1. What is and why is there a need for research?

Research is a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new

interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to
explore.
Research consists of:

Asking a question that nobody has asked before;

Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and

Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.

In practice, research methods vary widely, depending upon the academic

disciplines accepted standards, the individual researchers preferences, or a
particular studys needs. Research in science and engineering often involves
conducting experiments in the lab or in the field. Research in the arts, humanities,
and social sciences may include archival work in the library or on the internet,
conducting surveys or in-depth interviews, and a wide range of creative and artistic
projects- from costume design to playwriting to curating a fine arts exhibit.
Research is not a solitary activity but an act of community. As a member of the
research community, you are building on the knowledge that others have acquired
before you and providing a road map for those who come after you. You are adding
to a body of work that will never be complete. Research is an ongoing, collaborative
process with no finish line in sight.

Goals of Scientific Research

Many researchers agree that the goals of scientific research are: description,
prediction, and explanation/understanding. Some individuals add control and
application to the list of goals. For now, I am going to focus on discussing
description, prediction and explanation/understanding.
Description
Description refers to the procedures used to define, classify and categorize subjects
and their relationships. Descriptions allow us to establish generalizations and
universals. By gathering information on a large group of people, for instance, a
researcher can describe the average member or the average performance of a
member of the specific group being studied.
Describing observations of large groups of people does not take away from the fact
that there are important differences among individuals. That is, researchers merely
attempt to describe subjects or events on the basis of average performance
(generally speaking). Alternatively, description allows researchers to describe a
single phenomenon and or observations of a single person.

In science, descriptions are systematic and precise. Scientific research makes use
of operational definitions. Operational definitions characterize events, qualities and
concepts in terms of observable operations, or procedures used to measure them.
Researchers are interested in describing only things that are relevant to the study.
They have no interest in describing observations that are irrelevant to the
investigation.
Prediction
In addition developing descriptions, researchers make predictions. Descriptions of
events often provide a basis for prediction. Predictions are sometimes made in the
form of hypotheses, which are tentative, testable predictions concerning the
relationships between or among variables. Hypotheses are frequently derived from
theories, or interrelated sets of concepts that explain a body of data and make
predictions.
Prediction of later performance is of particular importance to researchers. For
example:

Does eating a low-calorie diet increase chances of living longer?

Does undergraduate GPA predict how well one will do in graduate school?

Do high levels of intelligence predict avoidance of cognitive biases?

When a variable can be used to predict another variable or variables we can say the
variables are correlated. Correlation exists when different measures vary together,
which makes it possible to predict values of one variable by knowing values of
another variable.
Keep in mind predictions are made with varying degrees of certainty. Correlation
coefficients state the degree of relationship between the variables in terms of both
strength and direction of the relationship. In other words, correlation coefficients
determine how well measures co-vary.
Explanation/Understanding
Arguably, the most important goal of scientific research is explanation. Explanation
is achieved when the cause or causes of a phenomenon are identified. In order to
determine cause and effect three pre-requisites are essential: covariation of events,
proper time-order sequence and the elimination of plausible alternative causes.

Covariation of events (relationship): The variables must correlate. To

determine the relationship of two variables, it must be determined if the
relationship could occur due to chance. Lay observers are often not good
judges of the presence of relationships, thus, statistical methods are used to
measure and test the existence and strength of relationships.

Proper time-order sequence (time precedence): For 1 to cause 2, 1 must

precede 2. The cause must precede the effect.

Elimination of plausible alternative causes (non-spuriousness, or

genuine): For a relationship between A and B to be nonspurious, there must
not be a C that causes both A and B such that the relationship between A and
B vanishes once C is controlled.

The most difficult condition to be met when determining cause and effect
relationships is the elimination of other plausible causes.

2. Differentiate research types and cite an

example for each.
Quantitative Research
Objective/Purpose

To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of

interest
To measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample
Sometimes followed by qualitative research which is used to explore some
findings further

