardness
fully is known as Full Annealing.
Box Annealing: Annealing a metal in a sealed container, under condition
that minimize oxidation, is called Box Annealing.
Bright Annealing: Annealing in a protective medium such as argon or
nitrogen to prevent discolouration is called Bright Annealing.
Stress annealing: It is specially applied to cold worked steel, to prevent the
residual stresses set up due to cold working.
Spherodizing: Heating and cooling to produce a spheroidal or global form
of carbide in steel is called Spherodizing. This is generally applied to
High Carbon Steel for minimum hardness, maximum ductility and the
highest machinability.
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Types of Annealing
Process Annealing: It is done by heating the metal to just below the LCT
and cooling slowly. It is done while sheet rolling or wire drawing in order to
soften the metal for further cold working. It is also known as
Intermediate Annealing.
Recrystallization Annealing: Heating cold worked metal below the LCT
to produce a new grain structure without phase change is called
Recrystallization Annealing
Isothermal Annealing: In this process, steel is heated to Austenizing
temperature, then rapidly cooled to a lower temperature and held at this
temperature for a few hours, then rapidly cooled in the air. This is to save
the time of slow cooling in the furnace itself which will take more time.
HEAT TREATMENT
Normalizing
Definition:
This is the process of heating the steel to about 400C to 500C above
upper Critical Temperature, holding for proper time and cooling it in
still air or slightly agitated air to room temperature. It is done for any
one of the following reasons
-To Improve machinability of low carbon steel
-To obtain the desired microstructure and mechanical properties.
-To refine the grains
-To homogenize the microstructure.
Normalizing Temperature
8100C 9300C:
Holding time
hr 2hr
Cooling: Can be done faster than annealing by opening the door of the
furnace at about 6000C, then allow to cool in the furnace itself.
HEAT TREATMENT
Comparison between Normalizing & Annealing
Normalizing
Normalized steels are harder

than annealing
Higher strength
Improves machinability of low
carbon steel
Cooling rates are not critical
Lower impact transition
temperature
Less expensive
Austenite decomposes at
relatively lower temp.
Amount of Pearlite is more
Better dispersion of FerriteCarbide aggregate.
Annealing
Annealed steels are less harder

than normalized steel
Lower strength
Improve machinability of medium
carbon steel
Cooling rates are critical
higher impact transition
temperature.
Prolonged HT time and higher
energy consumption make
annealing more expensive
Amount of Pearlite is less.
.
.
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Definition:
This is the process of heating the carbon content metal/alloy steel to
about 300C to 400C above upper Critical Temperature, holding for proper
time followed by rapid quenching such as quenching water, oil or salt bath.
-The main purpose of hardening steel is to increase hardness and
wear resistance so that it may be successfully used for heavy duty purposes.
-Steel becomes hard when cooled rapidly from Austenite phase
-The rapid cooling is achieved by quenching the steel in oil, water or
sometimes forced air
-In hardening, the Austenite is transferred to another phase called Martensite.
-Martensite is very hard and brittle.
-If steel is cooled slowly, Austenite will not change to Martensite
hence there will not be any hardness.
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Successful Hardening requires two conditions to be met

1.
2.
Formation of homogeneous Austenite

Rapid cooling of steel in a suitable media.
Hardening temperature:
Medium Carbon Steel
8200C 8700C
High Carbon Steel
7900C 8300C
Alloy Steel
10000C 13000C
Soaking Time:
One hour for every 25mm thickness
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Methods:
Mainly depends on quenching procedures. Various methods are:
-Conventional or Direct quenching
-Quenching in stages in sequence in different media.
-Spray quenching
-Quenching with self tempering.
-Austempering or Isothermal quenching.
-Martempering or Stepped quenching.
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Conventional(Direct) Quenching
Simplest and extensively used.
Quenching from hardening temp. in the quenching media.
Allowed to cool up to the temp. of quenching bath.
Severe internal stresses.
Tendency towards distortion and cracking.
Cooling rate can be controlled by adopting less severe

quenching media like oil in place of water.
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Quenching in stages.
Quench in water, which will have pre determined temp.,first.
The part is then transferred quickly to a milder quenching media.
Oil and air are much preferred quenching media for second
quenching.
Internal stresses are very much less since severe cooling is avoided.
Spray quenching
A specific hardening method.
Cooled rapidly from hardening temp. by spraying quenchant continuously.
The rate of heat extraction is much higher as compared to direct quenching.
Water is the most commonly used quenching media.
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Quenching with self tempering
Also referred as time quenching.
Quenched from hardening temperature.
The part is withdrawn from the bath after sometime without allowing it
to cool completely.
In this way, considerable amount of heat will be retained in the central

region.
Then cooled in a mild quenching media such as oil or air.
The core portion martensite will be tempered in second cooling, thus

the process results in a tough core with a hardened and toughened
case.
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Austempering
It is a hardening process which consists of heating steel above
the austenitizing temperature, holding to the required time and
cooled in a bath maintained at a constant temperature of 2000c 4000C
Austenite is transformed to bainite
After complete transformation, steel is taken from the bath and
cooled in air to room temperature.
As this process involve transformation of austenite to bainite at a
constant temperature, it is also known as isothermal quenching
or isothermal hardening.
Comparatively thin sections can be austempered successfully.
Most of the alloy steel are not suited for this process.
Austempered components rarely need tempering.
Properties
Better ductility at high hardness levels.
Improved impact and fatigue strength
Freedom from distortion and cracks
Properties uniform throughout the section
Better mechanical properties than tempered martensite.
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Martempering
It is a hardening process which consists of heating steel above
the austenitizing temperature, holding to the required time and
cooled in a bath maintained at a constant temperature of 1800c 2500C
After attaining this temperature, the steel is cooled in air.
Martensite is formed during this cooling .
Any steel which can be hardened by oil quenching, can be martempered.
Alloy steels are best suited for this process.
Tempering is required after martempering.
Properties
Minimum internal stresses.
Reduced tendency towards distortion and cracks.
Improved mechanical properties.
HEAT TREATMENT Hardening

