Chapter

p
9 Spur
p Gear Design
g

1 of 172

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p gear
g
design-index
g
Class I
The big picture
9 1 Objectives
9-1
Obj ti
off this
thi chapter
h t
9-2 Concepts from previous chapters
9-3 Forces on gear teeth
12 1
12.1

9-4 Gear manufacture

Summary

2 of 172

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p gear
g
design-index
g
Class II
9-5 Gear quality
9-6 Allowable stress numbers
9-7 Gear material
9-8 Stress in gear teeth

3 of 172

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p gear
g
design-index
g
((Contd))
Class III-IV
9-9 Selection of gear material based on bending force
9-10 Pittingg resistance of ggear teeth
9-11 Selection of gear material based on contact stress
9 12 Design of spur gears
9-12
9-13 Gear design for the metric module system
9-14 Computer-aided spur gear design and analysis
p ggear design
g spreadsheet
p
9-15 Use of the spur
9-16 Power-transmitting capacity
9 17 Practical considerations for gears and interfaces with
9-17
other elements
4 of 172

The big
g picture
p
- about a spur
p gear
g
A spur gear iis one off the
th mostt
fundamental types of gears.
Its
It tteeth
th are straight
t i ht andd parallel
ll l
to the axis of the shaft that
carries the gear
gear. The teeth have
the involute( ) form.

5 of 172

How do spur
p gears
g
work?
The action of one tooth on a mating tooth is like
that of two convex(),curved members in
contact.
As the driving gear rotates, its teeth exert a
force on the mating gear that is tangential to the
pitch
it h circles
i l off the
th two
t gears;
Ft
This force acts at a distance equal to the pitch
radius of the gear,
gear a torque is developed in the
shaft that carries the gear;
When the two gears rotate, they transmit power
that is proportional to the toque.

6 of 172

This is the primary purpose of the spur

gear drive system!

Spur
p gear
g
animations
External spur gear

Internal spur gear

Rack-straight
g spur
p gear
g

7 of 172

Consider the action of

fg
gear m
meshing:
g
How does that action related to the design of the gear
teeth? which gear parameters to specify?
As the force is exerted byy the drivingg tooth on the
driven tooth, what kinds of stresses are produced in
the teeth? Consider both the point of contact of one
tooth on the other and the whole tooth.
Fn
Fr
Where are stresses a maximum?
How could the teeth fail under the
i fl
influence
off these
h
stresses??

8 of 172

Ft

Consider the action of gear meshing(Contd):

What material properties are critical to allow the gears to
carr such
carry
s ch loads safely
safel and with
ith a reasonable life span?
What are the important geometric features that affect the
l l off stress produced
level
d d iin the
h teeth?
h
How does the precision of the tooth geometry affect its
operation?

pp
affect the g
gears?
How does the nature of the application
Describe various ways that the gears can be attached to
the shafts and located with respect
p to each other. How
can the shafts be supported?

9 of 172

All about spur

p gear
g
design
g
Design
g of ggear

Gear teeth meshingg

Why

Design of
gear teeth

Design of
gear hub

1. Geometry
2. Material
3. Manufacturing
quality
4. mounting,
lubrications etc.
10 of 172

Fulfill application Operation

requirements
without failures

Force/stress
analysis

1. Main failure
modes
2. Nature of
applications
pp
3. Practical
considerations

H
How

This chapter contains information that:

you can use to
t answer these
th
questions!
ti !
complete
p
the analysis
y and design
g of spur
p
gear power transmission systems;
Later chapter cover similar topics for helical
gears, bevel gears and worm gearing.

11 of 172

You are the designer

g
The teeth must not break;
They must have a sufficiently long life to
meet the needs of the customer who uses
the reducer.

12 of 172

We need more data

How much power is to be transmitted?
To what kind of machine is the power from the
output of the reducer being delivered?
How does that affect the design of the gears?
What is the anticipated duty cycle for the reducer
in terms of the number of hours per day,days per
week,materials
,
that are suitable for gears?
g
Which material will you specify , and what will
be its heat treatment?

13 of 172

9-1 Objectives
j
of this chapter
p
After completing this chapter, you can:
1. Compute the forces exerted on gear teeth as they rotate and
transmit power ;
2. Describe various methods for manufacturing gears and the
levels of precision and quality to which they can be produced;
3 Specify
3.
S if a suitable
it bl level
l l off quality
lit for
f gears according
di to
t the
th use
to which they are to be put;
4 Describe
4.
D
ib suitable
i bl materials
i l from
f
which
hi h to make
k the
h gears, in
i
order to provide adequate performance for both strength and
pitting resistance;
5. Use the standards of the American Gear Manufacturers
p
g the design
g of
Association ((AGMA)) as the basis for completing
the gears;
14 of 172

Objectives (contd)
6. Use appropriate stress analyses to determine the relationships

among the applied forces,

forces the geometry of the gear teeth,
teeth the
precision of the gear teeth, and other factors specific to a given
application,
pp
, in order to make final decisions about those
variables;
7. Perform the analysis of the tendency for the contact stresses
exerted on the surfaces of the teeth to cause pitting of the teeth,
in order to determine an adequate hardness of the gear
material
t i l that
th t will
ill provide
id an acceptable
t bl level
l l off pitting
itti
resistance for the reducer;
8 Complete the design of the gears,
8.
gears taking into consideration
both the stress analysis and the analysis of pitting
resistance
resistance.
15 of 172

Objectives (contd)
The design result will be a complete
specification
ifi i off the
h gear geometry, the
h
material for the ggear, and the heat
treatment of the material.

