Earths Structure

The earths structure is comprised of 4 main layers, the

crust, the mantle, the outer core and the inner core.

There are two types of crust, Oceanic which is mainly

basaltic and dense, and up to 10km thick, and theres
continental crust, which is composed of a wide range of
igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Both of these layers feature rocks composed of

aluminum, potassium, sodium, oxygen and silicon.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics

In the early stages of the 17th century, Philosophers such
as Francis bacon were aware of how the continents
seemingly fitted together. Developments in topography
and other geological evidence was built up in the following
centuries, until in 1912, Alfred Wegener published a theory
suggesting that all continents had previously been
conjoined as one land mass called Pangaea. He proposed
that at some time, the land masses had drifted apart to
their current positions on the globe.
His theory utilized various geographical evidence:
Continental Fit Some continents seemingly fitted
together when placed beside each other. (Western

The Theory of Plate Tectonics cont.

Paleomagnetism Although Wenger had convincing
evidence of his theory, there was no explanation for the
mechanics of continental drift. It wasnt until 1948 in
which a survey of the floor of the Atlantic Ocean was taken
which revealed the Mid Atlantic Ridge, running 1,000km
and reaching heights of 2.5km. It was also comprised of
Volcanic rock. Further surveys also showed regular
patterns of paleomagnetic striping about the ridges. When
lava erupts on the ocean floor, the iron rich minerals in the
lava aligned with the earths magnetic field, which is fixed
into place as the lava cools. This thus records the Earths
polarity. Every

Land forms associated with constructive

margins
Where convection currents rise and diverge, they can
create tensional forces that pull the crust apart. In
continental crust, this
produced rift valley
systems. In the ocean, this
rifting causes mid-oceanic
ridges and basaltic lavas
and dykes fill in the space
left by the plate pulling
apart.

The mantle is largely composed of silicate rocks,

rich in iron and magnesium. Most of the mantle
(Asthenosphere) is semi-molten with temperature
reaching towards 5,000 degrees. The high
temperatures thus generate convection currents.
The core is roughly the size of Mars, and is very
dense, being made of rocks rich in iron and nickel. A
semi-molten outer core surrounds the solid inner
core, which temperatures of over 6000 degrees.

Seaboard of Africa and eastern seaboard of South America)

Geological evidence - Rocks of the same age and

type are found in South-east Brazil and South Africa.
Similar glacial deposits are also found in Antarctica,
South America and India which are now many
thousands of km apart.

Climatological evidence Antarctica, North America

and the UK all contain coal deposits of similar age that
were formed in tropical conditions. Theyre no longer in
tropical climate zones, and have drifted since the
carboniferous period.

Biological evidence Similar fossil formations found

on either side of Atlantic, E.G Mesosaurus found only in
South American and South African sediments of
Permian age.

400,000 years, the earths polarity inverts, which suggest

that new rock is being added on either side.
But if new rock was being created, and the earths size
wasnt increasing, then old rock must be being destroyed.
This lead to the notion of subduction, which thus provided
the notion for continental drift.
Central to the theory of plate tectonics is the idea that the
earths core is very high temperature, heat released by
radioactive decay of elements release heat, creating
convection currents. These currents in the liquid mantle
are what cause the crust to move, they pull apart
spreading rides and rift zones, and pull slabs of oceanic
crust back down into the subduction zone.
Oceanic Ridges
Oceanic ridges form the longest continuous uplifted
feature on the surface of the earth, having a total
combined length of over 60,000km. Where two plate
pull apart there is a weaker zone in the crust, and an
increase in heat near the surface. The hotter
expanded crust forms the ridge. The central part of
the ridge may feature central valley where a section
of crust has subsided into the magma below. As the
crust is pushed away from the heat source, it cools,
contracts and sinks towards the deeper regions where
it becomes covered in sediment.

Land forms associated with constructive

margins
Rift Valleys
When spreading occurs
beneath a major land
mass, the heating and
updoming of the crust
leads to fracturing and
rifting. As the sides of
the rift move apart via
continental drift, central
sections drop down forming the rift valley.