Sub Zero Treatment
A process consists of heating the steel to austenite phase,
holding for the required time and cooled suddenly in bath
having temperature between 300C and 700C.
Mechanical refrigeration unit, dry ice and liquefied gases
such as liquid nitrogen can be used for cooling to sub-zero temperature.
This process must be done just after hardening.
Tempering must be done after this process.
This process is done to convert retained austenite in to martensite.
In normal process, some austenite will retain during cooling.
This retained austenite generally reduces mechanical properties
and dimensional stability.
Employed for high carbon and high alloy steels used for making tools,
bearings, measuring gauges
Properties
Improve dimensional stability, mechanical properties and
high impact and fatigue strength.
HEAT TREATMENT
Tempering
Martensite obtained after hardening is extremely brittle and will result

in failure of engineering components by cracking.
Formation of Maretensite by quenching produces high internal
stresses. This will result in heavy distortion or cracking during
services.
Martensite and the retained Austenite obtained after hardening are
unstable and will change over a period of time. This will result in
change in dimension and properties of the steel.
Therefore structure of hardened steel to be improved o take care of the
above drawbacks. This is done by a special heat treatment process
called Tempering.
Tempering may be defined as heating a hardened steel to a temperature

below the LCT and cooled back to room temp. to get the desired
combination of hardness and toughness.
All hardened steel must be tempered immediately after hardening.
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
Load bearing components require better properties at the surface
than at interior(core) for the following reasons.
Surface
-in actual service, a metal piece is never stresses uniformly
throughout its section
-rotating shafts have maximum stress at the surface than at the core
-it is the surface where concentration appears nick, scratches,
tool marks etc.
-wear, seizure and galling also occur at the surface and produce
stress raisers.
Core
-core should be relatively soft to provide resistance to brittle failure
of the component.
-should be tough enough to resist impact loads while surface should
be hard & wear resistance.
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
Definition:
Case hardening may be defined as a process for hardening
a ferrous material in such a manner that the surface layer known
as case is harder than the remaining material known as core.
The harder case and soft core can be achieved by two methods
-by changing the chemical composition at the surface of the steel,

which is called case hardening and
-Without changing the chemical composition at the surface,

which is called surface hardening.
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
In this method, surface id induced by carbon and Nitrogen
by various methods and then hardens as usual.
Different types of case hardening methods
1 Carburizing
Pack carburizing
Gas carburizing
Liquid carburizing
2 Cyaniding
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Pack Carburizing
-also known as solid carburizing.
-oldest method.
-component to be heat treated are packed with 80% granular coal and
20% Barium carbonate (BaCO3) as energizer in heat resistant boxes.
-heated at 9300C in electrical chamber furnace.
-heated for a specific period in furnace helps in absorption of carbon
at the outer layers.
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Pack Carburizing
Following reactions take place
1 Energizer decomposes to give Carbon Monoxide(CO) gas
to the steel surface
BaCO3
BaO + CO2,
CO2 +C
2CO
2. Carbon Monoxide reacts with the surface of the steel
2 CO + Fe
FeC + CO2
3. Diffusion of Carbon in to steel
4. CO2 formed in step 2 reacts with Carbon in the coal.
CO2 + C
2CO
For a given steel at a given temp., the depth of penetration is depend on
diffusion and can be related to the time t
Case depth = k into square root of t where k is a constant.
Carburizing time 6hrs to 8hrs
Case depth 1mm to 2mm
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Gas Carburizing
Widely used method.

Carried out in retort type, sealed quench type or continuous pusher
type furnace.
These furnaces are either gas fired or electrically heated.
Temp. varies from 8700C to 9500C
Gas atmosphere is produced from liquid (methanol) or gaseous
hydrocarbons(Propane & Methane)
An endothermic gas generator is used to supply endothermic gas.
A mixture of Propane or Methane with air is cracked in hot retort of an
endo gas generator to form carrier gas.
Carrier gas dew point is adjusted to about +40C by proper gas/air
ratio.
Furnace chamber is purged with this gas to maintain a slight positive
pressure.
This interns prevent infiltration of air from atmosphere.
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Gas Carburizing
This gas prevents oxidation of the steel during heating.

When material reaches carburizing temp., Propane and
Methane is introduces to maintain specific carbon potential.
Carbon potential is computed by measuring the dew point or
carbon dioxide by infra-red absorptometry or oxygen by an
electrolytic potential technique using a Zirconia probe.
Reaction
C3H8
CH4 + Fe
CH4 + CO2
2 CO + Fe
2CH4 + C(cracking of hydrocarbon)

Fe ( C ) + 2H2
2CO + 2H2
Fe( C ) + CO2
Carburizing occurs due to conversion of CO to CO2 through reaction No. 4
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Liquid Carburizing.
Also known as Salt bath carburizing.

Carburizing occurs through molten Cyanide(CN) in low carbon
steel
Pot type furnace is used.
Heated by oil or gas.
Bath temp. is maintained between 8150C and 9000C.
The life of the pot depends on quality of material, operating
temp. and mode of operation.
Mode of operation may be continuous or intermittence.
Continuous and automatic process give good end result.
Bath surface is covered with graphite or coal to reduce
radiation losses and excessive decomposition of Cyanide.
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Liquid Carburizing.
Heating time is short and heat transfer is rapid.

Complete uniformity of the carburized layer.
Gives a thin and clean hardened layer.(0.08mm)
Extensive safety precautions to be required to avoid explosion.
Salt mixture is named according to their carbon potential
activity.
Beside Sodium cyanide or Potassium cyanide, the bath
contains Sodium and Potassium chlorides and Barium chloride
which acts as an activator.
Reaction
BaCl2 + 2NaCN
Ba(CN)2 + Fe
Ba(CN)2 + 2NaCl
Fe( C ) + Ba(CN)2
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
Cyaniding:
-the parts to be heat treated are immersed in a liquid bath
(at 8000C 9600C) of Sodium Cyanide(NaCN) with the
concentration varying between 25% and 90%.
-the measured amount of air is passed through the molten bath.
-NaCN reacts with Oxygen and is oxidized.
-Carbon and Nitrogen formed in atomic form defuse in to
the steel and give thin wear resistant layer of the carbonitride.
-Usually this process takes only 30 to 90 minutes for completion.
-for obtaining case depth of 0.5 to 2mm, the temperature to be
9500C in a bath containing 8% NaCN, 82% Barium chloride
(BaCl2 and 10% Sodium chloride(NaCl)
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Different methods:
-Flame hardening
-Induction hardening
-Electron beam hardening
-Laser hardening
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Flame Hardening
Heating the job with oxy-acetylene or oxy-fuel blow pipe followed by

spraying of jet of water as coolant.
Reheating after hardening is carried out in furnace or oil bath at about
1800C 2000C for stress relieving.
Overheating to be avoided otherwise cracks may develop due to
quenching and excessive grain growth in the region just below the
hardened surface.
Normally 0.3% to 0.6% of carbon content steel will be flame hardened.
Both burner and work piece can be stationary which is called
stationary method.
Burner combined with a water spray is moved on large piece which is
called progressive method.
Work piece is rotated and burner remains stationary is called spinning
method.
Burner is moved over a rotating work piece is progressive spinning
method.
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Induction Hardening
Heating is achieved by electro magnetic induction.
A conductor(coil) carries an alternate current of high frequency which

is then induced in the enclosed steel part placed within the magnetic
field.
Induction heating is taking place.
The heat so generated affects only the outer surface.
Heated for only a few seconds.
Immediately after heating , surface is quenched by a jet of cold water.
During this process, the original toughness and ductility remains