16 of 172

Key
y things
g to learn

17 of 172

Force analysis
F
l i
Material selection
Failure modes
S
Stress
analysis
l i
Design
g of spur
p gear:
g
standards,, procedures
p

9-2 Concepts
p from gear
g
kinematics learnt
key relationships:
pitch line speed = t = R = ( D / 2)
where
R = radius of the pitch circle

pinion

D = ppitch diameter

= angular velocity of the gear

The pitch line speed is the same for both the pinion
() and the ggear.
18 of 172

gear

Pitch line speed in ft/min

In the computation of stresses in gear teeth:
Pitch line speed: in ft/min,
The
h size
i off the
h gear is
i given
i
as its
i pitch
i
diameter
i
in
i
inches
Speed of rotation is in n rpm (rev/min)

D in n rev 2 rad 1 ft
v t = ( D / 2 ) =

rev
2
min
12 in
= ( Dn / 12 ) fft / min
( - 1))
(9
19 of 172

Velocity
y ratio (VR)
( )
The velocity
Th
l it ratio
ti can be
b expressedd in
i many ways.
For the particular case of a pinion driving a larger
gear:
p n P RG D G N G
=
=
=
=
velocity ratio = VR =
G nG R P D P N P

20 of 172

(9 - 2)

Gear ratio
rat o and pressure angle
Gear ratio, mG :
the
h ratio
i off the
h number
b off teethh in
i the
h larger
l
gear to the
h
number of the teeth in the pinion, regardless of which is the
driver.
driver
When the pinion is the driver, as it is for a speed reducer, mG
is equal to VR.
VR

Gear ratio = m

= N

/N

1 .0

The pressure angle,, is an important feature that

characterize the form of the involute curve that
makes up the active face of the teeth of standard
gears.
21 of 172

(9 - 3)
Definition of
pressure angle

Pressure angle () - definition

Angle
g between tangent
g to the ppitch circle and the
line drawn normal (perpendicular ) to the surface of
the gear tooth

22 of 172

Diametral pitch (Pd)

Characterizes the pphysical
y
size of the teeth of a
gear. It is related to the pitch diameter and the
number of teeth as follows:
Pd = NG / DG = NP / DP

23 of 172

(9- 4)

Gear
geometry
24 of 172

9-3 Forces on g
gear teeth
Figure 9-1 On P.322

25 of 172

Figure 9-1-relook
Force vs. torque transmission:

Torque
q = ppower/rotational speed
p
=P

Motor
shaft

Coupling

Input
Shaft

Keyy on
Input shaft

Output
shaft

Key on
output
shaft
h f

Gear

Pinion

26 of 172

Torqueo = Wt*Rg WGt=WPt

h Rg>Rp
When
=Wt
Toqueo>Torquei

((9 - 5))

Torquei = Wt*Rp
Wt is the tangent force
exerted by the pinion teeth
on the gear teeth

Forces on gear teeth -directions

Wr1

n1

Wt1
Wt2
Wr2

n2

Tangential force, Wt
can be obtained from power transfer equations
Normal force, Wn
Radial force, Wr
27 of 172

Unit convention
Standard p
practice typically
yp
y calls for the followingg
units for key quantities pertinent to the analysis of
gear sets:
Forces in pounds (lb)
p
((hp)
p) ((Note that 1.0hp
p=
Power in horsepower
550lbft/s.)
Rotational speed
p
in rpm,
p , that is , rev/min
Pitch line speed in ft/min
lbin
in
Torque in lb

28 of 172

Calculate Wt f
from
m input
p power
p
and pitch
p
diameter
m
The torque exerted on a gear is the product of the
transmitted load, Wt, and the pitch radius of the gear.
The torque is also equal to the power transmitted
divided by the rotational speed.
T = Wt ( R ) = Wt ( D / 2 ) = P / n

Wt =2T/D

then
2p
2 P (hp
h )
550lb ft / s 1.0 rev 60 s/min
/ i 12 in
i
=

Dn D (in) n(rev / min)

hp
2 rad
ft
Wt = (126000)( P ) /( nD
D )lb
(9 - 6)
Wt =

29 of 172

Calculate Wt from input power and pitch line velocity

P = W

Then,, solvingg for the force and adjusting

j
g units,,
P
P ( hp )
550 lb / s 60 s/min 12 in
Wt =
=

v t Vt ( ft / min) 1.0
1 0 hp
ft
= 33000( P )/(Vt )lb

(9 - 7)

also compute torque in lb in :

P
P ( hp )
550 lb ft/s 1 .0 rev 60 s/min 12 in
T = =

n ( rev / min)
1 0 hp
1.0
2 rad
ft
= 63000 ( P ) / n lb in
(9 - 8)

30 of 172

Calculations of Wt - an overview
T = 63000 ( P ) / n lb in

Wt =2T/D
2T/D

Wt = (126000)(P) /((nD)lb

W t = 33000(( P ))/(( V t ))lb

These values can be computed for either the

pinion or the gear by appropriate substitutions;
The
Th pitch
it h line
li speedd is
i the
th same for
f the
th pinion
i i andd
the gear;
The transmitted loads on the pinion and the gear
are the same, except that they act in opposite
directions.
31 of 172

Value of Wn and Wr
The normal force,, Wn,, and the radial force,,
Wr, can be computed from the known Wt by
using the right triangle relations evident in
Fig.9-2.
Wr = Wt tan

(9 - 9)

Wn = Wr / cos

(9 - 10)

where = pressure angle of the tooth form

32 of 172

Forces in
n the gear pair-Values
pa r Values

33 of 172

The impact of the gear force

cause the
th stresses
t
in
i the
th gear teeth;
t th
act on the shaft.
the bearings that support the shaft must provide
the reactions.
Gear forces Stress analysis
l i Gear design
d i
Shaft
Sh f ddesign
i Bearing
B i design
d i

34 of 172

9-4 Gear Manufacture

Methods of p
producing
g the ggear blank
Small gears are frequently made from wrought plate or
bar with the hub(),web(),spokes(),and
bar,
hub() web() spokes() and
rim() machined to final or near-final dimensions
before the g
gear teeth are produced.
p
The face width and the outside diameter of the gear teeth
aree also
so pproduced
oduced at thiss sstage.
ge.
Other gear blanks may be forged (, sand cast
to achieve the basic form prior to machining.
A few gears in which only moderate precision is required
may be die cast with the teeth in virtually final
form.
35 of 172

Methods of p
producing
g the gear
g
blank (Contd)
(
)
Large
g gears
g
are frequently
q
y fabricated from
components.
The rim and the pportion into which the teeth are
machined may be rolled into a ring shape from a
flat bar and then welded.
The web or spokes and the hub are then welded
inside the ring.
Very large gears may be made in segments with the
final assembly of the segments by welding or by
mechanical fasteners.

36 of 172

Gear teeth machining

g methods
Form milling()

Shaping(;
Hobbing().

37 of 172

Form milling(Fig.9-3)
g g
In a milling cutter() that has the shape of the
tooth space is used, and each space is cut completely
before the gear blank() is turned to the
position of the next adjacent space. This method is
used mostly for larger gears, and great care is
required to achieve accurate results.