Sample
Usually a large number of cases representing the population of interest. Randomly
selected respondents.
Data collection
Structured techniques such as online questionnaires, on-street or telephone
interviews.
Data analysis
Statistical data is usually in the form of tabulations (tabs). Findings are conclusive
and usually descriptive in nature.
Outcome
Used to recommend a final course of action.
Example
The Quality of Care for Depressive and Anxiety Disorders in the United
States
Background:
Depressive and anxiety disorders are prevalent and cause substantial
morbidity. While effective treatments exist, little is known about the quality of care

for these disorders nationally. We estimated the rate of appropriate treatment

among the US population with these disorders, and the effect of insurance, provider
type, and individual characteristics on receipt of appropriate care.
Methods:
Data are from a cross-sectional telephone survey conducted during 1997 and
1998 with a national sample. Respondents consisted of 1636 adults with a probable
12-month depressive or anxiety disorder as determined by brief diagnostic
interview. Appropriate treatment was defined as present if the respondent had used
medication or counseling that was consistent with treatment guidelines.
Results:
During a 1-year period, 83% of adults with a probable depressive or anxiety
disorder saw a health care provider (95% confidence interval [CI], 81%-85%) and
30% received some appropriate treatment (95% CI, 28%-33%). Most visited primary
care providers only. Appropriate care was received by 19% in this group (95% CI,
16%-23%) and by 90% of individuals visiting mental health specialists (95% CI,
85%-94%). Appropriate treatment was less likely for men and those who were black,
less educated, or younger than 30 or older than 59 years (range, 19-97 years).
Insurance and income had no effect on receipt of appropriate care.
Conclusions:
It is possible to evaluate mental health care quality on a national basis. Most
adults with a probable depressive or anxiety disorder do not receive appropriate
care for their disorder. While this holds across diverse groups, appropriate care is
less common in certain demographic subgroups.

Qualitative Research
Objective/Purpose

To gain an understanding of underlying reasons and motivations

To provide insights into the setting of a problem, generating ideas and/or
hypotheses for later quantitative research
To uncover prevalent trends in thought and opinion
Sample

Usually a small number of non-representative cases. Respondents selected to fulfil a

given quota.
Data collection
Unstructured or semi-structured techniques e.g. individual depth interviews or
group discussions.
Data analysis

Non-statistical.
Outcome
Exploratory and/or investigative. Findings are not conclusive and cannot be used to
make generalizations about the population of interest. Develop an initial
understanding and sound base for further decision making.
Example
Qualitative study of patients perceptions of the quality of care for
depression in general practice.
Background:
Research into quality of care in primary mental health care has largely
focused on the role of the general practitioner (GP) in the detection and
management of patients problems.
Aim:
To explore depressed patients perceptions of the quality of care received
from GPs.

Design of study:
Qualitative study using semi-structured inter- views.
Method:
Purposive sampling and semi-structured interviewing of 27 patients who had
received care from 10 GPs for depression.
Results:
Quality of care in depression depends on good communication between the
doctor and the patient, but patients who are depressed often have difficulty in
discussing their problems with doctors. They are also unlikely to be active in seeking
care; for example, in making follow-up appointments, especially when they are
uncertain that depression is a legitimate reason for seeing the doctor. Patients
sometimes accept care that does not meet professional standards, either because
of low expectations of what the National Health Service (NHS) can provide, or
because of low self-worth associated with their problem.
Conclusion:
The depressed person may feel that they do not deserve to take up the
doctors time, or that it is not possible for doctors to listen to them and understand
how they feel. Doctors need to be active in providing care that meets professional
standards. We advocate a model of care in which patients with depression are
followed up systematically.

Cross-sectional Research
A cross-sectional study is an observational one. This means that researchers
record information about their subjects without manipulating the study
environment. In our study, we would simply measure the cholesterol levels of daily
walkers and non-walkers along with any other characteristics that might be of
interest to us. We would not influence non-walkers to take up that activity, or advise
daily walkers to modify their behavior. In short, wed try not to interfere.
The defining feature of a cross-sectional study is that it can compare different
population groups at a single point in time. Think of it in terms of taking a snapshot.
Findings are drawn from whatever fits into the frame.
To return to our example, we might choose to measure cholesterol levels in daily
walkers across two age groups, over 40 and under 40, and compare these to
cholesterol levels among non-walkers in the same age groups. We might even
create subgroups for gender. However, we would not consider past or future
cholesterol levels, for these would fall outside the frame. We would look only at
cholesterol levels at one point in time.
The benefit of a cross-sectional study design is that it allows researchers to compare
many different variables at the same time. We could, for example, look at age,
gender, income and educational level in relation to walking and cholesterol levels,
with little or no additional cost.
However, cross-sectional studies may not provide definite information about causeand-effect relationships. This is because such studies offer a snapshot of a single
moment in time; they do not consider what happens before or after the snapshot is
taken. Therefore, we cant know for sure if our daily walkers had low cholesterol
levels before taking up their exercise regimes, or if the behaviour of daily walking
helped to reduce cholesterol levels that previously were high.