unaffected.
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Electron Beam Hardening
Process used where other process cannot be used because of

associated distortion.
The work piece is kept in vacuum at 0.06M bar pressure.
Electron beam is focused on the surface.
Normally case depth up to 0.75mm can be achieved.
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Laser Hardening
As laser beam have high intensity, a lens is used to reduce the

intensity by producing a defocused spot or scans from 1-25mm wide.
1kW produce a circular spot whose diameter may vary from 0.5mm to
0.25mm.
Industrial lasers are available up to 20kW.
Case depth about 0.75mm is obtained in self quenching.
The effect of heat on the surrounding surface is less, leading to less

distortion.
No separate quenching media is required since quench is effected by

the mass of the surrounding unheated portion.
HEAT TREATMENT
Vacuum
Hardening
Vacuum hardening is the process of heating and cooling the work
pieces under vacuum conditions.
Nitrogen or argon is used for quenching . The best guarantee of purity

in inert gases is to use a liquid source. Inert gas will not react with
metal surface.
Objective of vacuum during heat treatment is to prevent unwanted

gases from contamination or oxidizing the material.
By eliminating oxygen, parts treated may be kept bright and scalefree.
By incorporating gas or oil-quenching features in vacuum furnace,

most metals and alloys can be heat treated in vacuum furnace.
Air-hardened die alloys, air-hardened stainless steels, oil-quenched

intricate parts can be heat treated in this process because of their
bright, clean appearance after treatment and little or no polishing and
sizing is required.
And also for their little or no deformation this process is preferred.
HEAT TREATMENT
Vacuum Hardening
Furnace operation
The furnace is pumped with inert gas to the required quantity before the heat is
on.
The furnace leak to be checked.
The load is pre heated to 12000F and when the temperature is balanced, a
second pre heat raises to 15000F which is maintained until equilibrium is again
reached.
After that , the pressure with in the furnace raised to the required degree with
high purity Nitrogen from a liquid source.
The metal is ready to be austenitized and the temp. is raised to 18500F.
Depends on cross sectional area, soaking time to be determined.
After the soaking period, the furnace is allowed to fill with Nitrogen.
The cooling circulation fan is on automatically.
The load is allowed to cool to room temperature.
HEAT TREATING EQUIPMENT
1/34
HEAT TREATMENT EQUIPMENT

FURNACE
A Heat Treatment furnace is normally a box like chamber

carrying a refractory lining inside with temperature controls
and indicating devices outside it. A door is always provided
for accessibility.
2/34

FURNACE
Basic requirements
Design to ensure uniform heating and cooling of components in it.
To carry means of easy and effective control of temperature.
Not to occupy a very large working area.
To provide a controlled heating atmosphere inside in order to avoid

oxidation, scale formation, decarburization etc.
Not to take too long to heat up the required temperature after being
loaded.
3/34

FURNACE
Classified according to:-
Use
Source of heat
Type of operation
Working environment
4/34

FURNACE
According to use
Further classified into various heads
Annealing furnace
Hardening furnace
Tempering furnace
Carburizing furnace
Basic difference in all these is based on their capacity to attain

the desired temperature and to withstand it with adequate service life.

FURNACE
According to source of heat
Broadly divided in to
-Fuel-fired furnace
-Electrically fired furnace.
Types of fuel
-Solid fuel no longer in use.
-Liquid fuel
-Gasecious fuel
5/34

FURNACE
Liquid fuel
Fuel oil is used
Easy to store
Furnace can be fired any time
Furnace temperature can be controlled easily with the help of a simple

valve connected to supply line
Temperature can be up to 12000C
More economical at high temperature only(10000C)
Temperature is not uniform throughout the chamber
Use of heat circulation is essential.
6/34
7/34

FURNACE
Gaseous fuel
More economical
Only inferior to electrically heated furnace.
Natural gas, Coke-oven gas, Water gas, Producer gas, Refinery gas
are some of the gases used.
Gasoline and Kerosene are also used but high cost.

FURNACE
Electrically heated furnace
Most commonly used furnace
Uniform temperature in the furnace chamber
Close control of temperature
Freedom from pollution
Neat and clean working conditions
Efficient use of heat energy
Minimum requirement of accessories
Easy to start and close down.
8/34
9/34

FURNACE
Electrically heated furnace
According to the method of heating
Resistance furnace
Arc furnace
Induction furnace
Plasma arc furnace
Electron beam furnace

FURNACE
According to Type of operation
Two groups
-Batch furnace
-Box furnace
-Muffle furnace
-Pit furnace
- Lift off cover furnace
-Bogie hearth furnace
-Continuous furnace
-Conveyor furnace
-Rotary hearth furnace
-Tunnel furnace
10/34

FURNACE
Batch furnace
Used for batch production
Loading & unloading manually
Considerable manual labour is involved
Used for varying sizes
Flexibility
Different batched in different times.
Heat treatment is carried out and completed in various batches
If required, heat treatment process can be varied after each batch
11/34
12/34

FURNACE
Box Type furnace
Simple box like opening at one end.
Loading & unloading through same door, and manually.
For heavy and bulky, mechanical means are used.
Bottom can be removed and refitted proper sealing to be used.
Heated by either electrically or by fuel.

FURNACE
13/34
Door
Insulation
Box Type Batch Furnace

FURNACE
Muffle Furnace
Very common in use
A muffle which is a hollow cuboid made of special refractory material.
Any fuel or electrical energy can be used to heat the muffle
Electrically heated furnaces are more popular & extensively used for
small parts.
Muffle is surrounded by heating element such as Nichrome and kanthal

wire
Fuel fired muffle furnace can be of two types direct and indirect
Indirect has advantages over direct for the following reasons
Less scaling, reduced contaminations
Possibility of controlling atmosphere within the muffle
Better uniformity of temperature distribution.
14/34

FURNACE
Insulation
Metallic shell
Muffle
Schematic diagram of Muffle Furnace
15/34

FURNACE
16/34
Pit Furnace
Mainly used for heavy and larger parts.
Generally heated up electrically.
Essentially a cylindrical refractory chamber.
Most of its parts lie below the ground level hence the name Pit furnace
Loading & unloading is done mechanically from top.