(7-10a.swf)
(7-10b.swf)
38 of 172

Shaping (Fig.9-4)
The cutter reciprocates, usually on a vertical spindle.
The shaping cutter rotates as it reciprocates and it fed
intoo thee gear
gea blank.
ba .
Thus, the involute-tooth form is generated gradually.
This pprocess is frequently
q
y used for internal ggears.

(7-13.swf)

39 of 172

Hobbing(Fig.9-5,9-6)
g( g
,
)
a process similar to milling except that the work-piece (the gear
blank) and the cutter (the hob) rotate in a coordinated
fashion. Here also, the tooth form is generated gradually as the
hob()
(
) is fed into the blank.

40 of 172

Gear finishing
g
Finishingg is the secondary
y processes,
p
, they
y are expensive
p
and should be used only where the operation requires
high accuracy in the tooth form and spacing.
The ggear teeth are finished to greater
g
precision
p
after form
milling, shaping, or hobbing by the processes of

ggrinding(),shaving(),and
g(
),
g(
),
honing().
g(
)

41 of 172

What is grinding?
g
g
Grinding is a finishing process used to
improve surface finish, abrade hard
materials, and tighten
g
the tolerance on
flat and cylindrical surfaces by
removing a small amount of material.
In grinding, an abrasive material rubs
against the metal part and removes tiny
pieces of material. The abrasive
material is typically on the surface of a
wheel
h l or belt
b l andd abrades
b d material
i l in
i a
way similar to sanding.
42 of 172

Whats honing?
g
A final surface finishing operation
conducted on a surface,
surface typically of an
inside cylinder, such as of an automotive
engine
g block.
Abrasive stones are used to remove minute
amounts of material in order to tighten the
t l
tolerance
on cylindricity.
li d i it
Hones can be of the multiple pedal type
(pictured ) or the brush type.
type Either type
applies a slight, uniform pressure to a light
abrasive that wipes over the entire surface.
The beside figure illustrates the
configuration of the abrasive stones
of an external hone.
43 of 172

What is shaving?
g
Takes place after the operations of roughing with a hob or cutting
with a shaper cutter is over.
over
Consists of the removal of tiny particles of metal from a gear
teethss working surface (HRC
teeth
(HRC<35)
35)
Produces fine hairlike chips. The cutter comes in the form of
helical gear. It has special serrations in the flank area of a gear
teeth. These serrations act as the cutting edges.

44 of 172

Summary
How do spur gear works
Concepts: pitch line speed, gear ratio, velocity
ratio, diametral pitch
Force analysis: Wt and Wr, directions and values
Gear structure and types, gear blank
manufacturing
f t i
Gear teeth manufacturing:
g
first machining process (three), secondary
finishing process (three)
45 of 172

Chapter 9 Spur Gear Design

46 of 172

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p gear
g
design-index
g
Class I
The big picture
9-1 Objectives of this chapter
p ffrom previous
p
chapters
p
9-2 Concepts
9-3 Forces on gear teeth
9 4 Gear
9-4
G
manufacture
f

47 of 172

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p gear
g
design-index
g
((Contd))
Class II
Review
9-5 Gear quality
99-6
6 Allowable stress numbers
9-7 Gear material
Summary

48 of 172

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p gear
g
design-index
g
((Contd))
9-8 Stress in ggear teeth
9-9 Selection of gear material based on bending force
9 10 Pitting resistance of gear teeth
9-10
9-11 Selection of gear material based on contact stress
9-12 Design of spur gears
g for the metric module system
y
9-13 Gear design
9-14 Computer-aided spur gear design and analysis
9 15 Use of the spur gear design spreadsheet
9-15
9-16 Power-transmitting capacity
9-17 Practical considerations for gears and interfaces with
49 of 172 other elements

Review-1
How do spur gear works
Concepts: pitch line speed, gear ratio, velocity
ratio, diametral pitch
Force analysis: Wt and Wr, directions and values
Gear structure and types, gear blank
g
manufacturing
What are the gear blank structures?
G shaft;
Gear
h f solid
lid structure, webb structure, spoke
k
structure, assembled structure
50 of 172

Review-2
Gear teeth manufacturing:
first machining process (three)
Form milling()

Shaping();

Hobbing().

51 of 172

9-5 Gear quality

q
y
Quality in gearing:
1. the precision of the individual gear teeth and
2 the precision with which two gears rotate in relation
2.
to one another.
Quality measuring factors:
1.Runout(): A measure of eccentricity and out-ofroundness
d
2.Tooth-to-tooth spacing: the difference in spacing
b t
between
corresponding
di points
i t on adjacent
dj
t tteeth;
th
3.Profile: the variation of the actual tooth profile from
th theoretically
the
th
ti ll precise
i profile.
fil
52 of 172

Measurement of composite error

Composite error is measured on a special device,
shown in Fig.9-7(a), that places the test gear in tight
mesh with a master gear of known precision. The two
gears are rotatedd while
hil in
i tight
i h mesh,
h andd the
h center off
one gear is free to move.
The
Th variation
i ti in
i center
t distance
di t
for
f a complete
l t
revolution of the test gear is recorded.
Fig.9-7(b)
Fi 9 7(b) shows
h
a ttypical
i l recording
di with
ith both
b th tootht th
to-tooth composite error and total composite error
indicated.
indicated

53 of 172

What is composite
p
error?
a measure of the combined effects of
yp of ggear-tooth errors.
several types
the allowable amount of variation of the
actual tooth form from the theoretical form.
form

54 of 172

Composite error quality number

AGMA q
qualityy number is defined to specify
p
y the
composite error: AGMA Standard 2000-A88.
The quality numbers range from 5 to 15 with
increasing precision. The actual tolerances are
a function
f
i off the
h diametral
i
pitch
i
off the
h gear
teeth and of the pitch diameter of the gear.
Table 9-1 shows representative data for the total
composite tolerance for several quality numbers.
numbers

55 of 172

AGMA: American gear manufactures association

Recommended
mm
quality
q
y numbers
m
Recommended quality numbers by application types in
Table 9-2.
g of the entire gear
g
system,
y
, including
g the
The design
shafts, bearings, and housing, must be consistent with
the p
precision of ggear.
Decision-making factors on the precision of gears:
requirements/cost.
requirements/cost
For machine tool drives (too wide the application
range) : quality numbers are related to the pitch line
speed.
56 of 172

