MULTIPLICATION PROCESSES IN PLANTS

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
ANGIOSPERM SEED FORMATION

REPRODUCTION SEXUAL: SEEDS

Production of a new organism with active participation of
sexual nuclei or cells (the combination of a male and a
female gametes) there is a renewal of indiv
indivduals

PROPAGATION
Julio Marcos Filho
DEPTO. PRODU
PRODUO VEGETAL
USP/ESALQ
2

ASEXUAL: PROPAGULES

Vegetative parts, cells or plant tissues, that possess

capacity of regeneration; there is no fusion of
sexual cells production of clones

FLORAL INDUCTION

FLORAL INITIATION

Physiological change that permits the development of

reproductive primordia.
primordia. This change is induced by
external stimuli.

Morphological expression of the induced state. Usually

occurs within the meristems of a plant.
- Types of plants: Annuals x biennials x perennials

- Water
- Photoperiod

FLOWERING PHASE OF THE PLANT LIFE CYCLE

THAT PROMOTES FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION

- Chemicals

a) THERMAL UNITS: energy accumulation

- Temperature
- Nutritional status
3

SOME TYPES OF INFLORESCENCES

head

b) JUVENILLE PERIOD

SOME TYPES OF INFLORESCENCES

spike
panicle

raceme

umbel

composite
umbel

TYPES OF FLOWERS

TYPES OF FLOWERS ACCORDING TO SEXUAL STRUCTURE

HERMAPHRODITES
UNISEXUAL

- Complete: possess sepals, petals, stamens and

pistil
- Incomplete

TYPES OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO SEX

HERMAPHRODITES:
HERMAPHRODITES: all flowers are hermaphroditic

- Perfect: possess stamens and pistil

UNISEXUAL:
UNISEXUAL:
Monoecious:
Monoecious: maize, cucumber, Pinus
Dioecious:
Dioecious: papaya, pecan, Araucaria

- Imperfect: unisexual (lacks

(lacks either stamens or pistil)
pistil)
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PARTS OF FLOWER INVOLVED IN THE

REPRODUCTION PROCESS

stigma
pollen grain

style
anther

ANDROECIUM
Set of stamens: Filament + Anther

petal
ovule

filament

embryo sac

ovary

GYNOECIUM (pistil)
Stigma
Style
Ovary

sepal
micropyle

TYPICAL COMPLETE FLOWER (Marcos Filho,

Filho, 2005)

gp

sp

lc

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ov

MICROSPOROGENESIS
and
MICROGAMETOGENESIS

fl
STAMEN

OVARY

ANTHER AND TRILOCULE OVARY CROSS SECTIONS (Marcos Filho,

Filho, 2005)
fl = filament; gp = pollen grain; sp = pollen sac; ov = ovule; lc = locule

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Anther Primodia

POLLEN GRAIN

Mother cells
differentiation

Characteristics of the Exine Importance

Pollen sac

Meiosis

Microspore mother
cell (2n)

Exine Porosity
Characteristics of the Intine Importance

Tetrad of
microspores (n)

Pore

Exine
Ttrades
generative (sperm)
cell (n)

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vegetative cell (n)

Intine

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Ovary

Ovule
Integuments

Ovule

Archesporial
cell (2n)
Functional
Megaspore

MEGASPOROGENESIS
and
MEGAGAMETOGENESIS

Micropyle
Egg cell (n)
Polar nuclei (2n)

Synergids (n)
Integuments
Embryo Sac

Ovary

Ant
Antpodals (n)
Nucellus

Funiculus

Ovule

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POLLINATION
TYPES

AGENTS

POLINNATION

9 WIND: pollen characteristics and flower structure

SELFSELF-POLLINATION: citrus, lettuce, tomato, okra,

tobacco, eggplant, cotton, soybean, rice, wheat,
peanut, field bean
CROSSCROSS-POLLINATION: maize, rye, Crotalaria juncea,
juncea,
sorghum, onion, cabbage, carrot, passion flower,
castor bean, sunflower, cucurbits, brassicas
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Pearl Millet