FURNACE
17/34
Insulation
Ground
Work
piece
Pit Furnace

FURNACE
Lift-Off Cover Furnace
Also known as Bell Type.
Fixed base and two containers.
Job is loaded on the base.
After loading, one container-inner container- is placed on the base
Then another container-outer container-kept over inner one for heating

electrically.
Inner one made out of heat resistance steel and outer one with a metal
encased refractory.
Used in wire industries for annealing coils, steel wires, steel strips and
non-ferrous metals under controlled atmosphere.
18/34
19/34

FURNACE
Outer shell
Or
Bell
Inner shell
Refractory lining
Space
for
work
piece
Heat resistant material
Atmosphere outlet
Atmosphere inlet
Lift-off Cover Furnace

FURNACE
Bogie Hearth Batch Furnace
Considered as improved box type furnace
Specially suitable for heat treating bulky and heavy components
Can be used for small components also
Consists of a refractory topped run out bogie acting as hearth
Bogie carries the parts
Bogie should be well with in the furnace chamber
Atmosphere with in the chamber can be controlled
20/34
21/34

FURNACE
refractory
work piece
Bogie Hearth Furnace

FURNACE
Continuous furnace
Charge is introduced from one end
It is forced to move to another side
Complete process is adjusted such a way that component is heat

treated to the desired specifications
Only one specific operation is performed
Manual labour is minimized to a great extend
Recommended under conditions of
Continuous processing
Ensuring consistent and reproducible quality of parts.
22/34
23/34

FURNACE
Refractory
Heating Chamber
Work piece
Conveyor Belt
Conveyor Furnace
Quenching bath

FURNACE
Rotary Hearth Furnace
Continuous type furnace
Consists of a rotating hearth
The hearth rotates along its vertical axis
The parts to be are charged through an opening
After the operation, parts are taken out through the same opening
The speed of rotation is adjusted such a manner that HT cycle is

completed by the time of one rotation
24/34

FURNACE
25/34
Chamber
Workpiece
Rotary Hearth Furnace
26/34

FURNACE
According to work environment
Divided into two classes
-Air convection furnace
most of the furnace in this group
-Controlled atmosphere furnace

-used under specific conditions.
-limited metals and alloys
-protect from oxidation/decarburization.
-atmosphere is either protective or
chemically active atmosphere.

FURNACE
Significance of Controlled Atmosphere
Furnace atmosphere that protects the metal from oxidation,

decarburization or other unwanted chemical changes.
Maintain the desired properties at the surface of the metal.
The composition and distribution of atmosphere are deliberately

controlled to produce specific surface characteristics.
Controlled atmospheres are either protective or chemically active.
Bright annealing, Normalizing, and atmospheric annealing of black

hearth malleable cast iron are examples where protective atmosphere
is used.
Carburizing, Carbonitriding, Decarburizing, Nitriding, are some of the

examples of chemically active atmosphere is used.
27/34
28/34

FURNACE
Commercially available Furnace Atmosphere
Town gas or other fuel gases
Ammonia
Charcoal
Liquid organic mixture
vacuum

FURNACE
29/34
Salt Bath Furnace
Consists of a container made of ceramic or metal
This container holds the molten salt
Furnace can be used with in a wide range of temperature(150 13000C)
Commonly used salts are Nitrates, Chlorides, Carbonates, Cyanides,

Caustic soda.
Mode of heat transfer to the work piece is by convection through liquid

bath
Heating will be very quickly.
Can be heated by fuel or electrically
Used for cyaniding, liquid cardurizing, liquid nitriding, austempering, mar

tempering, hardening, tempering.

FURNACE
Salt Bath Furnace
Advantages
All work pieces are at uniform temperature and have identical

surroundings
Better surface conditions and consistent and reproducible results
No oxidation/destabilization as work piece is in direct contact with bath
Selective heat treatment can be performed by immersing only the

desired portion.
The time consumed is very less
Complicated shapes with variable section thickness can be treated

along with simple pieces.
Light and heavy objects can be handled in the same bath.
30/34
31/34

FURNACE
(+)
(-)
Electrode
Steel case
Refractory
Steel pot
Molten salt
Salt Bath Furnace

FURNACE
Bath Furnace
Types- salt bath, Lead bath and Oil bath furnace.
Cylindrical outer case with refractory lining.
A ceramic pot suspended from top.
Empty space form the heating chamber.
Pot carries salt, lead or oil.
Furnace can be oil, gas or electrically heated.
Two electrodes suspended from top.
Oil bath for temperatures up to 2600C
Lead bath for up to 3270C
Salt bath for temperatures between 1600C and 13300C
32/34

FURNACE
Vacuum Furnace
Heat treatment in Vacuum hardening furnace is done under vacuum conditions.
Nitrogen or argon is used for quenching . The best guarantee of purity in inert
gases is to use a liquid source. Inert gas will not react with metal surface.
Objective of vacuum during heat treatment is to prevent unwanted gases from

contamination or oxidizing the material.
By eliminating oxygen, parts treated may be kept bright and scale-free.
By incorporating gas or oil-quenching features in vacuum furnace, most metals

and alloys can be heat treated in vacuum furnace.
Air-hardened die alloys, air-hardened stainless steels, oil-quenched intricate

parts can be heat treated in this process because of their bright, clean
appearance after treatment and little or no polishing and sizing is required.
And also for their little or no deformation this process is preferred.
33/34

FURNACE
Vacuum Furnace
The furnace is pumped with inert gas to the required quantity before the heat is
on.
The furnace leak to be checked.
The load is pre heated to 12000F and when the temperature is balanced, a
second pre heat raises to 15000F which is maintained until equilibrium is again
reached.
After that , the pressure with in the furnace raised to the required degree with
high purity Nitrogen from a liquid source.
The metal is ready to be austenitized and the temp. is raised to 18500F.
Depends on cross sectional area, soaking time to be determined.
After the soaking period, the furnace is allowed to fill with Nitrogen.
The cooling circulation fan is on automatically.
The load is allowed to cool to room temperature.
34/34
QUENCHING
1/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Quenching is a process of rapid cooling of steel from
austenitizing Temperature. A medium that is used for
quenching is known as Quenchant.
Quenching Media
Water
Oil
Air
Gas
Aqueous solution
Salt bath
2/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Water
Most popular quenching media
Low cost availability in abundance and easy handling
No pollution problem
Can be easily disposed off
Maximum cooling rate other than aqueous solution
Can be used for carbon steels, alloy steels and non-ferrous alloys.
For some hardenable steel , leads to distortion or cracks.
Complicated shapes can not be water quenched.
3/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Oil
Common oil is mineral oil.
Paraffin based and not possess any fatty oils.
Slow cooling rate while comparing water.
Reduces the hardening defects.
Temperature difference between case and core is less.
Quenching oil is graded according to their viscosity value called