Landforms associated with destructive plate

margins
Destructive plate margins are found where plates
converge, Oceanic plate continental plate, Oceanic
plate Oceanic plate, Continental continental plate

Oceanic Continental Convergence - As the oceanic

crust descends, friction with the overlaying continental
crust builds up and causes major earthquakes.

[Heading for back of car]The Great East African Rift Valley

indicates where the crust has begun to pull apart, and
active volcanoes like Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya are
surface evidence of igneous activity beneath. At 4,000km
lon and 50km wide, this rift valley is likely to expand and
be engulfed by the sea.

There also tends to be a lot of volcanic activity, which

isnt of great volume but of high viscosity. This makes it
more explosive due to the trapped gasses. There also is
a lack of seismic activity but when it does occur it tends
to be devastating, and the only activity comes from the
Benioff zone. Example is Peru-chile trench, Eastern
Nazca plate being subducted under South American
plate.

Landforms associated with destructive plate

margins
Oceanic-Oceanic convergence - One of the oceanic
plates is subducted below the other. The crust that is sub
ducted is either marginally denser, or moving quicker.
The process that accompanies this is much the same as
Oceanic continental convergence, but where volcanoes
erupt they tend to form islands. These form
characteristically curving lines of new volcanic land called
Island Arcs. (Aleutian Islands) This can also develop over
millions of years.

Landforms associated with destructive plate

margins
Continental-Continental convergence - Where
subduction of oceanic crust draws two continental
masses together, a collision margin may develop. As
continents have similar density, they will not be sub
ducted. Instead they collide. Their edges and sediment
between them are forced upwards, creating Fold
Mountains, which has deep roots into the lithosphere.
Theres no volcanic activity here.

Landforms associated with destructive plate

margins
Oceanic-Continental convergence - Because
oceanic crust is denser than continental crust, when the
plates collide the denser plate (oceanic) is subducted
into the upper mantle. As the oceanic crust descends,
friction with the overlying continental crust can cause
major earthquakes. Destructive margins are of the most
seismically active zones in the world, often creating
shallow to deep focus earthquakes. Young fold
mountains may be created in the process, such as the
Andes.

To create major landmasses, such as Japan and Indonesia.

Subduction here produces shallow-deep focus
earthquakes, some of which of very powerful. (Indonesia
tsunami 2004 caused by Australian plate being subducted
below Eurasian plate, measuring 9 on Richter scale.)

The movement of these plates can trigger shallow-focus

earthquakes, such as those which happened in Nepal in
April 2015. The Earthquakes tend to be the most
destructive, due to the high levels of energy released
from the friction between the plates.
Example of hold mountain is Indo-Australian plate being
pushed to form Himalayan mountain chain. Movement
causes great stresses, which are released in violent
earthquakes, (Nepal, Sinchaun 2008)

Deep ocean trenches are also found along the seaward

edge of a destructive margin. This marks where one
plate begins to descend beneath another. E.G PeruChile trench,8km deep
Conservative Margins
This occurs where two plates meet and the direction of
the plates motion is parallel, or nearly parallel.
Example of this is San Andreas Fault, and Alpine Fault in
New Zealand. No crust is destroyed or created,
although these areas frequently have seismic activity as
the buildup of friction between the plates are released.
(San Francisco 1989.) They are no associated with
active Vulcanism.

Hot Spots Hawaii Islands:

Hotspots are formed in an area in the mantle from
which heat rises in a thermal plume from deep in the
Earth. High heat and low pressure at the base of the
lithosphere facilitate the melting of rock. The magma
created then rises through cracks and erupts to form a
volcano.
The Hawaii islands over than 3200km away from the
nearest plate boundary, and so are not formed by
subduction.
The shape of the island are caused via the inconsistent
process of continental drift over a fixed hotspot.

Hot Spots Hawaii Islands:

When the hotspot erupts again, the previously formed
island has moved with the plate, which is why theres a
chain of islands rather than a continuous ridge.
The Smaller islands were originally formed to be
substantially larger, but the basalt dating tells us that
some of the islands are millions of years old. Due to
their age, Erosion plays a large part in reducing the size
of the islands the further they stray from the hotspot.
The updoming of the plate around the hotspot also
lessens with further distance you get away from it,
which also makes the plate sink.

