Digestive System

8/3/10

A. Defn
- Digestion is the rendering of parts of organisms into
small molecules, which can be metabolized by:
Physical Digestion
- Physical, or mechanical, digestion involves
physically breaking the food into smaller pieces
without chemically changing it into different
molecules.
-

Notes
95% of ingested food is made available
for the bodys use.
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):
female = 1300-1500 kcal/day
male = 1600-1800 kcal/day

Physical digestion helps to facilitate the process of

chemical digestion because the food is physically
broken down into smaller pieces, more surface area
is thus exposed for the enzymes to carry out the
process of chemical digestion. With more surface
area exposed, chemical digestion is much more
efficient. That is, more food can be broken down
chemically in a shorter time.

e.g.,
- Mouth Teeth (masticate, chew)
- Stomach Muscle (churn, squeeze, crush)
- Liver Bile (emulsification of lipids) Liver
(made), Gall bladder (stored), Small intestines
(operates)

Most of the work of physical digestion

takes place by churning in the stomach,
between 3 layers of muscle
(longitudinal, circular, and diagonally
arranged), against washboard-like
internal ridges, the rugae.

Chemical Digestion
- Chemical digestion is the breaking down of the large
molecules, such as proteins, starch and fats, into
smaller soluble molecules for easy absorption by
the body.
i.e., via hydrolysis assisted by enzyme activity
Lipid + water -Lipase (enzyme) glycerol + fatty acids
Starch (amylose) + water -Amylase maltose
proteins are broken up into short polypeptides by
acids and then cleaved into individual amino acids
by specific enzymes
complex carbohydrates are broken down by
enzymes ultimately into monosaccharides
lipids are enzymatically reduced to glycerol and fatty
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Phosphorolysis
The distinction is that hydrolysis
reactions use water to cleave bigger
molecules into smaller ones, but
phosphorolysis reactions instead use
phosphate for the same purpose, e.g.,
glycogen phosphorylase (vs the
hydrolytic version glycogenase (or more
commonly aka amylase)).

Review the Key Enzymes Table (p12),

for a more detailed list of enzymes and
products.
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Digestive System
acids
- humans lack the essential organic substances
required to synthesize many necessary
compounds and must obtain these organic
substances, e.g., certain vitamins, essential a.a.,
essential fatty acids, from their diet.
- a number of trace elements must also be present
B. Pathways: Into the breach

Essential Amino acids (human), must be

eaten:
1. tryptophan,
2. methionine,
3. valine,
4. threonine,
5. phenyalanine,
6. leucine,
7. isoleucine
8. lycine
Essential fatty acids: Animals are able to
fabricate these essential fatty acids (but
we cannot).
1. Linoleic acid (an omega-6)
2. alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3)
Essential vitamins: The fat-soluble
(A,D,E,and K) and the water-soluble (C,
B's, niacin, biotin, folic acid).

1. Mouth
a. Teeth
Carnivore
Herbivore

incisors (rip & shred),

canines (hold & tear),
premolars (grind)
molars (grind)

= Omnivore
- the number of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars in each quadrant of the mouth
of a normal adult is 2-1-2-3
b. Saliva
- secreted in the mouth to moisten food, aiding its
journey into the digestive system lubricates

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Salivary gland secretes amylase, an enzyme that
converts starches into disaccharides

Mucus is a "slimy" material that coats many

epithelial surfaces and is secreted into fluids such
as saliva. It is composed chiefly of mucins and
inorganic salts suspended in water.
- Mucus adheres to many epithelial surfaces,
where it serves as a diffusion barrier against
contact with noxious substances (e.g. gastric
acid, smoke) and as a lubricant to minimize
shear stresses; such mucus coatings are
particularly prominent on the epithelia of the
respiratory, gastrointestinal and genital
tracts.
Mucus is also an abundant and important
component of saliva, giving it virtually
unparalleled lubricating properties
- Mucins are glycoproteins

Asides: (just for fun)

Anosmia inability to smell

Ageusia inability to taste

Tooth health
- Antibacterial
- Wash the tooth surface, to clear bacteria
- Buffer
- Control demineralization and mineralization

Bolus (food ball)

- Mucins help hold chewed food together
2. Swallowing (Deglutition)

Uvula - A fleshy, pendulous portion of

the soft palate that blocks the
nasopharynx during swallowing.

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Digestive System
Source: http://www.dysphagiaonline.com/en/1patient/01_What_is_dysphagia.jsp

Source: http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/rattler/46/upali4.htm

Once past the mouth:

1. Pressure from the bolus on the pharynx stimulates
a swallowing response.
- muscular contractions in the pharynx.
2. The palate seals off the nasal cavity, preventing
food from entering it.
- The soft palate closes off the nasopharynx. The
vocal cords in the larynx are moved up and
towards the front of the throat thus closing it off
to the passage of food.
- This is extremely important in preventing food
from entering the airway.
3. This response stops breathing and seals off the
trachea.
- Another effect of the process is to widen the
opening of the oesophagus thus making the
passage of the bolus along the alimentary
canal easier.

Talking and eating at the same time can lead to a Caf

Coronary choking.

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Taste Buds on the tongue detect sweet,

salt, sour, bitter and umami (essentially
the taste of protein rich food, and MSG)
and possibly fat (or more precisely the
texture or feeling of fat)
The Olfactory bulb (one of two clusters
of olfactory neurons at the base of the
brain one on the left and one on the right)
in the nose would seem to detect all other
flavours
Chemesthesis - sensations that arise
when chemical compounds activate
receptor mechanisms for other senses,
usually those involved in pain, touch, and
thermal perception in the eye, nose,
mouth and throat. The burn from chili
pepper, the cooling from the menthol in
mouthwash, and the stinging of
carbonation.
Gustation the sense of taste, all of the
above
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3. Esophagus (Oesphagus) - Peristalsis

- rhythmic contractions of the esophagus (also
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine)
- moves the food (bolus) forward
- increases SA, by stirring, folding, mixing and
agitating
C. At the Stomach
- 1/2L empty, stretchable to ~2L
- the upper epithelial surface of the stomach is dotted
with deep depressions called gastric pits, the source of
the stomachs digestive juices
- pH 1-3
-

the gastric pits contain two types of secreting cells:

1. Parietal cells - secretes concentrated HCl
- ~ 2L a day
2. Chief cells - which secrete pepsinogen
- within the stomach HCl converts pepsinogen
into the enzyme pepsin

Tummy Taste Buds

The taste receptor T1R3 and the taste G
protein gustducin are critical to sweet
taste in the tongue. These two sweetsensing proteins are also expressed in
specialized taste cells of the gut where
they sense glucose within the intestine.
The small intestine is the major site
where dietary sugars are absorbed into
the body to provide energy, and maintain
normal metabolism and homeostasis. If
glucose is absorbed in excess obesity
may occur.
Carbs ingested break down into glucose,
which stimulates the sweet-sensing
proteins in these gut taste cells. The gut
taste cells then regulate secretion of
insulin and hormones that regulate
appetite (insulin stimulates hunger),
which may explain why current artificial
sweeteners may not help with weight
loss.
Source:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/20
07/08/070820175426.htm

HCl breaks up connective tissue and proteins into

molecular fragments,
- which are further digested by pepsin into short
polypeptides.
Protein -pepsin short strands of a.a. ( a.a.)

Carbohydrates and fats are not chemically

digested, only proteins are chemically digested
within the stomach

Mucus
- epithelial cells (goblets cells in the gastric pits)
in the stomach also secrete mucus
- which lubricates the stomach wall and
facilitates the passage of food,
- protects stomach wall from abrasion by
food,
- and protects the walls from autodigestion by
the gastric juices

stomach

still the cells lining the stomach are

replaced every 2-3 days.
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-

failure to do this may result in ulcers

- cause: bacterial infection
(heliobacterium Heliobacter
pylori), possibly acerbated by stress
and diet
- treatment: antibiotic regime

N.B. The Parasympathetic nervous system regulates

normal or at rest body activity slowing down the
heart beat and respiration, but also stimulates digestive
activity when food is present. Similarly when body
activity increases during periods of stress the
Symapthetic nervous system, decreases digestive
activity (an increases heart rate, respiration) to
ensure sufficient blood for muscles, heart etc.
Chyme (as food exits stomach = a pasty material)
D. The Small Intestines
- food passes from the stomach to the small
intestines: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the
ileum.
- where pH is neutralized, by the presence of
bicarbonate secreted by the pancreas
- and a variety of enzymes, many synthesized
in the pancreas and small intestine, act to
complete digestion.
-

Most digestion occurs in the duodenum.

- The duodenum received its name from being
about equal in length to the breadth of twelve
fingers (25-30cm).
- It is the shortest, the widest, and the most
fixed part of the small intestine. Its course
presents a remarkable curve, somewhat of
the shape of an imperfect circle or letter
C, so that its termination is not far
removed from its starting-point.
- pH 6-6.5
-

Liver produces bile salts, which are stored in

the gall bladder, which are then directed to the
small intestines to emulsify fats
- to increase the lipids SA for the enzyme
lipase to act upon

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Intestines

Duodenum & Pancreas

Liver

Hemochromatosis:
a common genetic disorder
inability to excrete excess
iron.

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Adult humans produce 400 to 800
ml of bile daily.

Bile is a complex fluid containing water, electrolytes and a

battery of organic molecules including bile acids,
cholesterol, phospholipids and bilirubin that flows through
the biliary tract into the small intestine.

Bile:
- Emulsification of lipids
o Increased SA for lipase
activity
o physical digestion
- Transport of lipids in an
aqueous environment
- Critical for transport and
absorption of the fat-soluble
vitamins
- Cholesterol Homeostasis

There are two fundamentally important functions of bile in

all species:

Bile contains bile acids, which are critical for

digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble
vitamins in the small intestine.

Many waste products are eliminated from the

body by secretion into bile and elimination in feces.

Bile acids are lipid carriers and are able to solubilize

many lipids by forming micelles - aggregates of lipids
such as fatty acids, cholesterol and monoglycerides that remain suspended in water.

Hepatic synthesis of bile acids accounts for the

majority of cholesterol breakdown in the body. In
humans, roughly 500 mg of cholesterol are converted
to bile acids and eliminated in bile every day.

The gall bladder stores and concentrates bile during the

fasting state. Typically, bile is concentrated five-fold in
the gall bladder by absorption of water and small
electrolytes - virtually all of the the organic molecules are
retained.
Secretion into bile is a major route for eliminating
cholesterol. Free cholesterol is virtually insoluble in
aqueous solutions, but in bile, it is made soluble by bile
acids and lipids like lethicin. Gallstones, most of which
are composed predominantly of cholesterol, result from
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processes that allow cholesterol to precipitate from
solution in bile.
Source: http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/liver/bile.htm

Surface area of the small intestine is ~

250-300m2 (about the size of a tennis
court 260m2).
Source: Campbell & Reece, Biology, 6e

Most absorption of nutrients and water occur in

the Jejunum and Ileum
- The remainder of the small intestine (~ 6 m)
- ~3m while alive, and muscles contracted
- pH 7-8
- The wider Jejunum occupies the upper twofifths and the Ileum the lower three-fifths.
- There is no morphological line of distinction
between the two, and the division is
arbitrary; but at the same time the character
of the intestine gradually undergoes a
change, so that a portion of the bowel taken
from these two situations would present
characteristic and marked differences.

a. Absorption of Nutrients
- The products of digestion are absorbed across the
heavily folded walls of the small intestine,
-

which possess numerous villi,

- ~ 30 per mm2, ~ 1 mm long

the membranes of the epithelial cells have

microscopic projections, called microvilli
- produce a surface layer called the brush border
- and so achieves a very great absorptive surface
area.

Question: The average length of the small

intestine, when fully extended after death,
is ~6m (to 7m), with a diameter of ~2.5cm.
Because of folds, villi, and microvilli, the
surface area is 25,000cm2. What
percentage of increase is attributed to the
folding, villi, and microvilli in the small
intestine?
Answer: The small intestine is essentially
a long cylinder and to calculate the surface
area of a cylinder you multiply the length
by the circumference, which in this case is:
600 cm x.2.5 = 4,710cm2
Now, to calculate the percentage of
increase attributed to the folding, villi, and
microvilli subtract the calculated surface
area from the total surface area and divide
by the calculated surface area:
25,000 4,710 / 4,710= 4.3x larger (~5x
or ~80% more surface area)
Aside: The nature of the chyme also
increases the surface area for absorption
even further.

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Digestive System
Liver:
bile production
o excretion of bilirubin,
cholesterol, hormones,
and drugs
fat, carbohydrate storage
regulation blood glucose
o glucose to glycogen
(glycogenesis)
synthesis blood (plasma) proteins
o prothrombin, fibrinogen,
albumin, hemoglobin
(globulins)*
storage iron, vitamins
conversion of ammonia >> urea
detoxification of blood
The liver is among the few internal
human organs capable of natural
regeneration of lost tissue; as little as
25% of remaining liver can regenerate
into a whole liver again. wikipedia

1. Amino acids and sugars are transported by specific

transmembrane channels directly to the blood
stream, via the hepatic portal vein into the liver
- to form plasma (blood) proteins, including
albumin and fibrinogen
-

the metabolism of excess proteins form a.a. that

may be oxidized for energy or stored as fat
- a.a. undergo oxidative deamination, which
ultimately form (as the amine group is split) the
toxic nitrogenous wastes ammonia (NH3)
- which is converted, within the liver (NH3 +
CO2)
- to (the less toxic) urea and released in
the blood stream for the kidneys to
remove (via excretion).

2. Simple fats (glycerol [as monoglycerides, a glycerol

joined to a single fatty acid] and free fatty acids)
which are lipid soluble, pass readily across the
membranes of the villi and are reassembled into
triglycerides. They are coated with proteins,
phospholipids and cholesterol to form chylomicrons
(lipoprotein droplets filled with, e.g., triglycerides),
and move (via exocytosis) into the lacteals, lymph
vessel draining the villi.
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* Fcn:

prothombrin, fibrinogen
blood clotting
albumin osmotic control
in blood, buffer
hemoglobin - O2 / CO2
transport, buffer

if there are excess proteins in the diet

those amino acids converted into pyruvic
acid and acetyl CoA can be converted
into lipids by the lipogenesis process. If
carbohydrates are lacking in the diet or if
glucose cannot get into the cells (as in
diabetes), then those amino acids
converted into pyruvic acid and
oxaloacetic acids can be converted into
glucose or glycogen.
Source:
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/631tra
nsam.html

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-

eventually passing through the lymph system to

drain into the left subclavian vein (via the
thoracic duct) superior vena cava heart
-

the enzyme lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes the

chylomicrons in the blood, the freed fatty
acids (triglycerides) are taken up by muscle
and adipose tissues
- where they are primarily stored, or may
be oxidized for energy
the remnant chylomicrons pass on to the liver
and deliver dietary cholesterols and are
- are hydrolyzed releasing glycerol and
fatty acids which can be used for
energy or stored for later use
- glycerol may be converted by
gluconeogenesis into glucose,
or oxidized to drive gylcolysis
for cell respiration
- and forming VLDLs LDLs, HDLs
and bile salts

3. Glucose and other metabolic products of digestion

do not enter the general circulation directly, but
instead flow to the liver, via the hepatic portal vein
- the liver removes and stores any excess metabolic
products and maintains blood glucose levels
within narrow bounds. (homeostasis)
-

excess glucose is converted to glycogen by the

liver.
- excess glycogen is stored as fat.
-

associated hormone: insulin

- lowers blood glucose levels by causing the
muscles and liver (body cells) to actively
take up and store glucose as glycogen

E. The large Intestines: Colon (Bowels)

- extends (~1.5m) from the end of the ileum to the anus.
- pH 5.5-7 - varies along its length
- the large intestines have little digestive or (nutrient)
absorptive activity;
- it functions principally to compact the
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A lipoprotein is a particle made up of a

core of triglycerides and cholesterol and a
covering of protein and phospholipids that
makes it water-soluble. Chylomicrons
produced in the intestines are the largest,
but also include
VLDL (Very Low Density Lipoprotein)
is made in your liver and it delivers fat
(triglyceride) and cholesterol to different
parts of your body. Once its done its job
some VLDL goes back to the liver and the
remainder gets made into LDL.
LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein) made
from VLDL, its main job is to deliver
cholesterol to different parts of the body.
Once LDL does its job it goes back to the
liver. Not a bad cholesterol, but with
excess
Over time VLDL and LDL may be
damaged, WBC attempt to remove these
but get stuck, and themselves become
foam cells, while cholesterols continue to
accumulate blocking arteries (atheromas).
HDL (High Density Lipoprotein) aka
good cholesterols comes out of your
liver and intestine as a flat empty particle.
It travels around the body picking up
excess cholesterol
The filled HDL can emptied in two ways:
By recycling some of the cholesterol
by transferring it to VLDL and LDL
and by returning the excess to the to
the liver which will dispose of it in
the gut.
Once the HDL particle is emptied it can
go back around the body and pick up
more cholesterol.
Source: http://myfatdog.com/vldl_ldl_hdl

Insulin promotes the active transport of

glucose into cells (against the
concentration gradient), where glucose is
concentrated as glycogen (glycogenesis).

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undigested wastes that is left over from digestion
for easier elimination/defecation
-

bacterium E. coli aid in this process by breaking

down & softening further undigested material
- E. coli also synthesizes vitamin K, needed by
the liver to synthesize prothrombin, a
necessary enzyme of blood clotting

- colon also absorbs water

- Principal function on exam
- it receives approximately 10 liters of water
per day. 1.5 liters is from food and 8.5 liters
is from secretions into the gut. 95% of this
water is reabsorbed
-

Good Bacteria & the Colon:

There are10x more bacteria in the
gut, than cells in your body
Up to 60% of feces is bacteria
More lymph tissue than anywhere
else in the body
Good bacteria keep bad bacteria
from getting a foot hold
Digest mucus, synthesis of vitamins,
e.g., K
Lactobacillus aids in lactose
digestion, as does yogurts
acidophilus
Probiotic hype?
But they do like fibre

if water is not absorbed, diarrhea can result,

causing dehydration and ion loss.

- excretes iron and calcium salts

- absorbs sodium and other ions
-

the last 20 cm is the rectum.

- Feces is composed of approximately 75% water

and 25% solids.
- One-third of the solids is intestinal bacteria,
2/3s is undigested materials
- The cecum is a pouch at the junction of the small
intestine and large intestine.
- In herbivorous mammals, it is large and
houses bacteria capable of digesting
cellulose.
- In human ancestors, the cecum was larger but
has been reduced by evolutionary change to
form the appendix.
-

Appendicitis is an infection.
- The appendix may swell and burst,
leading to peritonitis (infection of the
abdominal lining).
Hypothesized functions for the appendix
include lymphatic, exocrine, endocrine, and
neuromuscular.

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Digestive System
-

while it is rich in infection-fighting

lymphoid cells, suggesting that it might play
a role in the immune system.
it appears to lack significant function
- and exist primarily as a vestigial
remnant of the larger cellulose-digesting
cecum found in our herbivorous
ancestors.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermiform_appendix
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/vestiges/appendix.html
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20
102/Bio%20102%20lectures/Digestive%20System/digestive%20system
.htm

How Fibre works:

- draws water into colon - swells - and initiates
peristaltic contractions to remove watery wastes
- daily fibre requirement (?) no definitive data, but
a range between 25 - 35 grams/day is most
recommended
- How to tell? Are you regular, defecating at least
once in a 24h period at about the same time each
day, in a relatively quick process not long
and drawn out

Other Hormones:
Grehlin makes people want to eat
Leptin suppresses hunger (a lack of sleep
lowers leptin levels, and increases hunger)

Key Hormones of Digestion (abridged key function)

HORMONE
SOURCE
STIMULUS
Gastrin
Pyloric section of
Entry of food
stomach
(bolus) into the
stomach
Cholecystokinin
Duodenum
Arrival of food
(CCK)
(lipid-rich chyme)
cholecysto = gallbladder
in the small
kinin = movement
intestines

ACTION
Regulates secretion of
HCl from parietal cells
Stimulates gall bladder
contraction, to release
bile salts (to emulsify
fats physical
digestion) to intestines.
Stimulates secretion of
digestive enzymes
from pancreas

Secretin

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Duodenum

HCl entering the

duodenum (acidrich chyme)

12

Stimulates pancreas to
secrete Sodium
bicarbonate
(NaHCO3), to
neutralize stomach
acids (Buffer)
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Stimulates gall bladder
to release alkaline
bile, to counter acidity
of chyme.
Insulin

Pancreas

High blood glucose

levels

Stimulates the
conversion of glucose
into glycogen, stored
in the liver and muscle

Glucagon

Pancreas

Low blood glucose

levels

Stimulates the
conversion of
glycogen into glucose

SUBSTRATE
starch, glycogen
proteins
short peptides

DIGESTION PRODUCT
maltose (disaccharides)
short peptides
amino acids

Key Digestive Enzyme (abridged)

LOCATION
Salivary glands
Stomach
Small Intestines

ENZYME
Amylase
Pepsin
Peptidases
Nucleases
(Nucleosidases)
(Nucleotidase)

nucleoside pentose (5-carbon and

a nitrogenous base
(purines, pyrimidines)
nucleotides nucleosides and
phosphates(H3PO4)
disaccharides
monosaccharides
Maltose glucose
Sucrose glucose and fructose
Lactose glucose and galactose
triglycerides
fatty acids, glycerol
proteins
peptides

(Disaccharidase)
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase
Pancreas
Lipase
All fcn in the
Trypsin,
small intestine.
(Chymotrypsin)
Nucleases
(DNAse, RNAse)
DNA, RNA
nucleotides
Amylase
starch, glycogen
maltose (disaccharides)
Glycogen: Alternate naming for amylase, in the context of glycogen, also includes glycogenase,
but amylase is the more common catch-all term.
Nucleases: RNA and DNA are hydrolyzed into nucleotides by ribonuclease and
deoxyribonuclease, respectively. Phosphatases remove the phosphate group from a nucleotide,
and nucleosidase decomposes the remnant of the nucleotide (a nucleoside, a sugar and a base)
into a pentose (5-carbon sugar) and a nitrogenous base.

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Proteases: Pepsin and Trypsin.
- The pancreas secretes protein-digesting enzymes in an inactive form, e.g., trypsinogen,
which is activated by enterokinase / enteropeptidase (from the small intestine) and
converts trypsinogen into trypsin
Sketch Diagram of the digestive system

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