SUS(saybolt universal seconds).
Offer less distortion.
Usually oils are used between room temperature and 650C.
4/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Oil
For faster cooling, oil with low viscosity(50SUS) at 400C are employed.
To achieve low distortion and cracking, oils with high viscosity(2503000SUS at 400C) are used at 100-1500C.
The above oils are very well suited for quenching intricate shaped
parts.
For mar quenching, oils with viscosity value more than 2000SUS at
400C is used at 1500C or slightly more. Uniform cooling rate, minimum
possible distortion and cracking can be achieved by this type of cooling.
Presence of water in oil is dangerous. It will create non-uniform

hardening distortion and cracking. Water can remove by heating oil to
1300C for about 4hours.
5/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Air
Used compressed air for fast cooling and still air for slow cooling.
Almost free from distortion.
Sometimes oxidation problem.
Many grades of tool steels are air cooled.
For better cooling rate, air water mixture can be used.
Alloy steels cooled in air are known as air hardened steels.
6/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Gas
Hydrogen, Helium, nitrogen& Argon, Nitrogen& Hydrogen are some of

the quenchants.
Now only Nitrogen is used as Hydrogen is not safe to use, Helium is

much expensive and Argon possesses the lowest cooling efficiency.
Cooling rate can be improved by adding water droplets with gas

stream.
Cooling rate is faster that those associate with cool air and slower than
those developed by oil quenching
Because of th continuous gas stream, there in no possibility of forming

vapour envelope around the workpiece.
7/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Aqueous solutions
By adding highly ionized salt to water.
This decreases the viscosity of water and reduces the duration of

vapour blanked stage.
Two solutions are available- Brine & Caustic solutions
Brine solution sodium chloride, calcium chloride
Caustic solution sodium hydroxide
Cooling rate are high
Distortion is less severe than water.
Usually used at room temperature
Maximum cooling power at 200C
Brine & caustic solution 5-10% concentration is generally used.
8/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Aqueous solutions
Disadvantages
Costlier than water due to extra cost of salt.
Corrosive nature is major limitation.
Special attention for periodic checking- labour cost.
Production of corrosive fumes pollute the atmosphere.
Corrosive fumes affect the human skin and severe life of near by
equipments.
9/09
HEAT TREATMENT
QUENCHING
Salt Bath
Best suited quenching medium for steels with good hardenebility

and thin sections.
Advantages offered by salt bath are as follows.
Temperature is uniform through out the bath.
Uniformity in the rate of heat transfer from workpiece.
No danger of oxidation, carborization or decarburization
during cooling.
Selective hardening can be performed.
Some common salt baths are NaNO3, NaNO3+KNO3 50%
each, NaNO3+KNO2 50% each, 20% NaOH+80% KOH
METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
01/08
Parts and Function
-works on the principle of reflection of light from the specimen surface
-essentially consists of two parts compound microscope and
the electrical illuminating system
-whole body is mounted on a base
-a draw tube carrying the eye piece at its top slides in the
upper end of the body tube.
-body tube is connected to the upper end of the limb with the
help of rack and pinion.
-by sliding the draw tube, the distance between the eye piece
and objective lens changes
02/08
A typical Metallurgical Microscope
03/08
Parts and Function - continued
-the eye-piece is easily detachable
-available with varying powers such as x5, x8, x10. X12 etc.
-these numbers are marked on the holder.
-if objective lens enlarges the microstructure by 50 times,
the eye-piece will magnify further the image by the number marked.
-that means the total magnification will be the product of the
object lens power and the power of eye-piece.
-magnification depends on the focal length
-shorter the focal length of the lens, the greater will be the
magnification of structure.
04/08
Working Principles
-a beam of light from illuminating source enters in to the
tube of microscope from the side
-the light falls on the surface of right prism and is reflected
downwards
-the reflected light passes through the objective lens and falls
on the surface of the specimen
-the surface reflects back the light
-the reflected light again passes through the objective lens
and reaches the eye-piece
-magnified virtual image is formed during the process.
05/08
Working Principles-continued
-the objective lens resolve the structure of metal
-the eye-piece magnifies the image formed by the objective lens
-during the coarse adjustment, the body tube is lowered o
raised to get the correct focus.
-the final stage of coarse focusing is always carried out by
lowering the head to the level of stage.
-fine adjustment helps in final focusing of the specimen
06/08
Procedure of preparing the specimen for testing
-cut the specimen with the help of hacksaw to a suitable size.
-if small, specimen to be mounted on bakelite
-sample is filed and ground
-then polish with various grades of emery.
-final polishing to be done on a rotating disc covered
with a sylvet or billiard cloth, which is soaked in water
sprinkled with a slurry of aluminum or magnesia
-the disc rotates at a speed of 100 400 rpm
07/08
Procedure of preparing the specimen for testing-continued
-once the sample become scratch-free or mirror like, it is taken for etching.
-after etching, the sample is washed in running water or alcohol
and then dried in hot air.
Only after etching, the interior structure of metal become

apparent under microscope
example
In steel, the etchant(3% of concentrated nitric acid in absolute

methyl alcohol) reacts differently with ferrite and cementite.
So these phases are distinguished separately under microscope.
Grain boundaries are attacked more easily, therefore,
it looks as thin dark lines.
08/08
uses
-to determine the size , shape and distribution of various phases.
-to determine the grain sizes
-no structural property correlation can be made without the help

of metallography.
INSPECTION AND PREPARATION FOR

HEAT TREATMENT
1/11
INSPECTION AND PREPARATION FOR HEAT TREATMENT

Quality control in Heat Treatment
Product Design:
-a property designed part ensures satisfactory and economical heat treatment
-following factors to be considered.
-no sharp corners as far as possible
-no significant variations in section size.
-no sharp corners between thick and thin sections
-use of filler at all corners and junctions
-no clusters of openings or holes
2/11

Heat Treatment Flow Chart:
-material specification
-furnace to be used
-temperatures heat treatment and holding time
-quality of material
-rate of heating
-heat treatment atmospheres and its characteristics
-quenchant and its characteristics
-auxiliary accessories to be used
-sample size and sampling techniques
-test to be performed on each samples
3/11

Quality of Consumable item:
-this also affect the final properties of heat treated parts.
-salts for using salt baths
-charcoal etc for carburizing elements
-gas used for nitriding or carbo-nitriding steel
-quenching medium
-degreasing chemicals
-cleaning agents
4/11

Working of Equipments:
-always in good working condition
-measuring instruments to be able to provide accurate producible results
-a well planned maintenance scheme required
-unplanned/untimely maintenance to be avoided.
-human factors to be considered
-good working condition
-effective supervision
-employment of skilled workers
-good management policy
5/11

Inspection
-inspection of three types
-pre-heat treatment,
-inspection during heat treatment,
-post-heat treatment inspection
Pre-heat treatment inspection:
-size
-harden ability
-all machining aspects if any
-tensile strength
-chemical composition
-non-metallic inclusion
-macro and micro structure
-surface flows
-austenitic grain structure
6/11

Inspection
Inspection during Heat treatment:
-heat treatment temperatures
-heat treatment time
-properties of gas in case if controlled atmosphere
-properties of solid, liquid or gascious materials
-properties of quenchants
Post-heat treatment Inspection
-almost the same as one included in pre-heat treatment inspection
7/11

Inspection
Hardness test:
-scratch hardness test
-indentation hardness test
-rebound or dynamic hardness test
Scratch hardness test:

-that property of the material by virtue of which it resists wear or abrasion
-Mohs scale of hardness
-consists of 10 standard minerals
-each mineral has been assigned a hardness number
-soft mineral is talk while the hardest is diamond.
8/11

Inspection
Hardness test:
Indentation hardness test:
-a measure of resistance offered by a material to plastic deformation
-measured by estimating the size of indentation
-pressing an indenter of known material and of well defined
geometry into the surface of the sample.
-the size or depth of indentation so obtained is used as
hardness measuring parameters.
-three most common types of tests
-Brenell hardness
-Vickers hardness
-Rockwell hardness
9/11

Inspection
Hardness test Indentation method:

Brenell Hardness test:
-use a hardened steel ball and a pre determined load
-after removal of load, the surface area of the indentation is measured.
-hardness is obtained by dividing the applied force by the
surface area of indenter
-expressed as a number without unit
-the brenell hardness number is commonly used(BHN)
-specimen is loaded hydraulically
-the diameter of indenter is measured by a graduated power microscope
-can be calculated or with the help of chart, BHN can be obtained.
10/11

Inspection
Vickers hardness test:
-the indenter used is a square base diamond pyramid
-the included angle between opposite faces of pyramid is 1360
-the load vary from 1kg to 120kg depending on the hardness
of the material under test
-Vickers hardness is represented as a number
-Vickers number is obtained by dividing load by surface area
of the indenter
-generally used for research and high precision work due to
the accuracy associated with it.
11/11

Inspection
Rockwell Hardness test:
-a 1200 diamond cone is used as a indenter(1/16 or 1/8 dia)
-load of 60kg, 100kg 150kg are normally used
-works on the principle that the depth of penetration varied
with hardness of material
-higher the hardness, smaller the depth of penetration
-the depth of penetration is not measured
-the hardness value can be read directly on the dial attached to the tester
-coarse method
-commonly used as the process is fast and a very small
indentation is made on the surface
-finished parts also can be measured
POST HEAT TREATMENT
1/05
POST HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

Acid Pickling(acid cleaning)
-acid pickling is a process of removing oxides and dirt and produce
a highly reflective surface for electroplating.
-both hot and cold bath are used.
-sulphuric acid is the most commonly used acid in acid pickling
-a bath made from 10% sulphuric acid with water is the common solution.
-pickling operation can be accelerated by heating the solution to
about 750C 850C
-proportion in cold bath will be much higher (50%)
-a bath containing 25%-100% hydrochloric acid with water is
good for steel and iron.
-prior cleaning to be done before pickling
-pickling inhibitors are used to resist the adverse action of acid on metal
2/05

Grit blasting
-for cleaning casting and forging of sand and scale respectively
-throwing a strong stream of abrasives on to the work surface under pressure.
-according to the condition of the abrasives thrown, dry or wet,
the process is known as dry abrasive blasting or wet abrasive blasting.
-in both cases the abrasive jet is directed on to the work surface
at high velocity by means of compressed air.
3/05
Grit blasting-continued
-course sand, steel grit or shots are used as abrasive in dry grit blasting.
-the name is used according to the abrasives used
-equipment consists of a cabinet, a reservoir or hopper to carry
abrasives and an air nozzle of suitable size.
-air at high pressure is forced through the nozzle and abrasive
is drawn to join this high velocity stream of air before it passes through the nozzle
-the outgoing stream from the nozzle consists of a strong air blast
carrying the abrasives.
-the abrasive strikes against the work surface with very high velocity
and removes the adhering sand, scales and such other foreign materials
-cleaning the surface and provides a good finish.
-for small parts, nozzle can be stationary and the job can travel
-in wet blasting, water is mixed with abrasives and use it,
4/05

Alkaline detergent cleaning and degreasing
-used for removing oils and grease
-rust and scale can not be removed effectively by this method.
-sodium metasilicate, caustic soda, sodium carbonate, sodium chromate,
sodium phosphate are some of the agents.
-the cleaning bath consists of any of the agent with soap and a wetting agent
-soap & wetting agent help I emulsification and providing proper fluidity
-cleaning solution is used hot by heating electrically
-parts to be cleaned is suspended in to the hot bath.
-after cleaning, parts are thoroughly rinsed to clean off completely
from any cleaning agent remaining on the surface.
-used for cleaning for all metals except alumnium, lead, tin, brass, and zinc
-to have a separate room due to pollution
5/05

Straightening
-warping occurs due to improper quenching
-keep the part on two supports at end and slowly press down
-often check the bend
-if not straight, heat with a heating torch then press down as required.
POSSIBLE DEFFECTS & REMEDIES IN HEAT TREATMENT
HEAT TREATMENT
Defects, Causes and Remedies
Defect
Low hardness
and Strength
after hardening
Causes
Lower
hardening temperature
Insufficient soaking time
Delayed quenching
Slower cooling rates
Higher tempering
temperature
Presence of large amount of
retained austenite
Improper carburizing
atmosphere.
Remedies
Set
the hardening
temperature and
soaking time to the
requirement.
Increase cooling rate
Do sub-zero treatment
Set proper carburizing
atmosphere.
HEAT TREATMENT
Showing varying hardness on the face at different points is soft spots
Defect
Soft
spots
Cause
Formation
of vapour blankets
between quenchat and piece
before quenching
Localized carburization
Inhomogeneity of
microstructure.
Presence of foreign matters like
dirt and sticky scales.
Large piece non uniformity in
heating
Improper handling during
quenching
Remedies
Adopt
spray
quenching practice.
HEAT TREATMENT
Defect
Oxidation and
Decarburization
Causes
Presence
of
oxygen, vapour and
carbon dioxide
during heating.
Over heating
Remedies
Furnace atmosphere to be protected

by
Heat in molten salt
Controlled atmosphere in vacuum.
Decarburized layer to be removed by
machining.
Copper layer having thickness of
0.2mm may be used for rapping.
Steel to be heated with carburizing
agent in boxes.
Ceramic coating may be applied
before heating.
HEAT TREATMENT
Defect
Causes
Overheating Heating the steel much

and Burning above the required
temperature.
Holding time is more than
required.
Higher inclusion content
like phosphorus & sulpher
Remedies
Avoid heating the

steel higher than
required
Avoid increasing the
holding time .
HEAT TREATMENT
Defect
Quench
cracks
Causes
Result
of stress produced
during transformation of
austenite to martensite
Improper cooling
Rapid heating
Delayed tempering
Faulty design of the part
Presence of a hole
Remedies
Adopt
proper
cooling method.
Do stress relieving
before hardening
Proper heating to be
adopted.
Check with
customer before
designing to modify
HEAT TREATMENT
Defect
Distortion
and
Warping
Causes
Fast
cooling
Faulty quenching
Less experienced
operator.
Remedies
Cool
properly
Proper quenching
method to be adopted
Employ experienced
operator.
SURFACE TREATMENT
1/27
SURFACE TREATMENT(CLEANING & FINISHING)

Purpose - Manufacturing Product
-to clean the surface of the product
-to protect the surface of the product against environment effects
-to provide a decorative look and appealing appearance to the product surface
-to provide the desired colour to the product surface
-to alter surface properties according to the requirements.