Vulcanicity

Extrusive Landforms

Volcanic activity can be Intrusive or Extrusive.

Intrusive activity takes place beneath the earths
surface, and includes the formation of magma
chambers and magma being forced into the crust
(through cracks in rock.)

Basaltic (Basic) Lavas Originate largely from the

upward movement of mantle material. They are most
common along spreading ridges but are also found at
hotspots.

Extrusive activity takes place on the earths surface.

The major form is volcanic eruptions, with minor forms
being Hot Springs, Geysers and boiling mud pools.

Andesitic (Intermediate) lavas Typical of destructive

plate margins where crust is being destroyed.
Rhyolitic (acid) lavas Most often found at destructive
and collision margins.

Extrusive Landforms:

Volcano Classification

Pyroclastic material is composed of a wide range of

volcanic fragments, from ash and lapilli to volcanic
bombs. A form of this called Nuees Ardentes is found in
Rhyolitic lavas, and is essentially a cloud of glowing
gas. Whereas lava only travels a few kilometers, ash
can travel hundreds of miles in the atmosphere, or mix
with rain to form highly mobile mudflows (lahars.)

A Fissure Eruptions Occur at elongated crack in

crust which allows lava to spill out over a large area.
This is typically found circa spreading ridges where the
crust is pulled apart. (E.G Heimaey Iceland in 1973,
where the Eurasian and N.American plate pulled apart
existing topography was submerged in a lake of basaltic
lava.

Volcano Classification

C Composite Volcanoes The most common type

found on land, they are created by layers of ash from
initial explosive phases of eruptions, and subsequent
layers of lava from other eruption phases. Examples
are Mount Etna and Vesuvius in Italy.

B Shield Volcanoes Made of basaltic rock and form

gently sloping cones from layers of viscous lava. The
largest volcano in the world, Mauna Loa in Hawaii
stands at 4,170m above sea level. In reality, its much
larger as the entire structure is 11000m above the
seafloor.
Basaltic Rock > Location: Hotspots & Oceanic
oceanic convergence zones > Gentle and
predictable eruptions.

Basaltic Rock > Location: Rifts/Early constructive

margins > Gentle persistent eruptions.

Andesitic Rock > Location: Destructive Margins >

Explosive and Unpredictable eruptions.

Volcano Classification
D Acid or Dome Volcanoes Steep sided volcanoes
formed from very viscous lava. As the viscous lava cant
travel far, it builds up convex cone-shaped volcanoes.
Lava may solidify in the vent and be revealed later by
erosion, such as Puy de Domes in France.
Rhyolitic Rock > Location: Continental crust >
Explosive, unpredictable eruptions.

Minor Extrusive Features

Geysers and Hot springs In areas where Vulcanism
does not produce active volcanoes, water heated at
depth in the crust by magma chambers can periodically
escape as steam and hot water. A geyser is an
intermittent turbulent discharge of superheated water
ejected and accompanied by a vapor phase. (E.G
Stokkur Iceland) A mud volcanoes may form where
water mixes with muds near the surface, and are often
tourist attractions (E.G Pamukkale Turkey.)

Intrusive Features

E Calderas Form when gases that have built up

beneath a blocked volcanic vent result in a catastrophic
eruption that destroys the volcanic summit, leaving an
enormous crater, where later eruptions may form
smaller cones. Crater Lake in the US is an example of
this, the caldera has filled with water.
Andesitic rock > Location: Destructive margins >
very explosive and unpredictable eruptions.

Fumaroles Areas where superheated water turns to

steam as it condenses on the surface. These are typical
of areas such as Solfatara in Italy, in which the escape
of steam and water mixed with Sulphur-rich gas gives
rise to the name of Solfatara.

Intrusive features explained:

As With all volcanic regions, the majority of magma

never reaches the surface but cools to form coarsergrained igneous rocks beneath the ground.

Dyke: Vertical intrusion with horizontal cooling cracks.

Cools rapidly on contact with surrounding colder rocks.
Cuts across bedding planes

Batholiths form when large masses of magma cool

very slowly, producing coarse-grained rocks. Examples
are the granite that lie under the shap and Skiddaw in
the Lake District. Where magma has been squeezed
between existing strata it may form a sill which is
concordant to the strata, or a dyke which is discordant.