POLLINATION

9 INSECTS: pollen characteristics and dispersion

Crotalaria juncea,
juncea, sunflower, onion, carrot,
cabbage, passion flower, cucumber

BIRDS; BATS; HUMAN; WATER

male flowers

female
flowers

LPV/USP
Plant of Vallisneria sp.
(Bhojwani e Bhatagnar,
Bhatagnar, 1976)

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POLLINATION
DIFFICULTIES

POLLINATION
IMPORTANCE
GENETIC PURITY

DICHOGAMY

Crop isolation
Wind direction

- PROTANDRY: maize, carrot, onion, pecan

Proportion of parental lines

- PROTOGYNY: mango, pearl millet, cauliflower

GENETIC OR MORPHOLIGICAL SELF INCOMPATIBILITY:
cabbage, Crotalaria, passion flower, sunflower, radish,
rye, orange
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Split: maize, tomato, sorghum

Male sterility: maize, cabbage, carrot
Cucumber:
Cucumber: monoecious,
monoecious, androecious and gynoecious flowering habits
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Hybrid Corn
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Hybrid Sorghum

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POLLINATION

Hybrid Pearl Millet

IMPORTANCE
PRODUCTION
Presence of insects
Geography of Area
Insect control
Sowing date and climate during
flowering and fruit development

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Temperature x pollen viability

Tomato flower (A) and inflorescences with flower in different stages

stages of development (B)

Pistil
Petals

Stamens

Anther
cone

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P.C.T. Melo

Flower abortion

Sepals

Ovary

Abscission
layer

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P.C.T. Melo

FERTILIZATION
GERMINATION OF THE POLLEN TUBE
Anther

pollen
germination

Pollination

embryo sac
pollen tube

Pollen Tube

ovule

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ovary

Sperm cells
(n)

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Vegetative cell

FERTILIZATION
SYNGAMY:
sperm cell (n) + egg cell (n)

ZYGOTE (2n)

EMBRYO

TRIPLE FUSION:
sperm cell (n) + polar nuclei (2n)

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ENDOSPERM NUCLEUS (3n)

ENDOSPERM (?)

ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT
ENDOSPERM NUCLEUS

A) STORAGE TISSUE

divisions
differentiation

TYPICAL EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT OF DICOTYLEDONOUS AND

MONOTYLEDONOUS SPECIES (Copeland and McDonald)

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Pericarp

coleoptile
plumule (primary
(primary leaves)
leaves)

Endosperm

Seminal roots
(cotyledonary node)
node)

ENDOSPERM
Cotyledon (scutellum
):
(scutellum):
protection of embryo
axis and reserve transfer

coleorhiza

rad
radcle

coleoptile

GERMINATION

plumule
seminal roots

ALBUMINOUS SEEDS : monocotyledonous, castor bean,

coffee, rubber tree, tomato, sugar beet, lettuce
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primary root

MAIZE EMBRYO

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ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT

Plumule
Radicle

B) STORAGE TISSUE

Hypocotyl

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

Cotyledons

plumule + primary leaves

EXALBUMINOUS SEEDS : in general, dicotyledonous

leguminous, malvaceous,
malvaceous, cucurbits, brassicas

cotyledons
hypocotyl
primary root

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FIELD BEAN
EMBRYO

EMBRYO PARTS

PERISPERM

- RADICLE: produces the seedling root

Development of the nucellar tissue

- HYPOCOTYL: part between the cotyledons and radicle

Examples: coffee, sugar beet

- COTYL
COTYLDON(S):
Dicotyledonous storage of reserves or embryo leaves
Monocotyledonous protection of embryo axis and transfer of
reserves from endosperm to
to embryo

Endosperm

Perisperm

- PLUMULE: mass of meristematic cells major leaf bud of the seed

- EPICOTYL: the portion of the embryo above the cotyledons;
in general, is present in the plumule, as a meristematic
tissue or is well developed and visible

- Coleorhiza,
Coleorhiza, coleoptile,
coleoptile, seminal roots (cotyledonary
(cotyledonary node)

Embryo
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Longitudinal section of a sugar beet seed

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FRUIT AND SEED

SEED COATS

39

PRIMINE

TESTA (External)

SECUNDINE

TEGMA (Inner)

A MATURE OVARY AND ASSOCIATED PARTS, WITH

ONE OR MORE SEEDS

FRUIT
PARTS:
PARTS:

Functions

EXOCARP
MESOCARP

a) PERICARP

ENDOCARP

- Cohesion among the seed parts

b) SEED

- Protection against the action of biotic and abiotic factors

SEED COAT

- Regulation of water and gaseous exchange

ENDOSPERM (?)