Purpose Metal Surface
2/27
-to remove metal chips and cutting compounds left behind during
machining operations.
-to remove sand and scales left behind after after casting and forging operation
-to remove all oily and greasy substance
-to remove burrs and scratches produced during previous operations.
-to remove dirt rust and similar other ill effects which are likely
to hinder the adherence of the surface coating to be applied.
-to remove buffing and polishing compounds left over during the operation
-to clear the surface of any other foreign material or contaminant
sticking to the metal surface
-to provide better appearance to the surface
-to make the surface suitable for taking a uniform and continuous layer
of coating so as to ensure the better durability.
3/27

Selection of a Cleaning Process
-type and composition of the metal
-type and amount of contaminants sticking to the surface
-incase of rusted surface, the thickness of the layer of rust /scale
-the degree of surface cleanliness needed
-permissible loss of metal from the surface
-shape and size of the components to be cleaned
-specified tolerance for the surface finish
-availability of the cleaning equipments
-quantum of production and cost considerations
4/27

Classification of Cleaning Process
-Mechanical Cleaning Process
-Chemical Cleaning Process
-Ultrasonic Cleaning Process
-Flame Cleaning Process
5/27

Mechanical Cleaning Process
Types
-Tumbling and Barrel finishing
-Vibratory finishing
-Wire brushing
-Belt sanding
-Buffing and polishing
6/27

Tumbling and Barrel finishing
-components are finished by a suitable abrasive media
in a revolving barrel
-in tumbling, the barrel is loaded almost to its full capacity
-in barreling, the barrel is loaded only 40 60% of its capacity
-both process are used mainly to remove burrs, scales, fins, rust, flash,
forming radii, brightening and polishing for subsequent surface coating
or direct assembly
-cheapest of all finishing process
-limitations-slow speed, parts size and shape.
7/27

Tumbling and Barrel finishing - Operation
-place the parts in a special drum or barrel
-load abrasive media like steel balls, stars, slugs, granite chips,
sand, aluminum oxide pallets, metal jacks etc.
-after loading, barrel is rotated
-during this time, parts and abrasives slide together in contact with
each other but continuously change position
-entire surface of the parts comes in contact with and rub against
the abrasive media.
-Special care to be taken for delicate parts.
8/27

Vibratory Cleaning
-parts are loaded in a drum along with abrasive media
-the tub is then vibrated in the range of 900 3600 cycles per minute.
-the amplitude of vibration and the frequency are governed by
the size and shape of part, material and abrasive media.
-faster than barrel finishing and less noise.
-possible to carry out inspection during the process.
-can be easily automated.
9/27

Wire Brushing
Manual wire brushing
-for cleaning scale from weldment
-for removing sand from casting
-for removing loosely adhered scale from forging
-for removing light rust
10/27

Wire Brushing
Power wire brushing

-more effective method.
-not only remove unwanted materials but also produces
a finely finished surface
-brushes made out of wires, fibers, cord etc.
-wires made out of steel, brass or stainless steel
-fibers of natural or synthetic
-machines usually a rotary type
-different shapes such as wheel, cup, roller types, end type, side action.
-size range from 25mm to 500mm in diameter with varying
widths wheels to suit different shapes and size of the work.
-common surface speed used vary from 1500 to 2000mpm
11/27

Belt sanding
-simple and common means of obtaining smooth surfaces on metal parts.
-an endless abrasive belt is continuously moved and component are
held against it.
-a number of belts of different degree of fineness for surfaces carries
more unevenness
-although a fairly smooth surface is obtained, depending up on
the grit and abrasive minor scratches do remain on the surface.
-another constraint is that it can not be used for sanding deep
interiors or recesses.
12/27
SURFACE TREATMENT(CLEANING &FINISHING)

Buffing & Polishing
-obtain highly reflective scratch free and polished surface.
-buffing wheels are made out of soft materials like felt, muslin or linen.
-made in various forms like radial, parallel, concentric, square etc.
-the abrasive for buffing is held in a semi soft binder.
-soft buffing wheels are charged with very fine abrasive particles
mixed with wax.
-cloths used for buffing are stitched several layers to provide it a firm shape.
-in both buffing and polishing, component is held fed past a rotating wheel
13/27

Chemical Cleaning
Types
-solvent cleaning
-alkaline cleaning
-acid cleaning
-Vapour degreasing
-Electro polishing
-Electrolyte cleaning
14/27

Chemical cleaning
Solvent cleaning
-used for removing oil, grease, fats, dirt from surface for coating or electroplating.
-solvent can be either straight solvent or emulsifiable solvent.
-straight solvents are petroleum or coal derivatives.
-emulsifiable-compounds made by mixing an organic solvent with
an emulsifying agent which is soluble in water.
-for cleaning, parts are first wiped with a brush to remove the soil if any.
-then dipped in a tank containing solvent cleaner and rinsed
-after remove from the tank, parts are wiped dry with a cloth
-solvent cleaning is widely favoured for cleaning of such metal which
are prone to attack of alkaline cleaners such as Zinc , Aluminum, lead etc.
15/27

Alkaline cleaning
Chemical cleaning
-used for removing oils and grease

-rust and scale can not be removed effectively by this method.
-sodium metasilicate, caustic soda, sodium carbonate, sodium chromate,
sodium phosphate are some of the agents.
-the cleaning bath consists of any of the agent with soap and a wetting agent
-soap & wetting agent help I emulsification and providing proper fluidity
-cleaning solution is used hot by heating electrically
-parts to be cleaned is suspended in to the hot bath.
-after cleaning, parts are thoroughly rinsed to clean off completely
from any cleaning agent remaining on the surface.
-used for cleaning for all metals except alumnium, lead, tin, brass, and zinc
-to have a separate room due to pollution
16/27

Chemical cleaning
Acid cleaning(acid pickling)
-acid pickling is a process of removing oxides and dirt and produce
a highly reflective surface for electroplating.
-both hot and cold bath are used.
-sulphuric acid is the most commonly used acid in acid pickling
-a bath made from 10% sulphuric acid with water is the common solution.
-pickling operation can be accelerated by heating the solution to
about 750C 850C
-proportion in cold bath will be much higher (50%)
-a bath containing 25%-100% hydrochloric acid with water is
good for steel and iron.
-prior cleaning to be done before pickling
-pickling inhibitors are used to resist the adverse action of acid on metal
17/27