9-6
9
6 Allowable stress numbers
In gear design, AGMA develops allowable
stress numbers t consider two forms of geartooth failure
failure.
There are two types of allowable stress
numbers:
1. Allowable bending stress number (Sat)
2. Allowable contact stress number (Sac)
Design procedures are presented later by utilizing
allowable stress numbers.
57 of 172

Allowable bending stress number (Sat)

Sat is to take care of gear failure by bending stress
Select proper Sat to be compared with computed
bending stress levels in the tooth.
Bending stress in gear Bending stress number St<Sat.
yp
A gear
g tooth acts like a cantilever beam in
Hypothesis:
resisting the force exerted on it by the matting tooth.
The point of highest tensile
bending stress is at the root of
the tooth where the involute
curve blends with the fillet.
58 of 172

Cantilever
A cantilever is a beam supported on only
onee end.
o
e d. Thee beam
bea carries
ca es thee load
oad too thee
support where it is resisted by moment and
shear stress
stress.

59 of 172

Allowable contact stress number ((Sac)

Sac is to take care of the second, independent form of
gear failure: the pitting () of the surface of the
teeth.
Select proper Sac to be compared with computed
contact stress levels in the tooth.
tooth
Contact stress in gear Contact stress number Sc<Sac
Gear teeth pitting occurs near the pitch line, where very
high contact stresses occur.

60 of 172

Pittingg the first look

fatigue of the surface.

caused by repeated application of high contact
st esses
stresses
resulting in local fractures and an actual loss of
material.
material
We will
ll discuss
d
pitting in more details
d
l in 9-8 later
l

61 of 172

9-7
9
7 Gear materials
To select an appropriate material for gear:
(bending) strength and pitting resistance are the most
i
important
properties
i to consider
id for
f gears.
In general, the designer should consider the
producibility of the gear, taking into account all of
the manufacturing processes involved, from the
preparation of the gear blank, through the forming of
the gear teeth, to the final assembly of the gear into a
machine.
g , appearance,
pp
,
Other considerations are weight,
corrosion resistance, noise, and cost.
62 of 172

Heat treatment processes - in general

Heat treating is any process in which steel is
subjected to elevated temperatures to
modify it properties
Normalizing () , annealing(),
through-hardening(quench and temper)
(+),
(
), case hardening()
g()
Figure 2-8 (page 39)
63 of 172

Hardness units
HB: The Brinell Hardness ()
HR: The Rockwell hardness ()
HRC: Rockwell hardness test method using
C scale (C)

64 of 172

Hardness tests-The Brinell Hardness

HB: The Brinell Hardness ()
indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter
hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of
3000 kg.
For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kgg
or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation.
The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds
in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds
in the case of other metals.

65 of 172

Hardness tests- The Rockwell hardness

HR: The Rockwell hardness ()
HRC: Rockwell hardness test method using C scale (C)

Scale

HR = E - e

A
B

66 of 172

Indenter
Diamond
cone
1/16" steel
ball
Diamond
cone

Minor
Load
F0
kgf

Major
Load
F1
kgf

10

50

60

100

10

90

100

130

10

140

150

100

Total Load
Value of
F
E
kgf

Types of gear material (with heat treating)

Steel

Through-hardened
g
steel(
Case-hardened
Case
hardened
steel
Cast iron

Iron and bronze

bronze

Plastic
Pl ti
8.1.3
67 of 172

Flame and
Inductionhardened (

Carburizing(
Nitrided

Steel used as engineering

g
g material
The most common metal is steel which is available in
many different alloys. The most common type of
steels are:
1: Low carbon steel: mild steel, generally contain
less than 0.25% carbon.
2: Those classed as medium to high carbon which
contain carbon over 0.25%.
medium carbon steel: 0.25% - 0.5%
high carbon steel: 0.5% - l.0%
68 of 172

Through-hardened
g
vs. case hardened
Hardeningg occurs duringg heat treatingg when the steel
(containing sufficient carbon) is cooled rapidly (quenched)
from above its critical temperature. This temperature varies for
different alloys but generally is in the range 1500oF- 1900oF.
Through hardening process is used on medium and high carbon
steels (carbon content >= 0.25% )
Case hardening
a de g iss used oon mild
d stee
steels.
s. (carbon
(ca bo content
co te t < 0.25%
0. 5% )
MILD STEEL CANNOT BE THROUGH HARDENED
MED. & HIGH CARBON STEEL CANNOT BE CASE
HARDENED
69 of 172

Note: refer to Chapter 2 for heat treatment techniques.

Steel g
gear materials-Through-hardened
g
steels
1 Gears for machine tool drives and many kinds of
1.
medium-to heavy-duty speed reducers and
transmissions are typically made from medium
mediumcarbon steels.
2 Commonly used carbon and alloy steels are:
2.
AISI 1020 AISI 1040 AISI 1050
AISI 3140 AISI 4140 AISI 4150
AISI 4340 AISI 6150 AISI 8650

70 of 172

Figure
g
9-8,, 9-9
AGMAStandard 2001-C95 ggives data for Sat and Sac, for
steels in the through-hardened condition.
g
hardness (above
(
250HB)) , a medium For the higher
carbon-alloy steel with good hardenability is desirable.
Examples are AISI 3140,4140,4340,6150,and 8650.

Surface hardness above 400 HB case-hardening

71 of 172

Stress vs. hardness

The hardness measurement for the allowable
bending stress number is to be taken at the
root of the teeth because that is where the
highest bending stress occurs.
The allowable contact stress number is
related to the surface hardness on the face of
the gear teeth where the mating teeth
experience high contact stresses.

72 of 172

Case-hardened
Case
hardened steels
Fl
Flame hardening,
h d i induction
i d ti hardening,
h d i carburizing,
b i i
and nitriding are processes used to produce a high
h d
hardness
in
i the
th surface
f
layer
l
off gear teeth.
t th See
S
Fig.2-9.
These processes provide surface hardness values
from 50 to 64 HRC and corresponding allowable
bending and contact stress numbers.

73 of 172

Flame- and induction-hardened g

gear teeth
Local heating of the surface of the gear teeth by :
(1) High-temperature gas flames
(2) Electrical induction coils.
coils
Normally, medium-carbon-alloy
Normall
medi m carbon allo steels (approximately
(appro imatel
0.40% to 0.60% carbon) are specified that can be
hardened to a resulting hardness of HRC 50
50-54.
54
Appendix 3 and 4 list some suitable materials.

74 of 172

Carburizing
g
Carburizing produces surface hardnesses in the range
of 55 to 64 HRC. It results in some of the highest
strengths in common use for gears.
p
carburizingg steels are listed in Appendix
pp
5.
Special
Figure 9-10 shows the AGMA recommendation for
the thickness of the case for carburized gear teeth.
teeth
The effective case depth is defined as the depth from
the surface to the point where the hardness has
reached 50 HRC.
75 of 172

Nitriding
g
Nitriding produces a very hard but very thin case
case.
It is specified for applications in which loads are
smooth and well known.
known
Nitriding should be avoided when over-loading or
shock can be experienced
experienced, because the case is not
sufficiently strong or well supported to resist such
loads.

76 of 172

Specially
p
y heat treated steels -Sum
m up
p
M
Make
k use off carbon
b or alloy
ll steels
t l without
ith t special
i l
heat treatment if possible.
Considered
C id d the
th least
l t expensive
i steel
t l that
th t satisfies
ti fi the
th
strength and wear requirements being chosen.

77 of 172

Gear materials: Iron

Cast irons
Two types of iron used for gears are:
- gray cast iron() and
- ductile( also called modular) iron().
Table 9-14.
9 14

Austempered ductile iron (ADI) ()

is being used in some important automotive
applications due to its excellent composite properties
of high strength, good hardness and wear resistance
etc. .
78 of 172

Gear materials: Bronzes

Four families of bronzes:
(1) phosphor or tin bronze;
(2) manganese bronze;
(3) Aluminum bronze;
(4) silicon bronze.
bronze
most bronzes
b
are cast, but
b some are available
il bl in
i
wrought form.
i resistance,
i
i low
l
corrosion
goodd wear properties
friction coefficients
79 of 172

Plastic gear materials

Plastics perform well in applications where low
weight, quiet operation, low friction, good corrosion
resistance, and good wear properties are desired.
Their strengths are significantly lower than those of
most metallic ggear materials,, plastics
p
are used in
relatively lightly loaded devices.
Often plastic gears can be molded into final form
without subsequent machining which gives
production cost advantages
advantages.

80 of 172

Examples of plastic materials used for gears:

Phenolic
polyimide
polyphenylene sulfide
Polycarbonate polyester
polyurethane
Acetal
nylon
polyester elastomer
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)
A l i il b di
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
(ABS)

These
h
and
d other
h plastics
l i can be
b produced
d d in
i many
formulations and can be filled with a variety of fillers to
i
improve
strength,
h wear resistance,
i
impact
i
resistance,
i
temperature limit, moldability, and other properties.
81 of 172

Summary-1
y
Gear quality number
composite error,5-15, recommended quality
number
b
Allowable
owab e stress
st ess numbers,
u be s, Sat, Sac
two forms of gear tooth failure
Gear
G materials
t i l
Steel, iron and bronze, plastic

82 of 172

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p Gear Design
g

83 of 172

Chapter 9 Spur gear designind x

index
Class I&II
The big picture
9 1 Objectives
9-1
Obj ti
off this
thi chapter
h t
9-2 Concepts from previous chapters
9-3 Forces on gear teeth
9 4 Gear manufacture
9-4
9-5 Gear quality
9-6 Allowable stress numbers
9-7 Gear material
84 of 172

Chapter 9 Spur gear design-index

(Cont d)
(Contd)
Class III
9-8 Stress in gear teeth
9 9 Selection
9-9
S l ti off gear material
t i l based
b d on bending
b di stress
t
9-10 Pitting resistance of gear teeth
9-11 Selection of gear material based on contact stress
Summary

85 of 172

Chapter 9 Spur gear design-index

(Cont d)
(Contd)
Class IV:
9-12 Design of spur gears
9 13 Gear design for the metric module system
9-13
9-14 Computer-aided spur gear design and analysis
9-15 Use of the spur gear design spreadsheet
p y
9-16 Power-transmittingg capacity
9-17 Practical considerations for gears and interfaces
with other elements

86 of 172

9-8 Stress in gear teeth

The tangential force Wt produces a bending moment on
th gear tooth
the
t th similar
i il to
t that
th t on a cantilever
til
beam.
b
Where does the maximum moment occur?
It is maximum at the base of the tooth in the fillet that
joins the involute profile to the bottom of the tooth space.

87 of 172

Lewis equation for the bending stress in

gear teeth
Wilfred Lewis developed the equation for the bending
stress at the base of the involute profile.
Wt Pd
t =
FY
where Wt = tangentialforce

(9 - 12)

Pd = diametralpitch of the tooth

F = face width of the tooth
Y = Lewisform factor, whichdependson the toothform,
the pressureangle,the diametralpitch, the numberof teeth in the gear,
and the place where Wt acts
88 of 172

Stress concentration factor Kt

Lewis equation does not consider the stress
concentration that exists in the fillet of the tooth.
stress concentration factor Kt.
Comparing the actual stress at root with that predicted
by
y Lewis equation
q
the value of Kt

Wt Pd
t =
FY
Wt Pd K t
t =
FY
89 of 172

(9 - 12)
Stress concentration factor - Kt,
depend on the form of the tooth, the
shape and size of the fillet at the
(9 - 13)
root of the tooth, and the point of
application
li ti off the
th force
f
on the
th tooth.
t th
Photoelastic
redult

Geometry
y factor J
Wt Pd
t =
FY

(9 - 12)

Wt Pd K t
t =
FY

((9 - 13))
J = Y/K t

Wt Pd
t =
FJ

(9 - 14)

Y:
Lewis form factor, depends on
the tooth geometry
Kt:
depends on the form of the
tooth the shape and size of the
tooth,
fillet, and the point of
pp
of the force on the
application
tooth.

Modified Lewis equation

90 of 172

How to decide the geometry factor J?

The value of J varies with the location of the point of
application of the force on the tooth because
beca se Y and
Kt vary.
Figure 9-15 shows graphs giving the values for the
geometry factor for 20 and 25, full-depth,
involute teeth.

91 of 172

Spur Gear Geometry Factors

(Sharing)

(NoSharing)

92 of 172

Spur gear geometry factors for pressure angle of

20 and full-depth involute profile.

Approach used by AGMABending stress

number St
Modified Lewis equation
q
t =

Wt Pd
FJ

((9 - 14))

Bending stress number St

Wt Pd
Ko K s K m K B K v
(9 - 15)
FJ
K 0 = overload factor for bendingg strength
g
St =

K s = size factor for bending strength

K m = load distribution factor for bending strength
K B = rim thickness factor
K v = dynamic factor for bending strength
93 of 172

Modification factors:
represent the
h degree
d
to which the actual
loading case different
from the theoretical
basis of the Lewis
equation.

AGMA g
gear design
g approach
pp
For both pinion and gear:
1. Calculate bending stress number St
Wt Pd
St =
Ko Ks KmKB Kv (9 - 15)
FJ
St is a better estimate of the real level of bending stress that is
produced in the teeth of the gear and the pinion.

2. Calculate the allowable bending stress number

Satt by applying a series of factors Satt..
3. Ensure St < Sat to complete
p
the design.
g
94 of 172

Modification factors for St

Wt Pd
St =
Ko K s Km K B Kv
FJ

(9 - 15)

Ko: overload factor

Ks: size factor (self-learning)
Km: load distribution factor
KB: rim thickness factor(self-learning)
Kv: dynamic factor

95 of 172

Overload Factor Ko

Wt Pd
K o K s K m K B K v (9 - 15)
St =
FJ

Consider the probability that load variations,

variations vibrations
vibrations,
shock,speed changes, and other application-specific
conditions mayy result in ppeak loads ggreater than Wt
being applied to the gear teeth during operation.
1 00 would be applied for a
An overload factor of 1.00
perfectly smooth electric motor driving a perfectly
smooth g
generator through
g a ggear-type
yp speed
p
reducer.
Any rougher conditions call for a value of Ko greater
than 1.00.

96 of 172

Classifications of p
power sources
Power source
Electric motor or
constant-speed
gas turbine
water turbine,,
variable-speed
drive
Multicylinder
engine

Driven machine

Li h shock
Light
h k

Fans and low-speed

low speed
centrifugal pumps etc.

moderate shock

high-speed centrifugal
pumps etc.

Heavy shock
97 of 172

continuous-duty
ggenerator

Uniform

Rock crushers etc

Ko from Table 9-6

Overload Factors (Table 9-6)

Table 9-6 overload factor as function of driving power source

and driven machine.

98 of 172

Size factor Ks

Wt Pd
K o K s K m K B K v (9 - 15)
St =
FJ

The size factor can be taken to be 1.00 for most

gears.
gears
for gears with large-size teeth or larger widths, a
value
l greater than
h 1.00
1 00 is
i recommended.
d d
Reference 13,Table 9-7.

99 of 172

Size Factors (Table 9-7)

Table 9-7 Size factor as a function of diametral

pitch or module.
module

100 of 172

Wt Pd
Load-distribution factor
K o K s K m K B K v (9 - 15)
St =
Km
FJ

If the intensity of loading on all parts of all teeth in

contact at any given time were uniform, the value of Km
would be 1.00. But this is seldom the case.

Factors affect Km
Factor cause misalignment of the teeth on the
pinion relative to those on the gear:
1. Inaccurate ggear teeth;;
2.misalignment of the axes of shafts carrying gears;
3. Elastic deformations of the gears, shafts,
bearings, housing, and support structures;
4. ;
5 ;
5.
6. .
101 of 172

How to minimize the load-distribution factor

1. Accurate teeth ((a high
g quality
q
y number);
);
2. Narrow face widths;
3 Gears centered between bearings(straddle mounting);
3.
4. Short shaft spans between bearings;
5. Large shaft diameters (high stiffness)
g , stiff housings;
g;
6. Rigid,
7. High precision and small clearance on all drive
components.

102 of 172

Equation for computing load-distribution

factor Km:

K m = 1 .0 + C pf + C ma

(9 - 16)

where C pf = pinion proportion factor (Fig.9 - 16)

C ma = mesh alignment factor (Fig.9
(Fig 9 - 17)

103 of 172

Pinion Proportion Factor

K m = 1 .0 + C pff + C ma (9 - 16)

Where
bw is F (face width)in mm

104 of 172

Mesh Alignment Factor K m = 1 .0 + C pf + C ma (9 - 16)

105 of 172

Open gearing vs. enclosed gearing

Open
p ggearing:
g
Bearings are mounted on structural elements of the
machine, relatively large misalignments;

Enclosed gearing (or enclosed gear units):

Bearings
B
i
are mounted
t d in
i a special
i l designed
d i d hosing
h i
that provide more rigidity than for open gearing.
Precision enclosed gearing/extra-precision enclosed
gearing:
refer to tolerances on individual dimension.

106 of 172

Rim thickness factor KB

Wt Pd
K o K s K m K B K v (9 - 15)
St =
FJ

Reason of introducing KB
The basic analysis used to develop the Lewis
equation assumes that the gear tooth behaves as a
cantilever attached to a perfectly rigid support
structure at its
i base.
b
If the rim of the gear is too thin, it can deform and
cause the
th point
i t off maximum
i
stress
t
to
t shift
hift from
f
the area of the gear-tooth fillet to a point within
the rim.
rim

107 of 172

KB vs. backup ratio,mB

Backup ratio mB
m B = t R / ht
t R = rim thickness
h t = whole depth of the gear tooth
For m B > 1.2, the rim is sufficiently strong and stiff to support the tooth,
andd K B = 1.0.
10
The K B factor can also be used in the vicinity of a keyseat
where
h a small
ll thickness
thi k
off metal
t l occurs between
b t
th top
the
t off the
th keyseat
k
t
and the bottom of the tooth sapce.
108 of 172

Dynamic
y
Factor Kv

Wt Pd
K o K s K m K B K v (9 - 15)
St =
FJ

R
Reason
off iintroducing
t d i K
Kv:
Accounts for the factor that the actual load subjected
to the tooth is higher than the transmitted load alone.
The
Th value
l off Kv
K depends
d
d on the
th accuracy off the
th tooth
t th
profile, the elastic properties of the tooth, and the
speedd with
ith which
hi h the
th teeth
t th come into
i t contact.
t t

109 of 172

Notes on Kv
The quality 5 gears should not be used at pitch line
speeds above 2500ft/min.
The
Th dynamic
d
i factors
f t are approximate.
i t
For severe applications, especially those operating
above 4000ft/min, approaches taking into account
the material properties, the mass and inertia of the
gears, and the actual error in the tooth form should
be used to predict the dynamic load
(reference10,13,14).

110 of 172

Dynamic Factor (Figure 9-19 )

Dynamic
y
factor as a function of pitch-line
p
velocityy and
transmission accuracy level number (quality number).
111 of 172

9-9 Selection of gear material based on

bending stress
For safe operating
operating, specify a material to ensure

S t < S at
Allowable stress numbers, Satt, were given for a
variety of commonly used gear materials.
Condition of Sat:
Temperature less than 250F;
107 cycles of tooth loading;
Reliability of 99%:less than one failure in 100;
Safetyy factor of 1.00
112 of 172

Adjusted Allowable Bending Stress

Numb s ,S
Numbers
Sat

'
S
Condition of Sat:
at = S at Y N /( SF K R ) (9 - 17)
Temperature less than 250F;
107 cycles of tooth loading;

Different level of expected life (YN)

Reliability of 99%:less than one failure in 100;
Different level of reliability(YN)
Safety
f ffactor off 1.00

113 of 172

Uncertainties in design analyisis

analyisis,
material characteristics etc.

Modification factors for Sat

S at' = S atYN /( SF K R ) (9 - 17)
YN: stress cycle factor (table 9-20)
KR: reliability
li bili factor
f
( bl 9-9)
(table
9 9)
SF: factor of safety (no published data)

114 of 172

Stress Cycle Factor,YN

S at' = S atY N /(( SF K R ) ((9 - 17))

Condition off Sat

Temperature less than 250F;
107 cycles of tooth loading;
Reliability of 99%:less than one failure in 100;
Safety factor of 1.00

If the teeth of the gear being analyzed are expected

to eexperience
perience a number
n mber of cycles
c cles of loading much
m ch
different from 107. YN

115 of 172

Expected number of cycles of loading, Nc

In Figure 99-20,
20, YN is decided by the expected number of
cycles of loading:

N c = (60)( L)(n)(q)

(9 - 18)

where N C = expected
p
number of cycles
y
of loadingg
L = design life in hours
n = rotational
i l speed
d off the
h gear in
i rpm
q = number of load applicatio
pp
ns pper revolution

116 of 172

Determination of design life, L

N c = (60)( L)( n )( q)

(9 - 18)

Design life is a design decision based on the

application.
As a gguideline,, we will use a set of data created for
use in bearing design and reported here as Table 9-8.
otherwise we will use a design life
Unless stated otherwise,
L=20,000h as listed for general industrial machines.
The normal number of load applications per
revolution for any given tooth is typically one.
117 of 172

Reliability Factor,
KR
Table 9-9
9 9 gives data that adjust for the design
reliability desired.
These
Th
data
d t are based
b d on statistical
t ti ti l analyses
l
off
failure data.

118 of 172

Factor of Safety,
y SF
The factor of safety may be used to account for following:
1. Uncertainties in the design analysis;
2 Uncertainties in material characteristics;
2.
3. Uncertainties in manufacturing tolerances
It
I may also
l be
b usedd to provide
id an extra measure off safety
f
in critical applications.
No general guidelines are published, and designers must
evaluate the conditions of each application.
A modest value for factor of safety should suffice
between 1.00 and 1.50.
119 of 172

Procedure for selecting gear materials for

bending stress
S t < S at'

YN
Wt Pd
K o K S K m K B K v = S t < S at
SF K R
FJ

(9 - 19)

KR(SF)
S t < Sat
YN
Wt Pd
SF K R
(
Ko K S Km K B Kv )
< S at
FJ
YN
120 of 172

To be decided by
specifying a
material (Section
9 7)
9-7)

List of terms
W t = tangential
g
force on g
gear teeth
P d = diametral

= ((63000)P/n
)

pitch of the gear

F = face width of the g

gear
J = geometry factor for bending stress (Fig.9 - 15)
K o = overload factor (Table 9 - 6)
Ks = size factor (Table 9 - 7)
K m = mesh alignment factor = 1.0 + C pf + C ma ( Fig . 9 16 ,9 17 )
K B = rim thickness factor (Fig.9 - 18)
K v = velocity factor (Fig. 9 - 19)
K R = reliabilit y factor (Table 9 - 9)
S F = factor of safety (design decision)
Y N = bending strength stress cycle number (Fig.9 - 20)
121 of 172

Material selection principles

Consider first whether the material should be steel, cast iron,
b
bronze,
or plastic.
l i from
f
application
li i condition
di i
For steel materials:
through-hardened
steel ? ((Figg 9-8))

case-hardened steel ?
(Table 9-2, Fig 9-12.13)

Y
1.determine the required
hardness.
2.specify a steel material
3.heat treatment
(Appendices 3 and 4.)
4)
122 of 172

1. carburized steelsAppendix 5
2. flame or induction
hardeningspecify a material with
a good hardenability . Appendix 4.
3. case depths for surface-hardened
steels.
t l Fig.9-10
Fi 9 10 or 9-11
9 11

9-10 Pitting
g resistance of gear
g
teeth
Failure mode I: gear teeth breakage Bending
stress number St St <Sat(related to gear
geometry) Section 9-8
Select gear material by bending stress. Section 9-9
u e mode
ode II:: gear
ge teeth
ee pitting
p
g co
contact
c stress
s ess
Failure
surface contact Section 9-10
y contact stress. Section 9-11
Select ggear material by

123 of 172

Pitting
g
Pitting is the phenomenon in which
small particles are removed from
the surface of the tooth because
of the
o
t e high
g contact
co tact forces
o ces that
t at are
ae
present between mating teeth.
Pitting is actually the fatigue
failure of the tooth surface.
Problem with pitting: Prolonged
operation after pitting begins
causes the tooth form to change
d
dramatically,
ti ll causing
i vibration
ib ti
and noise. Designer to prevent
pitting from starting.
starting
124 of 172

Hertz Stress (contact stress)