Sill: Horizontal intrusion along bedding plane, with

vertical cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on contact with
surrounding colder rocks.

Volcano Hazard Management

Eruptions cant be prevented, but they can often be
predicted, and so the local population can have some
degree of protection.
Prediction usually involves hazard mapping (Mapping
previous lava and pyroclastic flows), analyzing seismic
shockwave patterns, sampling gas and lava emissions
and sensing changes in topography by satellite.

Case Study Mount St Helens, USA, Composite

Volcano.
Mount St Helens in Washington State erupted on 18th
may 1980, and is one of several volcanic peaks in the
cascade mountains.
The Cascade mountains are above a destructive plate
boundary, where the Juan de Fuca plate is being
subducted below the North American Plate.
From march 1980, indications of an eruption became
apparent. Small earthquakes occurred, ash and steam
were released and a large bulge on the side appeared.

Batholith: Being deep seated and surrounded by hot

rock, the magma cools slowly so that:
Large crystals form & there is a large metamorphic
contact zone.[Organization/Team]

Seismic shock waves alerted vulcanists to the likely

eruption of Popocatepetl in Mexico, 2000, in which the
population was evacuated, and the volcano erupted
within 48 hours.
Protection also involves the reducing the risk of damage
by preparing for an eruption. In the longer term, proper
land use planning in accordance with hazard mapping
may mitigate the effects due to the avoidance of
development in areas of risk.

On May 18th 1980, there was a 5.1 magnitude

earthquake followed by a huge eruption of volcanic
material, including rocks, ash, hot gases, steam and
lava.
The eruption covered a 600km2 area north of the
volcano, nearly all vegetation and buildings were
destroyed in the blast zone which reached 30km away
from the volcano.
Pyroclastic flows, lahars and floods (due to dumped
material) were caused by the eruption.
There was an eruption afterwards which released 540
million tons of ash, which was deposited over
57,000km2 .

Case Study Mount St Helens, USA.

Shipping was disrupted, and 31 ships stranded due

to mudflows dumping large amount of sediment in
rivers.

Timber industry ruined by destruction of forest in

blast zone.

Social Impacts

57 people killed, mostly by inhaling ash.

Hundreds lost homes, and unemployment rose 10*

for a short period, though it returned to normal after
the cleanup op.

Social facilities were destroyed, and some

experienced emotional stress.

Economic Impacts
$1.1 billion in damages.

200 homes destroyed, with thousands more being

damaged.

Airports were temporarily closed due to ash, over

1000 flights cancelled.

Lots of money spent on clearing ash from roads &

runways. E.G

42.2 million Spent to clear ash from Yakima (135km

from volcano.)

27 bridges, 24km of railways and 300km of roads

Case Study Mount St Helens, USA.

Environmental impacts

Responses:

Emergency Responses were coordinated by FEMA

and involved national organizations such as US army
crops of engineers, and local emergency services:

Face masks were distributed to protect people from

ash

Emergency shelters were set up for homeless

Ash cleanup operations were organized 900,000

tonnes of ash removed from roads, buildings and
airports.

45,500 acres of land had to be replanted with 18.4

million trees.

240km of forest destroyed.

Wildlife suffered 7000 big game animals and

thousands of birds and mammals were killed. 12
million salmon were also killed.

Sediment dropped in Spirit Lake raised water levels

by 60m.

Water quality was reduced temporarily.

Good Management of St Helens

When the earthquakes began in March, the United
States Geological Survey (USGS) started a 24/7 monitor
system. It included gathering seismic data, measuring
bulge growth rate, ground temperatures and sulfa
dioxide gas emissions. Vulcanicity reports were issued
daily.

Domestic water supply monitored for contamination

Based on these recommendations, in march access to
the volcano was restricted, and the evacuation of 2000
people begun.
Despite the monitoring data, scientists couldnt
accurately predict the eruption, on the day of the
eruption there were no unusual changes that could be
taken as warning signs.

USGS scientists issued warnings to people in vicinity of

the volcano, and made recommendations about the
locations of the hazardous zones.

Case Study Soufriere, Montserrat, Composite

Volcano
The Soufriere hills volcano in Monserrat erupted on 25th
June 1997.
Montserrat is above a destructive plate margin, where
the N.American plate is being subducted under the
Caribbean plate.

About 4-5million km2 of material was released over a

20 minute period. Pyroclastic flows covered several
square kilometers and reach within 50m of the airport,
which was 5.5km north of the volcano. The eruption
also produced a large ash cloud. Subsequent eruptions
over the next few months destroyed the airport on the
21st of September 97.

In 1995, earthquakes, small eruptions and lahars began

until 1997. On the 25th June 1997, there was a series of
small earthquakes, followed by pyroclastic flows. After
more earthquakes, the main eruption happened.

Case Study Soufriere, Montserrat, Composite

Volcano
Economic Impacts

Total loss in value of peoples homes and

investments, totaling over 1billion.

Over 20 villages, and two thirds of homes on the

island were destroyed by the pyroclastic flows.

Tourists stayed away and businesses were

destroyed, disrupting the economy. The volcano in
recent years has adversely increase tourism,
however.

Schools, hospitals, airport and port were destroyed.

Social Impacts

19 people died, seven injured.

Hundreds of people lost their homes, and fires

destroyed many buildings, such as local Gov. offices,
police HQ and petrol stations.

Population has since reduced from 12,000 to 4000

since the eruptions began, 4000 of which came to
the UK.

Environmental impacts- Large areas covered in

volcanic material, Capital Plymouth buried in 12m of
Mud and Ash. Vegetation was also destroyed. Soil
fertility has improved from the volcanic ash from the
eruption.

Responses

People were evacuated from south to safe areas in

the north

Shelters were built to house evacuees

Temporary infrastructure was built (Roads and

electricity)

UK provided 17million in aid(Montserrat is overseas

territory)

Local emergency services provided support units for

S&R.

Risk map was created, and exclusion zone put in

place, the south of the island is off limits whilst the
volcano is intermittently active.

Seismicity

Earthquakes occur almost continuously across the

surface of the Earth, with an estimate 18 earthquakes
of 7.0 or larger magnitude occurring each year. Most
are so small that theyre not of any real concern.
Earthquakes occur when a buildup of pressure within
the earths crust is suddenly released. The point where
the pressure is released is called the focus, and the
ground directly above is called the epicenter. A shallow
focus is 0-70km deep, intermediate focus is 70-300km
deep, and a deep focus is 300-700km deep.

UK provided 41 million of long term aid to develop

the north, new docks, airport and houses have been
built with this.

Montserrat Volcano Observatory has been set up to

try and predict future eruptions.

Poor management systems of Soufriere

Scientists had studies volcano in 1980s, but report
wasnt given a lot of detail. There was no disaster
management plan for a volcanic eruption, so when
eruption started, responses were slow. In 1990s, key
infrastructure had been built in areas at risk, so when
eruption occurred, rescue response was hampered.
P-waves (Primary) Are the fastest and shakes the
earth back and forth. They travel the fastest and move
through solids and liquids.
S-Waves (Secondary) Are slower, and move with a
sideways motion, shaking the earth at right angles to
the direction of travel. They cannot move through
liquids, but do much more damage than P-waves.
Surface Waves Travel much closer to surface, and
more slowly than P or S waves, but are more
destructive than either. They include L waves, and R
waves.

Love/long waves- can only travel through solids, and

cause the surface to move from side to side. These
waves cause a lot more damage because of their
shearing effect.
Rayleigh Waves can travel through liquids and solids,
they move the surface in a rolling motion, similar to a
wave in an ocean.

Seismometers allow the measurement of the amount of

energy released by an earthquake, the magnitude. They
also measure the duration and direction (horizontal or
vertical) of the vibrations.
Seismic records have been built up over time, which
allow us to look at the frequency of earthquakes in
different areas.

There are two scales for measuring earthquakes:

The Richter Scale
The Richter scale measures the magnitude of an
earthquake, and is logarithmic. This means an
earthquake of magnitude 9 is 10 times greater
amplitude (wave size) than one of magnitude 8.
Major earthquakes are those above 7 magnitude.

The Mercalli scale

The Mercalli scale measures the
impacts of an earthquake.
The impacts are measured using
observations of the event. (E.G
Reports and photos.)
The scale is between 1 and 12,
with 1 being an earthquake only
detected by instruments and 12
being total destruction.

80% of all earthquakes occur on the circum- Pacific

belt.(Pacific ring of fire.)

Most of the result from convergent margin activity.

15% occur in the Mediterranean asiatic belt.

Remaining 5% occur in the interiors of the plate and

on spreading ridge centres.

More than 150,00 quakes strong enough to be felt

are recorded each yea.

Tsunamis
Tsunamis are large waves caused by the displacement
of large volumes of water. They can be triggered by
underwater earthquakes, or submarine landslides. The
most devastating and recent example occurred in 2004
in Indonesia.
The closer a tsunami gets to land (where the water gets
shallower), the waves begin to get compresses, and the
energy thus more concentrated. The waves slow down
to 80km/h or less, and their wavelength decreases, but
their amplitude increases. Just before the Tsunami
reaches the coast, drawback of water occurs.
Used as a warning the an Earthquake is imminent.
The limitation of this is that it does in fact only give
a few seconds before the strong tremors. E.G
Japans Earthquake Early Warning System.

Management of Tectonic Hazards - Earthquakes

Tectonic hazards can have many impacts on people and
their environment, however some of these impacts can
be lessened by management strategies such as
Prediction, building techniques, planning and education.

It is currently impossible to predict when an

Earthquake will happen, but there are indications
that an earthquake will happen soon. (Small tremors,
cracks appearing in rocks, strange animal behavour
(rats abandoning nest)).

It is possible to predict were future earthquakes may

appear using historical data, and so areas at risk can
prepare for the impacts of an Earthquake.

Deformation of the ground can cause levels of wate

to rise or fall indepently of atmospheric conditions,
which can be an indication.

Theres a 62% chance o a magnitude 6.7 earthquake

of greater happening before 2032 on the San
Andreas fault.

This has meant a lot of focus in San Francisco, and

surrounding areas has been on preparing for an
earthquake.

Earthquake warning systems can detect P waves, but

only after an earthquake has begun. P waves travel
faster than Other seismic waves so can be

Management of Tectonic Hazards - Earthquakes

Buildings can be designed to withstand earthquakes,

such as by using strong materials like reinforced
concrete, or by constructing buildings on special
foundations to absorb the earthquakes energy.

Construction laws in some earthquake prone

countries have become stricter, meaning newer
buildings are more likely to withstand earthquakes.
(Smart meters with gas)
(Use of a soft story to collapse on car parking
beneath)
(Stepped profile, deep foundation, varied height, 2
story frame etc.)

The importance of preparation:

The importance of preparation can be viewed when
comparing two countries which experienced similar
earthquakes:

The 1989 Loma Prierta earthquake in Californa

measured at 7.1 on the richter scale. Only 63 people
died, due to hazard resistant structures, education of
the populace and emergency services.

In the 1989 Loma Prierta earthquake,the fatalities

were low due to the World Series Game, in which a
freeway portion collapsed, which couldve killed
more. The support collums failed, so has since
been retrofitted along with supports.

The 1988 Armenian earthquake, which was 6.9 on

the Richter scale killed more than 25,000 people.
Most died inside collapsed buildings, which had soft
foundations and little to no earthquake proofing
features.
Planning for the next earthquake has taken full
president:

Emergency drinking plan established, with special

hydrants around the city set up to provide drinking
water. 67 hydrants marked with blue water drop.

Every resident has to be prepared for 72 hours after

a major disaster.

As a failsafe system, if one water pump fails, one of

the multiple others will kick in.

NERT program created. Fire dep. Trained dozens of

citizens in each neighborhood to help others in the
case of an earthquake.

2002, water system was rebuilt to withstand an

Liquefaction caused a lot of damage to

homes.

California Earthquake Authority developed plans to

encourage people to reinforce their homes by
processing tax rebates and subsidies.

Management of Tectonic Hazards - Volcanoes

Unlike earthquakes, its possible to roughly predict

when a volcano will happen. Tiny earthquakes,
changes in topography can indicate an eruption is
likely.

Prediction allows time for people to be evacuated,

e.g. 1991 Philippines, 60,000 people evacuated
before Mt Pinatubo erupted, which lessened death
toll to 800.

Even when theres enough warning, it can be difficult

to evacuate people. Often people are skeptical of the
eruption or do not wish to leave their home.

Management of Tectonic Hazards - Tsunami

Tsunami warning systems rely on earthquake

detection systems. If an earthquake occurs in a place
thats likely to cause a tsunami (under an ocean), a
warning is issued.

There are Tsunami warning center around the world,

E.G National Oceanic in USA and NOAA in Alaska and
Hawaii.

Early warning systems give people time to evacuate.

However they rely on good communication systems.
If people dont receive the warning, they wont
evacuate. If an earthquake happened close to land,
the warning system will not give them enough time.

Management of Tectonic hazards Planning.

Planning and education are the best ways to minimize
damage from tectonic hazards.

Buildings cant be designed to withstand lava flows,

but they can be strengthened so theyre less likely to
collapse with the weight of falling Ash.

Its sometimes possible to divert lava flows away

from settlements using barriers. E.G Etna 1983,
10mhigh 400m long rubble barrier places on slopes
which successfully diverted lava flow. Only possible
with viscous lava.

Buildings designed with raised, open foundations

and made of strong materials such as concrete are
less likely to be damaged by the force of water in a
Tsunami.

In some places such as Hokkaido Japan, Tsunami

walls have been built around settlements to protect
them. Theyre not always effective as some
Tsunamis have toppled them.

Factors which increase severity of tectonic

impacts:
Development level of a country:

Future developments should be built to avoid areas

of high risk

Emergency services can train and prepare for

disasters (E.G Fema in USA prepping for all sorts of
disasters.)

The impacts are higher in LEDCs than MEDCs.

MEDCs can spend money on disaster response
preparation.

Buildings are of poorer quality in LEDCs.

Infrastructure is poorer, making it difficult for

emergency services. (E.G China Sinchuan)

Health care isnt as good in LEDCs, so large number

of casualties overwhelm them.

Many depend on agriculture in LEDCs, which is often

Governments can plan evacuation routes and

protocols. (E.G Oregen USA, leaflets for Evac routes.)

Governments and other organizations can educate

people on what to do and how to evacuate.

(earthquake and tsunami drills practiced in Japan.)

Factors which increase severity of tectonic

impacts:

Factors which increase severity of tectonic

impacts:

Population

Timing

The more people in the area, the more people will be

affected by the disaster.

Densely populated areas such as cities have a lot of

buildings. Collapsing buildings pose a big risk to life,
especially earthquakes. (Biggest cause of death.)

When in the day of year a disaster happens can have

an effect on the severity of impacts.

It can be difficult to evacuate large numbers of

people because the routes are often limited. (so will
act at bottleneck.)

If an earthquake occurs in middle of the night, most

people will be asleep and unable to get out of
buildings quickly.

If an earthquake occurs during winter, people may

freeze to death before theyre rescued.

Case Study Kobe Earthquake, Japan, Jan 17

1995

Case Study Kobe Earthquake, Japan, Jan 17

1995

The Great Hanshin earthquake begun at 5:46 on Jan 17

1995, measuring 6.9 on the richter scale, with its
epicenter being located 20km from the city of Kobe. Its
depth was very shallow at 17.6km.

Ground shaking

Liquefaction

Slope failure (landslides)

Tsunami.

The Kobe earthquake was an inland shallow earthquake,

which was caused by the subduction of the Philippine Sea
Plate with the Pacific Plate. The Nojima fault line runs
10km underneath the city of Kobe, allowing easier flow of
seismic waves to beneath the city.

Primary hazards:

Secondary Hazards:

Fire

Famine

Case Study Kobe Earthquake, Japan, Jan 17

1995

Case Study Kobe Earthquake, Japan, Jan 17

1995

Primary Impacts:

The entire citys infrastructure was shut down,

including electricity, gas, and plumbing.

Due to the wooden material of the houses, fires from

the gas fires spread around the city, ultimately
destroying 7500 homes.

Further impacts included blocked roads that

impeded rescue efforts.

There was a shortage of clean water, blankets and

food. Those whom were homeless also stayed out
for days/weeks in fear of the aftershocks, in which
there were 716.

Case Study Sichuan China, may 12th 2008.

Impacts:

The Sichuan Earthquake, in China measured 7.9 on the

Richter scale, with a depth of 19km. It was the result of
the Indian plate colliding with the Eurasian plate.

The earthquake completely destroyed many

mountain towns and villages.

5-11 million homeless, 370,000 injured

An alternate theory is that the 511ft Zipingpu dam,

which holds 315million tons of water was responsible,
as it lies just 550 yards from the fault line. Scientists in
the US believe the large weight of water could have
affected pressure on the fault line underneath, possibly
leading to this quake.

70,000 dead.

The worst impacted area, Wenchuan had not

received aid 30 hours after the earthquake first
struck.

5 million buildings collapsed, including many schools

(E.G Dujiangyan city killing 900 pupils.)

Many areas cut off by landslides and rubble.

Despite only lasting 20 seconds, 5500 people died,

40,000 were injured.

102,000 buildings destroyed, 7500 of which was by

gas fire alone, and 230,000 people homeless.

Gas mains were ruptured across the city, water

pipes were fractures, and elevated highways
collapsed blocking railways.

The secondary impacts were much more numerous, and

had a larger impact:

Case Study Kobe Earthquake, Japan, Jan 17

1995
Responses:

New laws were passed to make buildings and

transport structures more earthquake proof.

More instruments installed in the area to monitor

earthquake movements.

Most buildings & roads in the last 20 years since

have been designed to be earthquake resistant.

There are Thousands of Seismometers and

monitoring stations in Japan, however there were
few sensors near Kobe as they had not had an
earthquake in 400 year prior. Greater Prediction

Management and responses to the event:

The earthquake wasnt predicted, although the area had
been prone to earthquakes. Sinchuan is an area which
is mostly rural, and has been mostly neglected by
Chinas economic rise.
The Chinese government immediately responded by
sending 80,000 troops to coordinate the rescue efforts.
The mountainous terrain and the sheer size of the area
meant that some soldiers had to be parachuted in to
the most remote areas, and supplied were dropped in.

2 chemical plants collapsed releasing toxic fumes.

Secondary hazards emerged from the barrier dams
which blocked some rivers, which threatened 700,000
people downstream. Soldiers thus used explosives to
detonate it, and divert the water from Beichuan.
It was immediately apparent that the scale of the crisis
was too great for one country alone to deal with, and
there was a matter of hours to protect those further at
risk. China thus sent urgent appeals for aid. Over 13
billion dollars was spent by June 2008 in the aftermath
of the event.

Generated waves of up to 20m in height, which

traveled up to 2km inland.

Case Study 2004 Indonesian Tsunami

The Great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of the
26th December 2004, which was 9.1 on the
Richter scale, was the third biggest recorded
since 1900. It triggered the Tsunami, and was the
biggest recorded loss of life in any tectonic event.
The Australia Plate was subducted under the Burma
plate along a 1,600km fault line, and slipped 15-20m
over a period of 3 to 4 minutes. This was roughly
160km offshore in the Indian Ocean, north of Simeulue
island of the coast of Sumatra. The seafloor was uplifted
several meters, meaning billions of tons of seawater
was displaced. This

Impacts

229,000 deaths (UN data) including 43,000 missing.

One third of deaths were children.

Some areas, 4x more women drowned than men.

9,000 foreign tourists died - Sweden alone had 540
fatalities.

High impact in fishing communitys e.g boats, fishing

gear and fishermen.

Sri Lanker lost 60% fishing fleet and infrastructure.

Contamination of drinking water and salt on farm

fields.

The fairly low incidence of disease in the aftermath

was due to the quick response by governments in
quickly burying or burning the vast number of
bodies.The World Food Programme also provided
food aid for more than 1.3 million people.

Globally, $7billion in aid was promised for damage

regions. The problem was that delivering this
financial aid was not followed through, with the Asian
Development bank suggesting that 4, or the 7 billion
which was promised was not given.

In the time since, the Indian Ocean Tsunami warning

system has been developed.

Management of hazards

There was no warning system in the Indian Ocean as

there is in the Pacific, although it wouldve make
little difference.