Chemical cleaning
Vapour degreasing
-modified form of cold solvent cleaning.
-metal surface is subjected to the vapours of chemical instead of dipping.
-widely used for the material that are prone to alkaline attack.
-parts are hung over the container carrying boiling chemical mixture
-vapours strike the surface of the parts and condensed there.
-the condensed fluid washes off the oil and grease from the surface.
-a separate room is required due to pollution.
-equipment is to be well built with heaters.
-a fast process and produce no adverse effect on the work
-solid dirt can not be removed.
18/27

Chemical cleaning
Electro polishing
-also known as electrolytic polishing
-varying degree of luster, smoothness and polish on surface are achievable.
-basically a reverse process that of electroplating.
-the part to be cleaned as anode and a cathode is introduced through electrolyte
-current start flowing and removal of metal from elevated rough spots
occurs at a very fast rate.
-only leveling the surface- attaining a smooth and polished surface.
-meant for obtaining a mirror like polished surface.
-not advisable to use it for removing more than 0.025mm as it will take more time.
19/27

Chemical cleaning
Electrolyte cleaning
-also known as electro cleaning
-hot alkaline solution is used as electrolyte.
-enable to remove dirt, oil and grease from the work surface.
-the work piece can be either anode or cathode depending up on the material.
-current start flowing once the circuit is connected.
-if work piece is anode, oxygen will be evolved at its surface and
the bubbles of oxygen formed on surface.
-while bursting, it will have a rubbing action thereby removing dirt etc.
-to avoid explosion, no chloride is used and the soap content is kept
as low as possible.
-can be used for polishing irregular surface
-most of the material can be electro polished.
20/27

Coating
Painting(brushing)
-slow and simple manual operation
-for good results, it require highly skilled worker
-widely used for painting manually of steel structures, cabinets
furniture,, steel doors and windows, grills, and other fittings
in building work, repair and maintenance work.
-the brushes used for this purpose are made of a combination

of long and short animal hairs or fibers with their tips splitted in to many parts.
-the hair or fiber are fitted in a wooden handle.
21/27

Coating
Spray painting
-the most commonly used method for application of industrial finishes.
-method consists of breaking up the liquid coating in to a fine spray
and throwing it on to the work surface with high velocity.
-the discharge stick on to the work surface and deposits there to form coating.
-air spraying, hydraulic spraying, electrostatic spraying,
steam spraying are some of the spraying methods.
22/27

Coating
Dip coating
-when parts are to be painted all over, this method is widely used.
-suited wavy well for coating of primers and painting small parts.
-can be used for painting complex shapes of parts.
-selective painting can not be done as the parts are dipped in the paint.
-very thin film of paint can not be done.
-draining of paint after dipping is trouble some as the running paint
down the surface makes it wavy instead producing a clean and
even surface.
23/27

Coating
Powder coating
-technique of applying organic coating on metallic surface
-coating of a number of synthetic resins like epoxies, acrylics,
polyester, polyvinyl, cellulose etc can be provided by this process.
-process consists of depositing the powdered resin on the work surface,
allowing to fuse, flow and get cured.
-another process used is fluidized bed technique
-the resin powder is collected in a container.
-the container carries a perforated bottom which is known as diffuser plate.
-air is forced through the pores in the diffuser plate in to the powder bed.
-a vibrator unit is fitted to the container
24/27

Coating
Powder coating - continued
-when the container vibrates, the upward flow air provide a cushioning
action,and combination of vibration and cushioning action makes
the powder flow like a fluid.
-the part to be coated is heated to a temperature slightly above
the fusion point of the powder and then immersed in to the powder.
-the flowing powder particles come in contact with the hot
surface and fuse there.
-the fusion process continues and leave a neat but relatively
thicker film of coating over the work piece.
25/27

Coating
Electroplating
-process of providing metallic coating by means of electrolysis.
-article to be coated may be either metallic or non-metallic.
-coating can be provided on chromium, zinc, tin, nickel, copper,
cadmium, silver, gold, platinum, brass, bronze etc
-the main elements involved in this process are the electrolyte,
tank, an anode and a cathode and a low voltage direct current supply.
-the electrolyte used is a metallic salt solution
-the part is suspended and immersed in the electrolyte filled in the tank.
-electrically they are connected to cathode(negative terminal)
-material to be deposited is connected to anode(positive terminal)
-for plastics, a primary coat of an electrically conductive material first
before electro plating.
26/27

Vacuum metallizing
-basically a vapour coating or vapour deposition process

-any metal can be coated on a base material
-very effective for depositing a thin film of a metal compound
-commonly used coating materials are aluminium, chromium,
silver, nickel, gold, platinum, germanium etc
-most common base materials are different metal, ceramics,
glass, plastics, paper and cloth.
-the parts to be metallized and the coating material are placed
in a high vacuum chamber.
-the coating material is heated electrically
-material vapourize and leaves the surface of the coating material in atomic form
-these vapours strike the surface to be coated and condense there.
-the parts are slowly rotated to expose the entire surface to vapour.
-the condensed metal vapour are deposited over the surface to form
highly pure and extremely thin film of the coating material.
27/27

Vacuum metallizing
Advantages
-a small amount of metal is consumed as a very thin film is coated.
-coating can be done on extremely costly material like gold platinum etc.
-highly reflective (mirror) and decorative surfaces can be produced
on metals, plastics textile etc quite easily and cheaply..
-can be effectively used for decorative coatings on items like
household goods, souvenirs, gift items, artificial jewellery
-for providing functionally effective coating for corrosion and thermal resistance.

HEAT TREATMENT (Compatibility Mode)

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HEAT TREATMENT (Compatibility Mode)

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HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

An alloy of iron & carbon

-Low carbon steel 0.1 0.25% of carbon

-Medium carbon steel 0.25 0.65% of carbon

-High carbon steel 0.65 1.5% of carbon

An alloy of iron, carbon, and other alloying elements

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

-hardly any martensite is formed

Carbon % from 0.1 to 0.25%

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Heating to 7607800C, followed by

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Medium Carbon Steel

-Normalizing is employed for improving machinanility for the first group

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

-typical example includes spindles of machine tools, gears,

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Heat treatment temperature for Medium Carbon Steel

870 890 870 890

860 880 860 880

850 870 850 870

840 860 840 860

830 850 830 850

820 840 820 840

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

-a hardness of 56 60 HRC is obtained after hardening & tempering

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Heat treatment temperatures for Water hardening tool steels

Between 175 275 in general

Between 175 275 in general

Between 175 275 in general

Between 175 275 in general

Between 175 275 in general

Between 150-400 in general

Between 150-400 in general

Between 150-400 in general

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Heat treatment temperature for shock resistance tool steel

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

-intended for cold applications

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Cold worked Tool Steel

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

-classified in to three groups depending on the principle alloying elements

-red hardness imparted by tungsten

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS