Ocean & Coastal Management Volume 47 issue 11-12 2004 [doi 10.1016%2Fj.ocecoaman.2004.12.010] Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia; John W. Day -- Environmental sub-regions in the Gulf of Mexico coastal zone- th.pdf

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Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman
Environmental sub-regions in the Gulf of Mexico

coastal zone: the ecosystem approach as an
integrated management tool$, $$
Alejandro Yanez-Arancibiaa,, John W. Dayb
a
Coastal Ecosystems Unit, Institute of Ecology A.C. (CONACYT); km. 2.5 Antigua Carretera Coatepec
No. 351; Xalapa 91070 Ver., Mexico
b
Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Coastal Ecology Institute, School of the Coast and
Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803, Louisiana USA
Abstract
Ecological sub-regions are a way of viewing coastal zone (CZ) regions that have been
developed to enhance the capability of NGOs, governmental organizations, and academics to
assess conditions and trends of the major ecosystems in the Gulf of Mexico (Gulf), mainly as a
management tool for dening priority actions towards sustainable development. Major
geographical regions at scale-1-level (1:40) are: (a) the warm-temperate Gulf, (b) the tropical
$
Many of the ideas for this article were stimulated by working in two projects and this work beneted
from discussions with a number of colleagues included in those projects. (1) 2002 Project Mapping Marine
and Estuarine Ecological Regions of North America, Commission for Environmental Cooperation CEC/
NAAEC/NAFTA, Juan Bezaury Creel, Saul Alvarez Borrego, Luis E. Calderon, Arturo CarranzaEdwards, Antonio D az de Leon, Gilberto Enr quez Hernandez, Gilberto Gaxiola, Hanss Herrmann,
Hector A. Licon Gonzalez, Juan J. Schmitter Soto, Margarito Tapia Garc a, Carlos Valdes, Tara
Wilkinson. (2) 2003 Project Sub-region 2 Gulf of Mexico, Scaling & Scoping & Detailed Assessment, Global
International Waters Assessment, GIWA GEF/UNEP, Ana Laura Lara-Dom nguez, David Zarate
Lomel , Patricia Sanchez-Gil, Sergio Jimenez Hernandez, Alberto Sanchez Mart nez, Evelia Rivera
Arriaga, Alejandro Flores Nava, Rafael Romero Mayo, Mario A. Ortiz Perez, Carlos Munoz Pina,
Mariana Becerra, Jaime Sainz, John W. Day, Garry L. Powell, Christopher J. Madden, Enrique Reyes,
Christian Barrientos, Bruce Currie-Alder, Juan Carlos Belausteguigoitia.
$$
Paper presented to the Estuarine and Coastal Science Association and the Estuarine Research
Federation, Joint Symposium ECSA 35/ERF, San Carlos Son., Mexico, April 28 to May 1, 2003.
Corresponding author. Fax: +52 (228) 842 1800 ext 6500.
E-mail addresses: aya@ecologia.edu.mx (A. Yanez-Arancibia), johnday@lsu.edu (J.W. Day).
0964-5691/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2004.12.010
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A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757
Gulf, and (c) the Caribbean coast of Mexico related to the Gulf. At scale-3-level (1:5 million)
in region A, six distinct environmental sub-regions are dened: Western Florida Estuarine
Area, Eastern Gulf Neritic, Mississippi Estuarine Area, Texas Estuarine Area, Laguna Madre
Estuarine Area, and Western Gulf Neritic. In regions B and C, 13 distinct environmental
sub-regions are dened: Southeast Floridian Neritic, Florida Keys, Florida Bay, Shark River
Estuarine Area, Dry Tortugas/Florida Keys Reef Tract, Southwest Floridian Neritic,
Veracruzan Neritic, Tabascan Neritic, Campeche Yucatanean Inner Neritic, Campeche
Yucatanean Outer Neritic, Contoyan Neritic, Cancunean Neritic, and SianKaanean Neritic.
From a hydrological units focus, ve main sub-regions are dened: (a) The western Florida
rivers and ground-water discharge system, (b) The Mississippi River basin and delta, (c) The
Texas estuaries and Laguna Madre US-Mexico integrated by the Rio Bravo delta, (d) The
Usumacinta/Grijalva River basin and delta, and (e) The Rio Hondo-Chetumal Bay in the
Caribbean coast of Mexico. Each geographical/hydrological sub-region can be viewed as a
discrete system which results from the interaction of geologic, geomorphologic, oceanographic, climatic, freshwater drainage, physical, chemical, coastal vegetation, wildlife, estuaryshelf interactions, and human factors. The ecosystem approach adopted as a management tool
for environmental sub-regions is predicated on: (a) accepting that interactions between the
environment (atmosphere, water, land, biota) and human activities (social, cultural,
economics) are inseparable, (b) realizing that humans are the major driving forces behind
most ecological change, (c) recognizing environmental thresholds and their importance and
linkages to human activities, (d) incorporating the needs of current and future generations,
and e) implementing a long-term perspective that is anticipatory, preventative, and
sustainable. We suggest for each sub-region to develop key agenda-topics to strengthen
ICM and answer questions on, e.g., (a) controls of primary production and water fertility in
the coastal zone, (b) energetic pulsing as the basis for sustainable management, (c)
vulnerability of the coastal zone to global climatic change, (d) coastal wetlands restoration,
and (e) environmental sustainability and the economic development of the coastal zone.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
One of the 66 Sub-regions of GIWA (Global International Waters Assessment, a
Global Environment Facility/United Nations Environment Programme (GEF/
UNEP) initiative) is the Gulf of Mexico Sub-region 2 owww.giwa.net4, which is a
shared ecosystem with a total freshwater drainage system of 5,180,000 km2, a water
body area of 1,507,639 km2, average depth of 1615 m, and a volume of
2,430,000 km3. The Gulf is the largest open water of international protected waters
in the Atlantic Ocean. The Exclusive Economic Zones of three countries converge in
the Gulf, which also constitute a Large Marine Ecosystem (LME), and the
freshwater continental drainage of ve countries discharges in the Gulf coasts. The
Gulf is an international aquatic-terrestrial ecosystem and must be analyzed,
protected and used in such a way as to optimize the economic and environmental
returns from the exploitation of its resources. It is clear that coastal-oceanic and
international waters are inuenced by the Mississippi drainage, the ecological effects
of the Texas estuaries and the Rio Bravo basin on transboundary waters among
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United States and Mexico, the inuence on international waters from the
Usumacinta Guatemala/Mexico drainage and beyond in the coastal-oceanic zone,
and the Rio Hondo-Chetumal Bay Belize/Mexico drainage and its effect into the
Gulf through the Caribbean coast of Mexico. Because of the social, political,
economic and scientic importance of this region, and because of its resource
exploitation, protection and conservation of international waters and coastal critical
habitats should be an international priority, because the ecological integrity of the
Gulf is in danger and its sustainable development uncertain [1,2].
Over the past 30 years, human intervention has resulted in unprecedented changes
in the Gulf ecosystem [3]. The natural resources of the Gulf are important to the
economy of the coastal border states of the US and Mexico [4,5]. Of particular
importance to the coastal population centers are sheries resources, recreational
facilities, offshore oil production, land use changes, and the wide diversity of sh,
bird, and mammal species. Among the problems are the increasing incidence and
extent of harmful algal blooms, oxygen depletion events, pollution hot spots, loss of
wetlands, and losses of shery productivity and yield through overexploitation and
bycatch discards [6].
Appropriate management practices should improve the necessary capital in
natural productivity for the recovery of depleted natural resources (e.g., low-land
coastal wetlands, sh populations). Efforts are presently underway to recover the
damaged ecology of several large regions of Gulf coastal lands and waters [79].
However, the various local, state, federal, national, and international jurisdictions
responsible for the management of the ecosystems rich biodiversity, habitats, and
other capital assets will need to develop more effective means for the governance of
the ecosystem [10], if the large populations in the urban centers along the coasts of
the Gulf are to realize the long-term sustainable benets [1,5], to be derived from a
productive coastal zone [12].
Because of this the purpose of this article is to summarize the focus of two global
projects (i.e., Mapping Marine and Estuarine Ecological Regions of North America
[13]; and Global International Waters Assessment Sub-region 2 Gulf of Mexico
GIWA GEF/UNEP [2]). Ecological sub-regions as management tools is a view of
coastal regions that has been developed to enhance the capability of NGOs,
governmental organizations, and academics, to asses the coastal zone nature,
conditions and trends of the major ecosystems in the Gulf of Mexico mainly as a tool
for dening priority actions towards sustainable development [6].
2. Ecosystem approach
From our perspective ecosystem approach is required, which involves an
integrated perspective on river basins, and an estuarine dynamics comparative
analysis, associated with the ecological processes and landscape characterization,
because those interactions modulate the primary productivity, water quality, habitat
quality, secondary productivity and shery yields in the coastal zone of the Gulf of
Mexico [6,12,14,15]. Estuaries, as the key ecosystems for understanding the global
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coastal lands and waters assessment in the Gulf coastal zone, posses physical
characteristics that are as diverse as those of any coastal region in the world, and
offer a unique opportunity to compare the role that physical factors play in
regulating coastal processes and water quality [6,12,16].
The Gulf of Mexico is an excellent region in which to compare the characteristics
and processes among estuaries for the following reasons: (1) there is a large
number of estuaries (more than 200), (2) the climate ranges from tropical
to temperate and from humid to arid, (3) the area encompasses a wide range
of riverine inuences, from systems with almost no riverine input to the
Mississippi river or the Usumacinta/Grijalva rivers, and (4) the size of
estuarine areas (in terms of both waters and intertidal area) varies from very
small to the largest in North America. Our experience in the Gulf of Mexico
coastal zone indicates that there is enough information to link the inuence
of physical factors among Gulf estuaries, such as river discharge and size of
estuary, to vegetation distribution and shery harvest [1722]. Fishery harvest
and area of an estuary are strongly related to fresh-water input and
physiography, and shery harvest per unit of open water in the southern
Gulf is highly correlated with river discharge [6,23,24]. The ecosystem
approach of this regions estuaries and hydrological international units
can provide insights into the mechanisms by which fresh-water delivery of
nutrients, sediments, and organic matter support higher trophic levels. This
should provide alternatives to managing the sensitive issues of fresh-water
delivery and water quality in many regions of the Gulf of Mexico, and
support reasons that the global international waters assessment and
geographic sub-units must be a priority area for both GIWA GEF/UNEP and
Commission for Environmental Cooperation/North American Agreement on
Environmental Cooperation/North American Free Trade Agreement (CEC/
NAAEC/NAFTA) projects.
3. The geographic scaling at macro-scale perspective

At macro scale-1-level, major regions are: (A) the Warm-Temperate Gulf of
Mexico, (B) the Tropical Gulf of Mexico, and (C) the Caribbean Coast of Mexico.
Fig. 1 from [13] illustrates the geographical distribution and ecological diagnostic
characteristics; it shows zone 13 as Northern Gulf of Mexico (the warm-temperate
region), zone 14 as Southern Gulf of Mexico (the tropical region), zone 15 the
Caribbean Sea (the tropical region), and a zone 12 the South Florida (topical region)
but also including the Bahamian Atlantic.
The scale-2-level [13] (Fig. 2, 1:30 millions) shows three sub-regions into the
Northern Gulf of Mexico (the warm-temperate region) e.g., Northern Gulf of
Mexico Shelf, Northern Gulf of Mexico Slope, Gulf of Mexico Basin, as well as four
sub-regions into the Southern Gulf of Mexico (the tropical region), e.g., Southern
Gulf of Mexico Shelf, Mississippi Fan, Southern Gulf of Mexico Slope, Gulf of
Mexico Basin; four sub-regions in the Caribbean coast of Mexico, e.g.,
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Fig. 1. Northern Gulf of Mexico, warm-temperate region; Region 13, scale-1-level (1:40 millions): Florida,
Alabama, Louisiana, Texas (in US), and Tamaulipas (in Mexico); Loop-Current, Florida-Current, and
coastal countercurrent. Temperatures from 28 to 30 1C in summer, and 14 to 24 1C in winter. High nutrient
load. Biotic communities of deltaic systems, coastal lagoons, estuaries, low river basins, mangroves,
cypress, sea grasses. Southern Gulf of Mexico, tropical region; Region 14: Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche
and Yucatan (in Mexico); Yucatan-Current, Loop-Current. Temperature from 35 to 36.6 1C in summer,
and 36 to 36.8 1C in winter. High nutrient load from river discharges and some local upwelling. Biotic
communities of deltaic systems, coastal lagoons, estuaries, low river basins, mangroves, coastal reef
structures, sea grasses. Southern Florida, tropical region; Region 12: The Southwestern Florida;
groundwater discharge, mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs. The Caribbean Coast of Mexico; Region 15:
Quintana Roo (in Mexico); Tropical currents and countercurrents, Caribbean-Current. Temperature 28 1C
in summer, 25 1C in winter. Low concentration of nutrients. Upwelling and ground-water discharges.
River absents. Biotic communities typical from cenotes (sinkhole), dwarf mangroves, sea grasses. After
CEC/NAAEC maps in [13]; and diagnosis in [2,6].
Fig. 2. In the Warm-temperate Gulf of Mexico, Region 13.1 Northern Gulf of Mexico Shelf, 13.2 Northern
Gulf of Mexico Slope, 13.3 Gulf of Mexico Basin (scale-2-level, 1:30 millions). In the Tropical Gulf of
Mexico, Region 12.1 South Florida/Bahamian Shelf, 12.2 South Florida/Bahamian Slope, 14.1 Southern
Gulf of Mexico Shelf, 14.2 Mississippi Fan, 14.3 Southern Gulf of Mexico Slope, 14.4 Gulf of Mexico
Basin, 15.1 Mesoamerican Caribbean Shelf, 15.3 Eastern Yucatan Slope, 15.6 Yucatan Basin, 15.7
Caribbean Caiman Mountain Range. After CEC/NAAEC maps in [13]; and diagnosis in [2,6].
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Fig. 3. In the Warm-Temperate Gulf of Mexico, Region 13.1.1 Western Flosidia Estuarine Area, 13.1.2
Eastern Gulf Neritic, 13.1.3 Mississippi Estuarine Area, 13.1.4 Texas Estuarine Area, 13.1.5 Laguna
Madre Estuarine Area, 13.1.6 Western Gulf Neritic (scale-3-level, 1:5 millions). In the Tropical Gulf of
Mexico, Region 12.1.1 Southeast Floridian Neritic, 12.1.2 Florida Keys, 12.1.3 Florida Bay, 12.1.4 Shark
River Estuarine Area, 12.1.5 Dry Tortugas/Florida Keys Reef Tract, 12.1.6 Southwest Floridian Neritic:
14.1.1 Veracruzan Neritic, 14.1.2 Tabascan Neritic, 14.1.3 Campeche Yucatanean Inner Neritic, 14.1.4
Campeche Yucatanean Outer Neritic; 15.1.1 Contoyan neritic, 15.1.2 Cancunean Neritic, 15.1.3
SianKaanean Neritic. After CEC/NAAEC maps in [13]; and diagnosis in [2,6].
Mesoamerican Caribbean Shelf, Eastern Yucatan Slope, Yucatan Basin, Caribbean

Caiman Mountain Range; and two sub-regions in Florida, e.g., South Florida/
Bahamian Shelf, South Florida/Bahamian Slope (Fig. 2).
In the warm-temperate Gulf of Mexico, six distinct environmental sub-regions are
dened, at scale-3-level (Fig. 3, 1:5 millions): Western Florida Estuarine Areas,
Eastern Gulf Neritic, Mississippi Estuarine Area, Texas Estuarine Area, Laguna
Madre Estuarine Area, Western Gulf Neritic (Fig. 3). In the tropical Gulf of Mexico,
13 distinct environmental sub-regions are dened, at scale-3-level: Southeast
Floridian Neritic, Florida Keys, Florida Bay, Shark River Estuarine Area, Dry
Tortugas/Florida Keys Reef Tract, Southwest Floridian Neritic, Veracruzan Neritic,
Tabascan Neritic, Campeche Yucatanean Inner Neritic, Campeche Yucatanean
Outer Neritic, Contoyan Neritic, Cancunean Neritic, SianKaanean Neritic (Fig. 3).
Each area can be viewed as a discrete system which results from the interaction of
geologic, geomorphologic, oceanographic, climatic, freshwater drainage, physical
chemical, coastal vegetation, wildlife, estuary-shelf interactions, and human factors
[13,2530]. Actually and ideally, each area should have a strong biogeographical
component [6,13,27,31].
The ecosystem approach adopted on environmental sub-regions as management
tool, is predicated on (a) accepting that interactions between the environment
(atmosphere, water, land, biota) and human activities (social, cultural, economic
system) are inseparable, (b) realizing that humans are the major driving force behind
most ecological change, (c) recognizing environmental thresholds and their
importance and linkages to human activities, (d) incorporating the needs of current
and future generations, and (e) implementing a long-term perspective that is
anticipatory, preventative, and sustainable.
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3.1. Overall description of the warm-temperate Gulf of Mexico

The Northern Gulf of Mexico (the warm-temperate region) includes the northern
portion of the Gulf, a semi-enclosed sea basin with tropical currents and high
nutrient load. Waters off the States of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Texas in the United States, and Tamaulipas in Mexico, are included in this region
(Fig. 1). This geographic portion is characterized as warm-temperate, due to the
seasonal pattern of temperature regime, inuenced mainly by tropical currents on
summer and temperate climate during the winter.
3.1.1. Physical setting
The Northern Gulf of Mexico is characterized physiographically by a broad
continental shelf extending up to 250 km from the coastline, a steep continental slope
and a large central abyssal plain [3,3234]. The entire region is subjected to a mixed
semi-diurnal tidal regime of low amplitude, generally between 50 and 30 cm. Gulf of
Mexico waters are marked by several persistent current features including the LoopCurrent, the coastal countercurrent, and the Florida-Current. This region is also the
origin of the Gulf stream [3,3538].
Distinctive bathymetric and morphological features of the Gulf include the Flower
Gardens coral formations off the Louisiana-Texas coast, the Mississippi River
Birdsfoot Delta, and an extensive barrier island system from Florida to Texas and
Tamaulipas in northern Mexico. Several large rivers and estuaries populate the
region, including from east to west the Caloshatchee and Peace Rivers, Tampa Bay,
Suwannee River, Apalachicola Bay, Mobile Bay, Atchafalaya River, Sabine River,
Galveston Bay, and Laguna Madre Texas-Tamaulipas. Freshwater inputs from these
systems have a signicant impact on the coastal physicochemical characteristics and
on biological communities and are modulated by the water quality and river
discharges into the coastal zone (Figs. 13).
Climatologically, the region is semi-tropical to tropical, and consequently the
coastal communities range from fresh and salt marshes to sea grass and mangrove
systems, to neritic shelf. A major climatological feature is the occurrence of
hurricanes, which cause perturbation to the physical, biological and human system
of the region [3944]. Several severe hurricanes have caused widespread disaster and
loss of the life along the coast; however, most biological systems recover relatively
quickly from hurricane impacts. A prominent ecological hypothesis propounds that
the passage of strong wind and storm events are important to the biology of this
otherwise low-energy region because these pulsing episodic energy subsidies rework
sediments, redistribute biological seed material and remove accumulated toxins,
thereby promoting healthier communities [9,12,14].
Two important structural features of the region are the extensive barrier island
system formed by long shore transport and deposition of sands, and the Cheenier
Plain and related features deposited by deltaic and plume transport processes of the
Mississippi River. The barrier island system forms many lagoons and protected
areas, which serve as refuge and spawning ground from the Florida Panhandle
trough Alabama and throughout Texas and Tamaulipas, Mexico. The delta building
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and river-switching processes of the Mississippi River formed the entire southern
portion of the State of Louisiana and part of the eastern Texas. The Cheenier Plain
in western Louisiana was formed from transport of silt and clays in the westward
plume of the Mississippi River.
Bottom substrates of this Gulf region are dominated by muddy clay-silts or
muddy sands throughout the entire shelf slope and plain off Mississippi, Louisiana
and Texas coasts. From Alabama east to Florida sand, gravel and shell dominates,
particularly the carbonate limestone of the Florida Platform, where gravel-rock and
coral reefs also become interspersed. A key analogy can be seen in the southern Gulf
of Mexico [32,33].
3.1.2. Biological setting
Several major categories of biological communities are encountered within the
Gulf region. Mangroves, salt marshes and beds of submersed aquatic vegetation
(SAV) dominate the coastal oral communities. Along the coastal margin, mangrove
communities, comprised of red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans),
white (Laguncularia racemosa), and button (Conocarpus erectus) mangroves, thrive
in south Florida from Florida Bay to Cape Romano, and in smaller extensions in
Texas, and northern Mexico [45,46]. Scrub mangrove communities occur in
Louisiana, the northern extent of mangroves in North America, which are limited
there by temperature. In many areas of the coastal Gulf, particularly in Louisiana,
Texas and northern Mexico, brackish and salt marsh vegetation occurs, dominated
by Juncus romerianus, Spartina patens, and Spartina alterniflora. Extensive sea grass
beds inhabit much of the shallow coastal margin, forming communities often
dominated by the marine angiosperm Thalassia testudinum, and including Halodule
wrightii, Syringodium filiforme, Halophila sp. and in the areas of generally lower
salinity, Ruppia maritima. Benthic algae, while less useful as a food source, occurs
throughout the entire region from the land margin to the edge of the continental
shelf. Phytoplankton are prevalent in the areas around all estuarine and freshwater
inputs, revealed in ocean color remote sensing images in concentrations exceeding
5 mg/L chlorophyll around the Mississippi River complex outow and the west coast
of Florida. Blooms also occur in upwelling areas along the Florida shelf break and
the Texas shelf.
The low-lying coastline of the Northern Gulf of Mexico is largely free of coral
formations because of limiting winter temperatures and excessive runoff of fresh
water and river sediments. Coral reef communities exist in two kinds of physical
environments, occurring along the mid- to outer lip of the Continental Shelf off the
Big Bend area of Florida, especially at the shelf break offshore of Texas and
Louisiana, including the well-known Flower Gardens. Extensive areas of scattered
banks and coral heads also occur in very shallow shelf regions around south and
central Florida.
Thirty-seven major rivers deliver fresh water to the Gulf, dominated by the
Mississippi River in Louisiana on the central north coast, and the Grijalva/
Usumacinta Rivers system in the southern Gulf of Mexico [2,4,9,18,4751]. The Gulf
estuarine areas provide habitat for several threatened and endangered marine
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mammals and reptiles as well as shes and invertebrates. The Warm-Temperate Gulf
of Mexico is the largest estuarine area in the US, excluding Alaska and contains over
80% of the tidal marshes of the US. Almost all commercially and recreationally
important sh and shellsh in the region are estuarine-dependent at some time
during their life cycle and use these important areas as spawning, nursery or feeding
grounds [52,53].
3.1.3. Human activities
The Northern Gulf of Mexico is highly impacted by human activity and
conservation issues are a major concern [79,49,51,5464]. A quarter of the
commercial shipping of the US passes through the Straits of Florida, often causing
damaging anchor and grounding scars in coral communities, potentially introducing
exotic species in ballast water, and discharging toxic wastes. A major feature of the
human activity in the Gulf region is a consequence of the existence of major
petroleum hydrocarbon formations offshore of the northern Gulf coast. A vigorous
complex of offshore petroleum exploration, extraction, shipping, service, construction, and rening industries has developed over the past half century, particularly in
Louisiana and Texas, resulting in severe impacts on coastal wetlands, brine
discharges, heavy metal deposition in drilling muds and tailings, and large and small
scale petroleum discharges and major spills. Recently, coastal Florida has been the
focus of potentially large expansion of these oil and gas-related activities. Tourism
and development also have encroached upon the natural communities. Conservation
issues of major concern focus on wading bird, shorebird, and seabird populations,
endangered sea turtle populations, eutrophication in areas of high river discharges,
reductions in fresh water inow to estuaries and wetland loss due to subsidence and
impoundment [12,22,65].
3.2. Overall description of the Tropical Gulf of Mexico
The Tropical Gulf of Mexico includes the southern tropical portion of the Gulf, a
semi-enclosed sea basin with tropical currents and high nutrient load. Waters of the
States of Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatan, Mexico, are included in
this region. Also, southwest Florida is included into the Tropical Gulf of Mexico
(Figs. 13).
3.2.1. Physical setting
Water enters the Gulf through the Yucatan Channel of Mexico, and exits through
the Straits of Florida. An additional major water source is from fresh water; 23 of the
US and 62% of Mexico drains into the Gulf. A prominent feature in the Gulf of
Mexico is the Loop Current, which enters through the Yucatan Channel, and exits
through the Straits of Florida to become the Florida Current, and later the Gulf
Stream. Large unstable rings of water are shed off the Loop Current, bringing
massive amounts of heat, salt and water across the Gulf. Thus, the Loop Current
plays an important role in shelf nutrient balance, at least in the eastern and northern
Gulf of Mexico [2].
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The broad, shallow shelves are strongly wind-driven out to depths of

approximately 5060 m, and are extremely topographically diverse with smooth
slopes, escarpments, knolls, basins and submarine canyons. The southern coast of
the Gulf of Mexico has a signicant shelf width (shallow carbonate platform), widest
at the east at the Yucatan Shelf and narrowing westward along the Mexican coast
[25,33,34]. A major climatological feature is the occurrence of hurricanes, which
cause perturbations to the physical, biological and human systems of the region
[37,38,4044].
3.2.2. Biological setting
Productivity in the Gulf of Mexico LME ranges from eutrophic conditions in
coastal waters to oligotrophic in the deeper ocean [57]. Meteorological fronts occur
seasonally and thus they are likely to have a signicant impact on rates of primary
production. Upwelling may lead to increased vertical inputs of nutrients which in
turn increases primary production. Upwelling has been documented to occur in the
Campeche Bank, northern shelf of the Gulf of Mexico, slope and seaward portions
of the southern Florida shelf, and the western part of the Gulf of Campeche. The
most signicant demersal sheries are located in the southern Gulf [52,66,67]. The
seasonal mixed layer depth cycles in the Gulf of Mexico deepens in winter and shoals
in summer with about the same seasonal difference as in the adjacent open ocean.
With its lower surface salinity, it mixes down to about 50 m in the Loop Current. In
summer, the Gulf of Mexico has a very shoal mixed layer (1020 m). The low-lying
coastline of the Southern Gulf of Mexico is largely free of coral formations because
of excessive runoff of fresh water and river sediments, but coastal reef structures are
present near the cities of Tuxpan and Veracruz and offshore reef structures occur
along the eastern portion of the Yucatan Shelf [6].
3.2.3. Human activities
Natural resource use in the Gulf comprises a major portion of the Gulf coast
economy, and a large population lives along the coast [68]. The Gulfs waters are a
focal point for the impacts and consequences of many upland, waterfront, and
offshore activities, including tourism, wetlands, recreational shing, articial reefs,
seafood production, boating, marinas, beaches, shipping, petroleum production, and
urban use [69].
The infrastructure for oil and gas production in the Gulf of Mexico includes oil
reneries, petrochemical and gas processing plants, supply and service bases for
offshore oil and gas production units, platform construction yards, pipeline yards,
and other industry-related installations, concentrated in coastal Louisiana, eastern
Texas, and southwestern Veracruz and Tabasco. The Gulf of Mexico shows signs of
ecosystem stress, mostly in bays, estuaries, and coastal regions, that can be directly
related to toxic chemicals, physical restructuring of the coast, local harvesting of
preferred species, and nutrient loading from rivers. Stresses and their effects include:
shoreline alteration, pollutant discharge, oil and gas development, disease
prevalence, exotic species, and nutrient loading.
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Commercial shing is an important component of the Gulfs economic value

[7072]. There are most likely over 1000 species of nsh in the Gulf of Mexico, but
only a small fraction of those have direct economic value, and therefore are subject
to exploitation [53,66]. For instance, from more than 300 species well documented in
the Mexican coast of the Gulf, no more than 20 species have real economic value
[52,67]. No species is in danger of extinction (with the possible exception of the Gulf
sturgeon).
Traditional Gulf of Mexico sheries include penaeid shrimp and menhaden.
Newer sheries include reef sh, coastal migratory pelagic sh, and large oceanic
pelagics. These sheries have reached their harvesting limits. The species in the
Mexican Gulf of Mexico of economic and social importance include brown shrimp
(Farfantepenaeus aztecus), white shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus), pink shrimp
(Farfantepenaeus duorarum), Maya octopus (Octopus maya) endemic to the
continental shelf waters of the Yucatan, red grouper (Epinephelus morio), snook
(Centropomus spp.), and the brackish water clams (Rangia cuneata, Polymesoda
carolineana) [67,70]. The red grouper shery from the Campeche Bank is the second
most important exploited sh resource in the Mexican Gulf of Mexico, and is
particularly developed on the north continental shelf of Yucatan [71]. As a result of
greater acceptance of shark meat in seafood markets and the high price of shark ns
in the oriental market, shark catches increased dramatically in the 1980s. Reef sh
include groupers, snappers, amberjacks and triggersh (around 30 species
altogether). Red snapper is apparently the most over shed species in the Gulf of
Mexico [72].
Scombroid shes include mackerels and tunas, which are highly migratory
species. The most recent stock assessment indicated uncertainty over whether
the king mackerel is over shed. Management practices for the Spanish
mackerel have been effective, and the stocks appear to be currently healthy. Blue
n tunas are severely over shed, however, and yellow n tuna stocks are considered
fully utilized.
3.3. Overall description of the Caribbean Coast of Mexico, related to the Gulf
The Mexican Caribbean, along the Yucatan Peninsula is the northern extent
of the Mesoamerican Reef System, the second largest reef system in the world
(Figs. 13). Fringing reefs are abundant in the Caribbean and Mesoamerican
Caribbean Coral Reef System, along the eastern coast of Yucatan and south
onto the Mesquite Bank represents a global biodiversity conservation
priority. Dwarf mangroves provide additional environmental services, such as
erosion control, nutrient retention, and storm buffers [46]. Major currents and gyres
depend on the Caribbean-Current. Temperatures vary from 28 1C in summer to
25 1C in winter; salinity varies from 35 to 36.2 ppt during Summer, to 35.6 to 36 ppt
in Winter. Major communities type and sub-type are coral reefs, mangroves, sea
grass beds, modulate by marine processes and ground-water discharge into the
coastal zone [6].
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3.3.1. Human activities and conservation

Caribbean Sea ecosystems are showing signs of stress, particularly in the shallow
waters of coral reef systems. Major human stresses on coral reefs include coastal
development and runoff, coastal pollution, and over shing. Corals are essential to
reef growth and help prevent erosion. Coral growth can be limited by high turbidity,
exposure to fresh water or air, extreme temperatures, pollution, and excess nutrients.
Coral bleaching and mortality events in the region have increased during the 1980s
and 1990s. Bleaching occurs when the coral expels its symbiotic algae, and if
prolonged may result in coral mortality. Bleaching in the Caribbean has generally
been linked to abnormally high water temperatures. In 1983, an unknown disease
swept through the Caribbean, causing mass mortality of the sea urchin Diadema
antillarum. In conjunction with over shing, loss of this keystone herbivore has led to
overgrowth of corals by macro algae on many reefs. Shallow water elkhorn
(Acropora palmata) and staghorn coral (A. cervicornis) suffered declines of over 90%
throughout the Caribbean, primarily as a result of white band disease [73].
Poorly planned land development, point and non-point source pollution,
conversion of mangrove habitats and upland deforestation all contribute to the
areas environmental degradation [74]. Because the Caribbean climate is so suitable
for year-round tourism, this activity is rapidly growing throughout the region. The
importance of the tourism industry is attested by intensive coastal development and
the number of cruise ships in the area. Increased tourism, unless carefully managed,
is also expected to contribute to more environmental degradation.
Over shing has occurred on nearly all reefs near inhabited islands or coasts. Over
170 species are caught for commercial purposes in the Caribbean Sea, but most of
the catch is comprised of less than 50 species. The principal species harvested in the
Caribbean Sea are spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), coral reef shes, and conch [70].
Spiny lobster is one of the most valuable species of the Caribbean. There is concern
over the long-term sustainability of spiny lobster due an increase in shing effort.
Coral reef sheries are mostly small-scale, artisanal sheries, but are of signicant
economic, cultural and recreational importance. High value grouper and conch
sheries have collapsed in many Caribbean areas and it is unlikely this catch can be
sustained.
The State of Quintana Roo has experienced exponential growth over the last 25
years derived from tourism activities, including coastal development and cruise
ships. Destruction of coastal habitats due to poorly planned coastal development
and derives activities, unsustainable sheries, widespread inland deforestation and
pollution of the water table within a karstic system (underground rivers through
limestone caves and channels) are of major concern [74].
4. Dening geographic/hydrologic ecosystem units

Although several alternative methods have been considered, the United States
Fish and Wildlife Service [75] recognized that no single classication scheme
provided an ideal framework for working in the Gulf of Mexico. However the
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geographic units proposed by USFWS [76]; Fruge [77], and the hydrologic units
proposed by Yanez-Arancibia [2,6], are advances in this framework process towards
coastal management in the Gulf of Mexico from an ecosystem approach perspective.
Watersheds (dened as US Geological Survey hydrologic units) were chosen as the
primary basis for dening ecosystem units. Geographic ecosystem units were dened,
with some exceptions, by grouping, or in some cases segmenting, watershed units.
Watersheds offer several advantages in dening geographic ecosystem units: (1) they
provide discrete physical boundaries; (2) they provide the best management focus for
resources which are largely water related; (3) they emphasize the linkages between
upstream and downstream effects; and (4) they provide exibility of scale due to their
hierarchical structure. For the Gulf of Mexico United States littoral zone, the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service [76] recognizes seven geographic ecosystem units: (1)
Lower Rio Grande, (2) Texas Gulf Coast (including primary tributaries Edwards
Plateau, and East Texas), (3) Lower Mississippi River, (4) Central Gulf, (5) Florida
Panhandle, (6) North Florida, (7) South Florida. See detailed description in [77].
From the GIWA perspective, the Scaling & Scoping exercise for Sub-region 2 Gulf
of Mexico [2], dened the hydrological unit as a geographic unit with a significant
river basin draining through an important portion of the continent and extensive coastal
plain, high fresh-water discharge into the coastal zone, and having an important
international approach both for US and Mexico States.
Five hydrological units were considered for the Scaling & Scoping & Detailed
Assessment exercise [2]: (a) The western Florida rivers and ground-water discharge
system, (b) The Mississippi River basin and delta, (c) The Texas estuaries and
Laguna Madre US-Mexico integrated by the Rio Bravo delta, (d) The Usumacinta/
Grijalva River basin and delta, and (e) The Rio Hondo-Chetumal Bay in the
Caribbean coast of Mexico.
The ecosystem approach from the perspective of geographic/hydrologic ecosystem
units addresses the Gulf of Mexico directly to the extent that it focuses on coastal
habitats and living resources that migrate between inland and Gulf habitats, and the
ecological connections among the mainland drainage, estuaries, and coastal-marine
areas in the continental shelf. It also addresses the Gulf indirectly in that coastal and
near-shore habitats are affected by water quality and quantity of streams entering
coastal waters. For example, it recognized a link between mid-western farming
practices and sheries productivity in the Gulf of Mexico [7]. Erosion and nutrient
runoffnatural or inducedresult in sediment transported downstream in the
Mississippi River [42]. These sediments and nutrients contribute to maintenance and
accretion of coastal wetlands [9,12,78], which are vital as nursery areas for coastal
sheries [53,79,80]. At the same time, excess nutrients that enter the system and are
not trapped by marsh-building processes contribute to anoxic bottom conditions in
the Gulf of Mexico [81,82].
4.1. The western Florida rivers and ground-water discharge system
West-central Florida contains 14 named rivers and numerous small streams that
ow to the Gulf of Mexico [8,47,49,8385]. The ow regimes of several rivers north
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to Tampa Bay are dominated by groundwater discharges from the large artesian
springs, whereas ows in rivers from just north of Tampa Bay southward are
dominated by surface runoff [63]. The region receives an average rainfall of about
1350 mm/yr with about 60% occurring from June through September. The temporal
variability of stream ow in spring-fed rivers is typically more subdue than seasonal
variations in rainfall, while average monthly ows in rivers dominated by surface
runoff exhibit greater seasonal variability than monthly rainfall [84]. In rivers
dominated by surface runoff, low ows occurs in April and May when rainfall is low
and potential evaporation/ transpiration rates are increasing; peak ows typically
occur in August or September when depressional storage is full and water tables are
high. The interaction of this seasonal stream ow pattern with estuarine processes
forms the hydro biological and landscape setting for managing habitats and
freshwater inows in these systems, with an ecosystem approach perspective
[8,16,8385].
Watery veins on Floridas face are nourished by a complex hydrologic web that
includes more than 300 freshwater springs. Most occurs in an area, where the aquifer
breaches the surface or is covered by no more than 100 feet of clay-laden sediment.
Stretching beneath north Florida is a huge bed of limestone easily dissolved by
waterborne acids. Such chemical erosion creates an underground web of conduits
and caverns, as well as sinkholes at the surface. Under the states Northern
Highlands, a conning layer of impermeable clay covers the limestone, causing
water to collect on the surface. But across much of the state the conning layer is
thin or absent. Here water drains directly into the aquifercarrying with the
pollutants from the surface. By decrypting the systems structure, hydrologists help
explain how pollutants in one area can contaminate water that seem to circulate in a
separate cycle.
From an international perspective in the Gulf of Mexico, the water assessment is
going to be a priority in this hydrological unit. Western Florida has been and will
continue to be the most rapidly growing area in the Gulf. Its population is expected
to increase by more than 1.5 million over the next two decades at a rate of 27%. A
signicant aspect of the area is the Floridian aquifer system, with more than 300
freshwater springs and where sinkholes can have average ow of 100 cubic feet per
second [2].
4.2. The Mississippi River Basin and Delta
The Mississippi River has a total watershed of about 3 106 km2
that encompasses about 40% of the lower 48 United States and accounts for about
80% of the freshwater inow to the Gulf of Mexico. Major tributaries to the lower
Mississippi River include the Ohio, Upper Mississippi, Missouri, and Arkansas
Rivers. The mean discharge of the Mississippi is about 18,000 m3/s.
The Mississippi Delta is the largest delta in North America and one of the largest
in the world. By the beginning of the 20th century, the total area of the delta
including wetlands, shallow inshore water bodies and low elevation upland area
located mainly on distributaries ridges, was about 25,000 km2. The delta has
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enormous ecological and economic value. It supports the largest shery in the
US and is the terminus of the largest migratory bird yway in North America
[72]. The economic values of natural resource-based activities exceed US $2
billion per year. The delta formed over the past 60007000 years as a
series of overlapping delta lobes [12]. There was an increase in wetland area in
active deltaic lobes and wetlands loss in abandoned lobes, but there was an overall
net increase in the area of wetlands over the past several thousand years [86]. During
the 20th century, there was an enormous loss of wetlands, both in the basin and the
delta, and a deterioration of water quality [78]. Perhaps the most notable water
quality problem is the growing hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico adjacent to the
delta [82].
From 1930s until the present, there has been a dramatic loss of wetlands in the
Mississippi Delta with loss rates as high as 100 km2/year, and a total area about
3900 km2 of coastal wetlands has been lost [78]. Wetland loss rates were highest in
the 1960s and 1970s and have declined since, although rates remain high. An
understanding of the causes of this land loss is important not only for a scientic
understanding of the mechanisms involved but also so that effective management
plans can be developed to recover these losses.
A number of factors have been linked to land loss [12,14,78], including: (a)
elimination of riverine input to most of the coastal zone due to construction of ood
control levees along the Mississippi River, (b) reduction of the suspended sediment
load in the Mississippi River, (c) altered wetland hydrology mostly due to canal
construction, (d) saltwater intrusion, (e) wave erosion along exposed shorelines, (f) a
decline of suspended sediments in the Mississippi River, and (g) high relative sealevel rise.
Water quality deterioration is a problem in the delta on two levels: (a) many
water bodies and waterways in the delta are nutrient enriched and eutrophic;
and (b) the source of nutrients are point (e.g., inadequately treated sewage)
and non-point (e.g., agricultural and urban runoff) [7,9,65]. In addition to
inadequate source control and treatment, the elimination and canalization of
wetlands has exacerbated the problem. Another water quality problem that has
received widespread attention is the seasonally severe and persistent hypoxia
conditions (low dissolved oxygen condition in bottom waters, generally less than
2 mg/L), that have been measured on the continental shelf of the northern Gulf of
Mexico south of the Louisiana for the past decade. The area extent of the hypoxia
zone has ranged from 13,000 to 18,000 km2 from 1993 through 1999. The hypoxia is,
in part, related to the discharge of the Mississippi with elevated levels of nutrients,
especially nitrate.
As consequence of that situation, coastal waters around the Mississippi/
Louisiana/Texas are being signicantly degraded by pollutants, particularly
nitrogen, from upland watershed. The problem is particularly acute in the Gulf of
Mexico where ca. 20,000 km2 dead-zone or hypoxia is being caused by transport
on nitrogen from the entire Mississippi/Missouri/Ohio River Basin (about 40% of
the United States). Potential hypoxia on the southern Gulf of Mexico has been
hypothesized by Yanez-Arancibia et al. [6].
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4.3. The Texas estuaries and Laguna Madre US-Mexico integrated by the Rio Bravo
delta
Freshwater inow strongly affects bay salinity, nutrient loading, and sediment
loading in Texas estuaries [20,64], although the climatic gradient down the length of
the coast is the most important natural factor mediating the supply of freshwater for
bays and estuaries. Human activities can determine both the quality and quantity of
the inows, so there is concern that this inuence could be deleterious [87]. However,
sound resources management practices can balance human inuences and the needs
of the estuaries. Selecting levels of salinity, nutrient, and sediment loading that
adequate to maintain an ecologically sound environment requires perspective about
these materials for each estuary in this hydrological unit for GIWA Scaling &
Scoping & Detailed Assessment Workshop [2].
Inow to Texas estuaries varies widely [32,55,64]. From north to south, there is a
general decrease in freshwater inow, being strongly dry towards the Laguna Madre
and the Rio Bravo mouth, USA-Mexico border [87]. On the average, the volume of
fresh water received by the Mission-Aransas and Nueces estuaries is less than each
estuarys volume. Estuaries farther up the coast receive more inow on a per-volume
basis, with the Sabine-Neches Estuary receiving more than 50 times its volume each
year. Inow varies from year to year, but the variation for the Mission-Aransas and
Nueces estuaries is much greater than for the system farther up the coast. These two
estuaries have more periods with very low ows than the other systems studied. All
estuaries show monthly inow variations, with the lowest inows occurring during
August in each estuary. The Sabine-Neches and Trinity-San Jacinto estuaries have
peak ows during the spring. The Nueces and Mission-Aransas inow peaks
historically have occurred with storm events during the fall. Middle-coast estuaries
have both spring and fall inow maximal.
Only the Mission-Aransas estuary had a signicant trend in inow during the past
47 years, an increase of 2.1%/year. Two periods ending in drought (1941 to 1958 and
1958 to 1996) showed signicant decreases in inow for nearly all estuaries. During
the period 1966 through 1987, however, there were no statistically signicant trends.
The Nueces estuary showed a large decrease (4.33%/year) in inows over the latter
period, but the large variability of the inow record prevented the decrease from
being statistically signicant.
Average salinities of Texas estuaries are directly related to the number of
annual inow volumes each estuary receives. Bays with lower salinities
generally receive a greater number of inow volumes than those with
higher salinities. All estuaries display a salinity gradient that increases from the
upper to the lower portion of the estuary. A trend analysis for various areas of Texas
estuaries showed that the salinity of the lower Sabine-Neches estuary decreased by
about 3% per year from 1968 to 1987. At the same time, salinity increased by around
2% per year for West Galveston Bay and lower mid-San Antonio Bay. Several
portions of the Nueces estuary had increases in salinity, but Nueces Bay was the only
portion of the system in which the change was large enough to be considered
signicant.
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Inows provide the majority of nutrient loading to Texas estuaries. The

proportion of the load carried by river ow varies with respect to amounts delivered
by return ows and direct precipitation. Gaged ow provides 2434% of the
Nitrogen load to the Mission-Aransas and Nueces estuaries, about 43% to the
Trinity-San Jacinto, 49% to the Lavaca-Colorado, and 80% to the Guadalupe
estuary. In all estuaries, there is a decreasing nutrient concentration gradient from
the head to the mouth. The gradient exist under both high- and low-inow
conditions. The magnitude of nutrient loading varies substantially from one estuary
to another, but the residence time of the inowing water lessens the loading
differences. Even under low-inow conditions, it does not appear that larger areas of
the bays have the lowest concentration of nitrogen during low ow conditions, but
are zones of efcient use and recycling. Heterotrophic regeneration and high
turbidity in the upper reaches of estuaries coupled with lower turbidity and efcient
benthic regeneration in the lower estuary allow nutrients to move through the system
and be reused without encountering problems of eutrophication.
There is adequate information about suspended sediment loads for the major
rivers owing to Texas estuaries, but almost no information about bed load [20,64].
The relative importance of bed load compared to suspended load in providing
sediment to deltas and bay areas is not known. Suspended sediment consists of sand,
silt, and clay. Among the rivers owing to Texas estuaries, the proportion of silt does
not vary much. Rivers with high ows, such as the Trinity and Sabine, carry high
proportions of sand (2038%) compared to the inowing rivers to the south (05%).
The Trinity and Sabine rivers also have relatively low levels of clay (3858%)
compared to the other river systems (more than 70%). Rivers with much lower ows,
such as the Nueces, carry more than 85% of their suspended sediment as clay, with
practically no sand.
From socioeconomic point of view, the crucial need for freshwater inows to
Texas bays, estuaries, and their economically important shery resources, was rst
recognized in the 1950s. At that time, virtually all parts of the state were experiencing
the effects of one of the most severe droughts in modern history. Beginning in 1948,
the droughts was nally broken by heavy rains and ooding in the spring of 1957.
During 1956, the worst year of the decade-long drought, combined river discharges
measured at the last streamow gauging station on each major Texas river amounted
to only 5.06 109 m3, or about 14% of the average annual freshwater inow to the
States bays and estuaries. As a result of the drought, bay oyster (Crassostrea
virginica) production in Texas practically ceased, white shrimp (Litopenaeus
setiferus) harvested were drastically reduced, and estuarine-dependent shes such
as the black drum (Pogonias cromis) were blinded and exhibited body lesions from
extreme high salinity stress in the States most southern bays and lagoons, towards
Laguna Madre.
The Laguna Madre area of south Texas and northern Mexico is not rich from
inowing freshwater and nutrients. Instead, the whole area seems to be a
circumscribed situation with little output and little inux of nutrients [87]. In
Tamaulipas, Laguna Madre is divided into two hydrographic units by the shallow
mud ats off the mouth of the Rio San Fernando. The northern part is usually a
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brine pool but intermittently the environment becomes highly productive when
diluted by runoff from Rio Bravo and repopulated by shes moving through the
reopened barrier island passes. The black drum (Pogonias cromis) which feed on
small pelecypods is the principal commercial species. The southern part is more
variable in its salinity ranging from nearly freshwater to a series of brine pools, but it
is usually hypersaline. Depending on the seasonality of Halodule wrightii sea grass
beds, the seasonal freshwater inow, and the sea inuence, palaemonids, pre-adult
penaeids, sea trout, redsh, and others species are important in sh catches.
The San Fernando River in Mexico has an extension of 4541 km2, and a drainage
basin area of 15,640 km2 and an average ow of 756 m3/month. The International
Rio Bravo has an extension of 2933 km2, but considering the Rio Bravo/Rio Grande
joint basins the area is about 467,000 km2. The length is 3033 km, crossing eight
states (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, Durango, in Mexico, and
Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas in US). During 1962 the mean average discharge
of Rio Bravo was 3 106 m3/year, but in the period from 1990 to 1995, the discharge
was zero [2].
4.4. The Usumacinta/Grijalva River Basin and Delta
The Usumacinta River of Mexico and Guatemala is the largest river in
Mesoamerica and among one of the most signicant shared water resources in the
Western Hemisphere [50,60]. The delta comprises a main river, the Usumacinta, and
a major tributary, the Gijalva River. The watershed drains one of the largest areas of
contiguous tropical forest in the region, including 177,987 ha in Campeche,
724,547 ha in Tabasco, 2,175,718 ha in Chiapas and 4,241,271 ha in Guatemala,
and is extremely rich in natural and cultural resources [9,15].
The Usumacinta/Grijalva River system headwaters are in a tropical forest slightly
affected by humans, along with the lithographic and geomorphologic nature of the
area (dominated by karst) that facilitate high loads of sediment to the carried by
sheet ow, indicated the high potential of sediment transport. The Usumacinta River
is formed by the junction of the Pasion River, which starts in the Sierra de Santa
Cruz (in Guatemala), and the Salinas River, also known as the Chixoy, or the Negro,
which descends from the Sierra Madre de Guatemala The Usumacinta ows
northwestward, meeting with the Lacantum River and forming part of the political
border between Mexico and Guatemala. Below the Maya ruins of Piedras Negras,
located in Guatemala, the river begins a meandering course through the swampy
lowlands of the southern shores to the Bay of Campeche. It also forms part of the
border between the States of Chiapas and Tabasco (in Mexico) as it continues its
course northwestward. The main branch joins the Grijalva River before emptying
into the Gulf of Mexico (Bay of Campeche) below the town of Frontera; the central
branch, now called San Pedro and San Pablo River, ows into the bay at the town of
San Pedro; and the eastern arm, known as the Palizada River, empties into the
Terminos Lagoon (the largest lagoon-estuarine system in Mexico) in the State of
Campeche [88]. The total length of the main channel, including the Chixoy, is
approximately 1100 km. Navigable for 480 km inland; the Usumacinta has had great
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economic signicance as a means of communication for the towns on its banks and
for exporting logs, gum and other lowland products.
The Grijalva River is located in southeastern Mexico. The watershed of the
Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers encompass a total of 118,500 km2 remaining from its
historical extension of 186,000 km2 due to land conversion to agriculture (for a 36%
of the original total), and gas pipelines and other petroleum industry related
activities. Of its headwaters, the largest one is the Cuilco River, which begins in the
Sierra Madre of Guatemala and the Sierra de Soconusco of Mexico. The Grijalva
ows generally northwestward through the Chiapas State (Mexico) where it is
known as the Rio Grande de Chiapas, or Rio Chiapas. After leaving the lake created
by the Malpaso Dam, it turns northward and eastward, roughly paralleling the
Chiapas-Tabasco State border. Veering northward again at Villahermosa, the capital
state of Tabasco. It meets the main branch of the Usumacinta River and empties into
the Gulf of Mexico at the Bay of Campeche, 10 km northnorthwest of Frontera
town. The river is navigable by shallow-draft vessels for approximately 95 km
upstream from the bay and for several stretches along its middle and upper course.
The Gijalva Rivers total length is approximately 640 km. The delta prairies are
assemblage of Mezcalapa, Grijalva, and Usumacinta Rivers, and together they have
constituted a large delta with more than 20,000 km2 [6].
The shared drainage basin is located in a tropical region whose climate changes
gradually from the river mouth to the inland parts of the basin. There are two types
of climate, Amwig near the coast, and Awig in inland areas. Both are hot with the
rst being humid and the second sub-humid with abundant rainfall in summer (June
to October). Mean annual temperature is higher than 26 1C. Precipitation over the
drainage basin is from 1200 to 2000 mm/year. There are two quite distinct wind
systems. During the Norte season, winds are from the northwest with mean wind
speeds slightly higher than 8 m/s. For most of the rest of the year there is a sea breeze
system, with predominantly easterly winds. Average sea breeze velocity is 46 m/s.
The easterly orientation of the sea breeze reects the regional inuence of the trade
winds. There are essentially no winds from the southwest. There are three seasons.
From June to October there are almost daily afternoon, and evening showers. From
October into March is the season of Norte or winter storms; these storms are
generally strongest and associated with rains during NovemberJanuary. February
to May is the dry season [15].
The Grijalva is 640 km long and the Usumacinta is 1100 km. The combined
discharge is 3000 to 4400 m3/s or 118,000 106 m3/year. Most of this occurs via the
Usumacinta (52%) and Mezcalapa (23%) with lower values for the Chiapa (11%),
De la Sierra (6%), and Tonala (5%) rivers. Recently the Comision Nacional del
Agua (CNA) reported a combined discharge of 4402 m3/s. The increase in discharge
coincides with the rst maximum in precipitation over the basin in the beginning of
summer. The highest discharge occurs from September to November when high
discharge from all distributaries reaches the delta [2]. Discharge is lowest in April.
Total combined discharge is about 30 106 m3/year. The mean annual peak
discharge is in October registered in Boca del Cerro (Usumacinta) with
9,581,551 m3/month.
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4.5. The Rio Hondo-Chetumal Bay in the Caribbean Coast of Mexico

The New and Rio Hondo Rivers are the main freshwater input in the south of
Chetumal Bay [89]. The Rio Hondo supplies the bay with 1500 106 m3 of
freshwater annually, but it also carries out other important functions of climatic and
hydrological regulation for the interconnected system of mangroves, lagoons,
sinkholes. It also sustains a unique biodiversity in the south of Quintana Roo, along
the width of the 260 km of longitude of its trench. That natural unit that extends
from the northwest of Guatemala to northern limits of Belize and south of Mexico is
a natural biological corridor. It has historically been a target of colonization and it
has been disturbed for different uses of the soil and mishandling of water. Intensive
agricultural development in both margins of the River and the expansion of the
urban centers has accelerated the process of degradation of the system, reducing the
corridor in several parts to a thin fringe of riparian vegetation. Its context as a
transboundary system adds a supplementary difculty to the classication problem
and environmental planning for its integrated management.
The basin is delimited by the Rio Hondo and its tributaries. Its tributary area is
13,465 km2 of total extension, with 7614 km2 in Mexico (57%), 2978 km2 in Belize
(22%) and 2873 km2 in Guatemala (21%). The border to the north is with the basin
of Chetumal Bay, to the South with the basin of New River and to the Southwest
with the basin of the Usumacinta River. Its form is of irregular polygon lightly
guided from NE to SW between 181450 and 171430 N; 881350 and 891150 W. In the
Mexican territory, its tributary includes the Othon Blanco County in Quintana Roo,
and Hopelchen County in Campeche; in Belize the Districts of Orange Walk and
Corozal, and the Melchor de Mencos County in Guatemala [2].
The Chetumal Bay is located parallel to the basement of the East Geologic Rift
from Belize to Tulum [89]. The karstication degree is related to elevation of the
region and depth of the water body. Its extension is 67 km for 20 km, and surface of
1098 km2; inside the Bay there is the island of Tamalcab (9 km of long and 0.5 km
wide), located in the southeast portion of the Bay and parallel to the continental
coast. The presence of the Rio Hondo and ooding adjacent areas give to the Bay
estuarine characteristic and it can be considered a hypohaline system since has a
salinity of less than 14 ppt. The average depth is 3.3 m and the hydrodynamic is
determined mainly by the trade winds of the east and southeast. The climate is warm,
sub-wet with summer rain.
5. Confronting the geographic/hydrologic ecosystem units with the ecological regions

of North America
The coastal geographic scaling described in Section 3 [13], and the hydrological
units (coastal/estuarine/marine) of the study analyzed in Section 4 [2] show a high
correlation with the ecological regions of North America (coastal/terrestrial)
described in [27]. From an ecological perspective, the results of CEC/NAAEC in
[13], the Scaling & Scoping & Detailed Assessment Workshop [2], subsequent
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meetings, data analysis, and discussions held during this process were an
achievement on their own. The selected sub-regions (hydrological units), the maps
and the report that have resulted from attempts to describe the diversity continuity
of the ecosystems of this region, and it is hoped that they will bear fruit in facilitating
communication between scientists, decision makers, environmentalists, and anyone
interested in the enormous ecological richness and water resource of the Gulf of
Mexico. However, a process so complex never really ends, and we recognize that the
maps will be rened by further knowledge.
How can the ve hydrological units dened [2] be overlaid with the coastal/
terrestrial ecological regions of North America [27,90]?
Fig. 4 shows coastal/terrestrial ecological regions. The environmental characterization of coastal/terrestrial ecological regions, according to: (a) landforms, and
water bodies, (b) surface materials and soils, (c) climate, (d) vegetation, (e) wildlife,
and (f) human activities, is as follows. Numbers in each paragraph are the same in
the original publication [27]:
[8. 5]. The Mississippi Alluvial and Southeastern Coastal Plain (368,720 km2) is
characterized by at plains, many wetlands, alluvium and coastal marine deposits,
ne-to medium-textured forest soils, organics. Temperatures range from 13 to 27 1C,
with precipitation ranging from 1100 to 1800 mm/year. Habitat types include
bottomland forest (ash, oak, tupelo, bald cypress) and southern mixed forest (beach
sweet, gum, magnolia, oaks, pine, saw palmetto) and common fauna include whitetailed deer, opossums, armadillos, American alligators, mockingbirds, and egrets.
8.3
8.5
9.5
4.1
15.4
4.2
4.3
14.1
4.4
15.1
14.2
15.2
4
14.1
15.3
13.5
4.5
15.1
14.4
14
14.5
13.6
14.4
13.6
Fig. 4. Terrestrial ecological regions of North America. The Gulf of Mexico region. Commission for
Environmental Cooperation, North American Agreement for Environmental Cooperation [27].
Explanation in the text. Scale-2-level (1:30 millions). Arrows and numbers indicates the sections in this
article where the geographical regions selected for are located [13], and hydrological units selected for
the Scaling & Scoping & Detailed Assessment Workshop are located [2].
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Major economic activities include forestry and agriculture (citrus, soybeans, cotton),
tourism, and commercial shing. The Mississippi Alluvial and Southeastern Coastal
Plain is highly correlated with The Western Florida Rivers and Ground-Water
Discharge System, and The Mississippi River Basin and Delta hydrological units
described in Sections 4.1 and 4.2 (Fig. 4).
[9. 5]. Texas-Louisiana Coastal Plain (64,615 km2) is characterized by at plains
and some barrier islands, alluvium and wetlands, calcareous soils, some rich in
organics. Temperatures range from 18 to 25 1C, with precipitation ranging from 750
to 1300 mm/year. Southern cord grass/bluestem grass dominates the area; much of
this is currently in agriculture. Common species include alligator, armadillo,
rattlesnake, ducks, pelican, plover, and the sandpiper. Major industries include the
petrochemical industry, agriculture (rice, sorghum, cattle pasture), shing, and
tourism. This area is highly correlated with the The Texas Estuaries and Laguna
Madre US-Mexico Integrated by the Rio Bravo Delta hydrologic unit described in
Section 4.3 (Fig. 4).
[14. 1]. The Gulf of Mexico Dry Coastal Plains and Hills (33,885 km2) are
characterized by plains and hills, with colluvium and alluvium, clayey and calcareous
soils. Temperatures average 2426 1C, with rainfall of 600800 mm/year. Common
habitat types include deciduous and thorn forest (Texas ebony, ceron, copal,
mesquite) and signicant species include jaguar, chachalaca, wild turkey, green
parakeet, red-crowned parrot. This area is characterized by extensive grazing,
agriculture.
[14. 2]. Northwestern Plain of the Yucatan Peninsula (14,165 km2). Karst plain,
wetlands. Colluvium and alluvium; calcareous soils. 2428 1C, 600800 mm/year.
Common habitat types include deciduous forest (gummolimbo, cardia/canalete,
tepehuaje, angelica tree) and fauna includes paca, hog-nosed, skunk, black-throated
bobwhite, lesser roadrunner. Economic activities include henequen plantations;
tourism.
[15. 1]. Gulf of Mexico Humid Coastal Plain and Hills (141,390 km2) is
characterized by coastal plains and hills, wetlands, with alluvium and colluvium
and poorly drained, clayey soils. Average temperature ranges from 22 to 24 1C with
rainfall of 20004000 mm/year. Tall and medium-height evergreen forest (paque,
allspice tree, palms, sombrerete, breadnut, copaiye wood, mahogany, mangrove,
forbes) dominates and signicant fauna include tapir, white-lipped peccary, spider
monkey, vampire bat. Morelets crocodile, green iguana, fer de lance, muscovy duck,
scarlett macaw, hardy eagle, keel-billed toucan. Economic activities include extensive
grazing, agricultural plantations; petroleum industry; tourism. This area is highly
correlated with The Usumacinta/Grijalva River Basin and Delta hydrologic unit
described in Section 4.4 (Fig. 4).
[15. 2]. Plains and Hills of the Yucatan Peninsula (115,820 km2) is characterized by
plains and hills, wetlands, with residuum and collovium, calcareous soils. Average
temperature ranges from 22 to 26 1C with rainfall of 10002000 mm/year. Tall and
medium-height evergreen and subdeciduous forest (breadnut, sapadilla, mahogany,
red cedar, mangrove) dominates. Signicant fauna include jaguar, grison, red
bracket, Mexican porcupine, howler monkey, Yucatan turtle, boa, ocellated turkey,
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great curassow, amingo. Important economic activities include forestry, agriculture, and tourism. This area is highly correlated with The Rio Hondo-Chetumal Bay
in the Caribbean Coast of Mexico hydrologic unit described in Section 4.5 (Fig. 4).
[15. 3]. Sierra de los Tuxtlas (4,280 km2) is characterized by volcanic coastal
mountains. Average temperature is 1823 1C with rainfall of 20004000 mm/year.
Vegetation includes tall and low evergreen forest (gs, canella, breadnut, tucuma,
llamarada) and signicant fauna include the white-lipped peccary, howler monkey,
spider monkey, vampire bat, fer de lance, boa, hardy eagle. Important economic
activities include grazing, agricultural plantations, and tourism.
[15. 4]. Everglades (21,300 km2) are characterized by at plains, coastal islands,
and wetlands, with marine and alluvial deposits, organics and weakly developed
calcareous soils. Average temperatures range from 10 to 25 1C with rainfall of
11002000 mm/year. Dominant ora includes saw grass, southern slash and loblolly
pine, baldcypress, mangrove and signicant fauna includes Florida panther, key
deer, manatee, American alligator, gopher tortoise, herons, amingos, Everglade
snail kite. Important economic activities include recreation, tourism, and agriculture.
6. Synthesis for the next agenda

The variations in scope and experiences, and the amount of progress made by
different institutions and groups of academics, utilizing environmental sub-regions
as management tool, agree to dene carefully the next step in the coming agenda for
the Gulf of Mexico during the decade 20002010. In each of the described
geographical and hydrological units in the Gulf the priorities will likely center
around the following agenda topics (e.g., ecosystem approach and management):
6.1. Controls of primary production and water fertility in the coastal zone
The objectives are to use available data to summarize the current understanding of
how major processes control primary production in the tropical/sub-tropical coastal
zone and suggest questions for future study. Aquatic primary productivity, water
quality, and water fertility, control both habitat quality and shery resources in the
coastal zone of the Gulf. Local scale processes include small rivers and estuarine
outow, wind and wave effects, and near-shore circulation. Mesoscale process
include tides, upwelling, meteorology forcing, regional circulation, internal waves,
topographic effects, large rivers, fronts and estuarine plumes, and Loop Current
(and eddies) circulation features [2,6,15,91].
6.2. Energetic pulsing, the basis for sustainable management
A key concept for sustainability is that sustainable management will be most
successful when it is based on ecosystem functioning. This means that management
activities should integrate ecosystem functioning and allow the system to self-design
naturally. Two important concepts that are especially pertinent for lower river
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oodplains and coastal areas are the ood pulse concept for lower rivers and their
ood plains and the pulsing concept for coastal systems. The ood pulse concept
focuses on the lateral exchange of water, nutrients, and organisms between the river
and the connected oodplain. It considers the importance of hydrology and
hydrochemistry of the parent rivers, but focuses on their impact on the organisms
and the specic processes in the ood plain. Periodic inundation and drought is the
driving force in the river-oodplain ecosystem. The pulsing concept states that
coastal systems and deltas are structured and sustained by a hierarchical series of
overlapping energetic pulsing events. Ecologists, climatologists and geomorphologists have identied and started to explain a range of different modes of pulsing
which seem to be essential components of behavior of the global climatic coastal
system. This events range from switching of deltaic lobes that takes place on the
order of 1000 years, to daily tides and includes great oods that occurs a few times a
century, strong storms such as hurricanes occurring on decadal scales, annual river
oods, and frontal passages [6,9,12,14,15,92].
6.3. Vulnerability of the coastal zone because global climatic change
The goals of this research area are to understand the impacts of global change on
coastal ecosystems and the development of management approaches to mitigate the
effects of global change. These studies involve ecological, economic, and social
elements. Global change impacts include changes in temperature, rainfall, river
discharge, wetland loss, salinity, sea level rise, and changes in hurricanes frequency
and strength, inducing uncertainties in the environmental stability of coastal critical
habitats and their economic development. A range of geomorphological impacts of
such climatic oscillation has been recognized, such as alteration in stream ow and
sediment yield, mass movement frequencies and coastal erosion, subsidence and sea
level rise [4244,92,93].
6.4. Coastal wetlands restoration
Tropical/sub-tropical Gulf of Mexico wetlands show dramatic annual losses of
approximately 250 km2 per year (conservative amount). These losses are due to a
combination of human and natural factors, including subsidence, shoreline erosion,
freshwater and sediment deprivation, urban expansion, agriculture and livestock,
saltwater intrusion, oil and gas canals, navigation channels, and grazing by
herbivores. Concern over this loss exists because of the living resources and
economies development on tropical/sub tropical Gulf coast resources. Coastal
wetlands provide habitat for sheries, waterfowl, neotropical birds, and furbearers;
protection for oil and gas exploration and production, and water-borne commerce,
amenities for recreation, tourism, ood protection; and the context for a culture
unique to the Gulf of Mexico. In response to the rapid loss of coastal wetlands, a
broad effort has been initiated by local governments, private interests, and the
academic and conservation community, for planning, constructing, operating,
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maintaining, monitoring, and evaluating restoration projects throughout coastal

wetlands [7,9,78].
6.5. Environmental sustainability and the economic development of the coastal zone
In this area, researchers search for a balanced approach for economic
development of the coastal zone in a way that does not compromise the integrity
of the coastal-marine environment. Elements of this approach include avoiding
ecological
deterioration,
characterization
of
sustainable
development,
quantifying ecological and environmental damage, development and renement of
methods to determine environmental quality, quantication of ecological
functions, and economic valuation of natural resources [5,11,74]. Additionally,
Costanza [94] pointed out that practical problem solving in complex, humandominated ecosystems requires the integration of three elements: (1) active
and ongoing visioning of both how the world works and how we would like
the world to be, (2) systematic analysis appropriate to and consistent with the
vision, and (3) implementation appropriate to the vision. From the ecological
economics point of view, scientists generally focus on only the second of these
steps, but integrating all three is essential to both good science and effective
management [94].
6.6. Integrated coastal zone management ICZM
For effective ICZM, sustainable development is the keystone concept [95], and
comprehensive knowledge of the ecosystem structure and its operation is the base for
sustainability [96]. ICZM is a dynamic process, by which the use decisions,
development, and protection of the coastal areas and its natural resources imply a
balance among natural vocation of the land, climate and landscape, with the
potential land use change of coastal zone and protection of certain natural areas. In
reality, a successful program is based on a comprehensive and integrated planning
process, which aims at harmonizing cultural, economic, and environmental values
and balancing environmental protection and economic development with a
minimum of regulation; management without an appropriate planning process
tends to be neither integrated nor comprehensive, but rather a sectoral activity
[9698]. ICZM should be done in a way that balances ecological, social, and
economic factors [10,69,94,99,100].
Acknowledgement
This contribution is being sponsored by the Louisiana Sea Grant Program,
National Oceanic of Atmospheric Administration (NOAA Grant No. NA16RG2249
yr-2004/05). Agreement of understanding between LSU, U.S., and INECOL
Mexico.
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Ocean &amp; Coastal Management Volume 47 issue 11-12 2004 [doi 10.1016%2Fj.ocecoaman.2004.12.010] Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia; John W. Day -- Environmental sub-regions in the Gulf of Mexico coastal zone- th.pdf

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Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

Environmental sub-regions in the Gulf of Mexico

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

3. The geographic scaling at macro-scale perspective

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

Mesoamerican Caribbean Shelf, Eastern Yucatan Slope, Yucatan Basin, Caribbean

3.1. Overall description of the warm-temperate Gulf of Mexico

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

The broad, shallow shelves are strongly wind-driven out to depths of

Commercial shing is an important component of the Gulfs economic value

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

3.3.1. Human activities and conservation

4. Dening geographic/hydrologic ecosystem units

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

Inows provide the majority of nutrient loading to Texas estuaries. The

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

4.5. The Rio Hondo-Chetumal Bay in the Caribbean Coast of Mexico

5. Confronting the geographic/hydrologic ecosystem units with the ecological regions

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

6. Synthesis for the next agenda

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

maintaining, monitoring, and evaluating restoration projects throughout coastal

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

A. Yanez-Arancibia, J.W. Day / Ocean & Coastal Management 47 (2004) 727757

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Ocean & Coastal Management Volume 47 issue 11-12 2004 [doi 10.1016%2Fj.ocecoaman.2004.12.010] Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia; John W. Day -- Environmental sub-regions in the Gulf of Mexico coastal zone- th.pdf

Ocean & Coastal Management Volume 47 issue 11-12 2004 [doi 10.1016%2Fj.ocecoaman.2004.12.010] Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia; John W. Day -- Environmental sub-regions in the Gulf of Mexico coastal zone- th.pdf