Longitudinal study
A longitudinal study, like a cross-sectional one, is observational. So, once
again, researchers do not interfere with their subjects. However, in a longitudinal
study, researchers conduct several observations of the same subjects over a period
of time, sometimes lasting many years.
The benefit of a longitudinal study is that researchers are able to detect
developments or changes in the characteristics of the target population at both the
group and the individual level. The key here is that longitudinal studies extend
beyond a single moment in time. As a result, they can establish sequences of
events.

To return to our example, we might choose to look at the change in cholesterol

levels among women over 40 who walk daily for a period of 20 years. The
longitudinal study design would account for cholesterol levels at the onset of a
walking regime and as the walking behavior continued over time. Therefore, a
longitudinal study is more likely to suggest cause-and-effect relationships than a
cross-sectional study by virtue of its scope.

3. What are the important components of a good

research? What makes a good research?
A Successful Research Paper is a SMART one
A successful research paper fulfills the objective of increasing readers' knowledge of
a given subject. It also accurately, concisely, and comprehensively relays unbiased
information on that subject: information that, of course, must include valid evidence
to support the premise.
SMART is a good way to remember the fundamentals of research paper writing,
and to help prepare an author in writing a successful research paper.

Specific: A research paper should be specific. It should maintain its focus on

the given subject of research - answering a specific research question - and not
be inconsistent or aimless as to convey information or make claims on other,
unrelated topics or subjects.
Measurable: A research paper must contain specific, proven research, and
cites all research sources and related literature.
Attainable: A research paper must provide a thesis statement, one that
answers the research question and contributes to the knowledge of the given
subject. It can't propose to answer a question that doesn't relate to real life or
isn't based on an existing body of knowledge.
Realistic: A research paper is objective and realistic. Should it be made to
present interpretations, arguments, or evaluations, then it should do so based
on valid evidence from reliable sources.
Time: A research paper cannot be written without the researcher knowing
the limits, timeframes, and focus of the required work. Without the writer /
researcher stating the scope and limitations of the research paper, it is likely
that the thesis statement will be hampered by an inability to answer the given
research question or focus on the given research subject.

Components of a Research Paper

It's also important for the writer / researcher to pay attention to the essential
components of a research paper. While there are no templates for writing it, there
are standard components of which one may do well to have a good understanding.

Title: The title page, with the alignment of the actual title of the paper
typically centered.
Table of contents (with page numbers for each section)
Introduction: This component provides the context and a situational
analysis of the research topic at hand. Ideally, this is also where the research
question and hypothesis are stated. It is important to explain why the research
subject was chosen, and what the relevance or rationale is of undertaking
research on the subject. (This is your opportunity to show your reasons and
passion, too!)
Methodology: This part states and explains the process by which data,
results, and evidence are collected, organized, and analyzed. If the methodology
of the research paper is based on previous research literature, make sure that
such literature is still valid and up-to-date. Research founded on outdated or
disapproved material weakens credibility and makes proving something
successfully so much more difficult.
Results and Discussion: This is where you logically follow through from the
methodology and findings; with a smooth transition to reporting, analyzing,
discussing, and substantiating the results. While research papers are an
academic endeavor, it's important to write in a way that captures and sustains
the attention of the reader. This can be done by using several techniques,
including: tables / graphs, quotations, illustrations, examples, words of emphasis
("indeed," "of course," "truly"), and additional supporting evidence. When using
quotations, remember to do so accurately and to cite the source of the
quotation in the references section.
Conclusion: This summarizes the results and major findings. Do not,
however, include in the conclusion anything that hasn't been brought up in the
results and discussion components.
References / Bibliography: This component cites all the references made
in the paper to other research studies and sources of information, be it by way
of testimony, statistics, direct quotes, and paraphrased information. It is vital
that every reference is recorded: doing so adds credibility and discipline to the
paper.

REFERENCES
http://urp.ucsd.edu/for-students/what-is-research.html
http://www.snapsurveys.com/qualitative-quantitative-research/
http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=481702
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1314569/pdf/12879827.pd

GradeSaver. "Writing Resources - Essay Help | Elements of a Successful Research

Paper". GradeSaver, 12 November 2014. Web. 12 November 2014.