- Regulation of germination and dormancy mechanisms

- Control of seed dispersion: wings, aculeus,
aculeus, hairs, mucilage

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schizocarp (carrot)
carrot), nuts

AXIS
COTYLEDON (s)

APOMIXIS

FRUIT AND SEED

DRY FRUITS : caryopsis (grasses).
grasses). achene (suflower,
suflower, lettuce),
lettuce),

EMBRYO

ASEXUAL DEVELOPMENT OF SEEDS WHOSE STRUCTURE

IS SIMILAR TO THOSE PRODUCED AFTER THE FUSION OF
THE EGG AND SPERM CELLS
SEEDS ARE FORMED FROM OVULE DIPLOID CELLS BY DIFFERENT
MECHANISMS, BUT FERTILIZATION DOES NOT OCCUR

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROCESS

- REPRODUCTION IS REPLACED BY ASEXUAL MULTIPLICATION
- THERE IS NO FUSION BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES
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- OCCURS IN PARTS OF PLANT USUALLY INVOLVED IN

REPRODUCTION

Embryo axis

EXAMPLES OF SEED
STRUCTURE
Cotyledons

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PEA SEED

Seed coat
Endosperm

COTYLEDON

SEED COAT
Cotyledons

Embryo axis
EMBRYO AXIS
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PUMPKIN SEED

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CASTOR BEAN SEED

Cotyledon

SEED
MATURATION

Plumule

Endosperm

47

ONION SEED

HypocotylHypocotyl-radicle axis

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SEED DEVELOPMENT OR MATURATION

Sequence of connected steps in preparation for
successful germination

Very important relationship to proper harvest

time and seed physiological potential

49

Delouche (1971)
Seed maturation is a process which
includes a sequence of morphological,
physical, biochemical and physiological
changes from ovule fertilization to the
point when the seed becomes
physiologically independent of the parent
plant
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SEED DEVELOPMENT

MOISTURE CONTENT (%)

+ 80

1. Variations of seed moisture content

Seeds in fleshy or in dry fruits

Fleshy

Dry
TIME

Variations in moisture content during seed maturation in

fleshy and dry fruits
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2. Seed size changes

3. Seed dry weight

R5

Embryo dry weight

DRY MATTER ACCUMULATION

(PHASE
(PHASE III)
III)

R6

R6

R7

R8

53 Development of soybean seeds and legumes (Ritchie et al., 1994)

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CELL DIVISION AND

EXPANSION
(PHASES I e II)
II)

DESiCCATION
(PHASE
(PHASE IV)
IV)

Moisture content

Days after flowering

Dure III (1975)

SEED DEVELOPMENT

moisture content

seed size

4. Germination

vigor
dry weight
germination

5. Vigor

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General alterations of seed characteristics during maturation

(Carvalho and Nakagawa, 2000)

SEED MATURITY x HARVEST TIME

DETERMINATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY

- Physiological Maturity: Identification

9 Black layer
9 Milk line
9 Soybean
9 Wheat, barley, oat
9 Vegetables, Fruits
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- Physiological Maturity: identification

SEED MATURITY x HARVEST TIME

- Determination of harvest time

Parameters

Seed moisture content

Seed and plant characteristics
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Ana Novembre

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CONCLUSION
CROP TECHNOLOGY
Climate, sowing time, sowing management, inspections, harvest
POLLINATION CONTROL
PRE AND POST HARVEST SEED MANAGEMENT
BASIS FOR DIAGNOSIS AND HARVEST DECISIONS
SEED TESTING: routine analysis and in house
house quality control
BIOTECHOLOGY
Somatic embryogeny
Artificial seeds

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