Th
The force
f
exerted
t d by
b the
th driving
d i i tooth
t th on the
th mating
ti
tooth is theoretically applied to the line of contact
between the tooth profiles.
profiles
Act
Actually,
all due
d e to the elasticity
elasticit of the material of the
teeth, the force is spread over a small rectangular
area The resulting stress is highly concentrated
area.
around the area of application
Contact Stress or a Hertz Stress.
Stress

125 of 172

Calculation hypothesis
yp
The development of the equation
for the contact stress on gear teeth
is based on the analysis for two
cylinders under a radial load.
load
The load on the teeth is the total
normal load:
WN = Wt / cos

(9 - 21)

Where
WN is the load acting normal to the
tooth surface
Wt: transmitted load acting tangential to
the pitch line
: pressure angle

126 of 172

8-10

Hertz contact stress on gear

teeth
The resulting Hertz contact stress due to this load is
1
1 v 2p 1 vG2 cos sin mG

Ep
E
2
mG + 1
G

where,
h
i addition
in
ddi i to the
h terms already
l d defined,
d fi d

c =

Wt
FD p

D p = pitch diameter of the pinion

v P = Poisson' s ratio for the pinion material
v G = Poisson' s ratio for the gear material
E p = mod ules of elasticity for the pinion material
E G = mod ules of elasticityy for the ggear material
m G = gear ratio = N G / N P

127 of 172

(9 - 22)

Elastic Coefficient Cp
c =

Wt
FD p

1
1 v 2p 1 vG2 cos sin mG

2
E
E
mG + 1
p
G

[(1 v

2
p

)E

1
+ (1 v G2 ) / E G

(9 - 22)

(9 - 23)

Cp depends
d
d on th
the material
t i l properties
ti
Table 9-10 gives value of Cp for commonly used
materials
t i l
128 of 172

Geometry factor I
c =

Wt
FD p

1
1 v 2p 1 vG2 cos sin mG

2
E
E
mG + 1
p
G

(9 - 22)

1
I=
cos sin mG
2
mG + 1

The geometry factor, I is dependent on the tooth geometry

and on the ggear ratio.

Values can be found in Fig.9-21.

129 of 172

Contact stress number (9-25)

c =

Wt
FD p

1
1 v 2p 1 vG2 cos sin mG

E
E
2
mG + 1
p
G

Substituting Cp and I

C = Cp

Wt
FD p I

((9 - 24))

Apply
pp y several factors

SC = C p
130 of 172

Wt K 0 K s K m k v
FD p I

(9 - 25)

(9 - 22)

Modification factors in contact stress

number
b
SC = C p

Wt K 0 K s K m k v
FD p I

(9 - 25)

1. Sc has no rim thickness

factor KB;
Ko-Overload factor
2. The value for the rest
KsSize
Size factor
factors can be taken to
KmLoad distribution factor
be the same as the
KvDynamic
Dynamic factor
values for bending
stress analysis.
y
For
YN
Wt Pd
Bending: FJ K o K S K m K B K v = S t < S at SF K R
131 of 172

(9 - 19)

9-11 Selection of gear material based on

contact stress
Pittingg resulting
g from the contact stress is a
different failure phenomenon from tooth failure
due to bending,
g, an independent
p
specification
p
for
suitable materials for the pinion and the gear must
be made.
To select a gear material based on contact stress:

S c < S ac
Contact
stress
number
b
132 of 172

Where to find Sac?

Allowable
ll
bl contact
stress
(
(strength/hardness)
h/h d
)

Modification factors to SacWhy and

which
Condition of Sac (section 9-6):
107 cycles
l off loading
l di
a reliability of 99%
the
h material
i l temperature is
i under
d 250F.

Z N CH
S ac
> Sc
( SF )k R
KR: Reliability factor (same as that for bending stress)
ZN: Pitting resistance stress cycle factor
SF: Factor of safety(same as that for bending stress)
CH: Hardness ratio factor
133 of 172

Z N CH
S c, <
Pitting
g resistance stress cycle
y
factor,
ZNS ac ( SF )k
R
Condition of Sac ((section 9-6):
)
107 cycles of loading
a reliability of 99%
the material temperature is under 250F.

Accounts for an expected number of contacts

different from 107 ZN
ZN depends on the expected number of cycles
of loading Nc:
Where have
N

134 of 172

= ( 60 )( L )( n )( q ) (9 - 18)

we see Nc
before?

Figure
g
9-22

The number of cycles of contact is computed from equation (918) andd iis the
h same as that
h usedd for
f bending.
b di
General design practice would use the upper line of this range.
Critical applications where pitting and tooth wear must be
minimal may use the lower part of the range.
135 of 172

Factor of safety,
y SF
Th
The factor
f t off safety
f t is
i based
b d on the
th same
conditions as described for bending, and often the
same value
l would
ld bbe used
d for
f both
b th bending
b di andd
pitting resistance.
If there are different levels of uncertainty, a
different value should be chosen.
A modest value for factor of safety should suffice
between 1.00 and 1.50.

136 of 172

Hardness ratio factor,CH

making
ki th
the pinion
i i teeth
t th harder
h d than
th the
th gear teeth
t th
Good gear design practice
Wh CH?
Why
the gear teeth are smoothed and work-hardened
during operation
operation. This increases the gear capacity
with regard to pitting resistance is accounted for
by the factor CH.
CH is applied for the calculations for the gear only,
not the pinion.

137 of 172

Figure 9-23 Hardness ratio factor, CH(throughhardened)

CH depends
p
on the
ratio of the hardness
of the ppinion and the
hardness of the gear
Decide CH by
y ggear
ratio mG=NG/Np
the ggiven curves are
for hardness ratios
between 1.2 and 1.7.
For the ggear only,
y,
not for pinion!
138 of 172

Procedure for selecting gear materials for pitting

resistance
Z N CH
S c < S ac
( SF )k R

(9 - 26)

K R ( SF )
s C < s ac (9 - 27)
ZNCH
Where can I
Wh
find Sac?

139 of 172

Figure 9-9 in Section 9-7: gear material

Procedure for determining the required

properties of most metallic materials
SC = C p

Wt K 0 K s K m k v
FD p I

(9 - 25)

K R ( SF )
s C < s ac ((9 - 27))
ZNCH

Refer to data in section 9-7, gear materials to select

a suitable material.
Consider first whether the material should be steel,
cast iron,, bronze,, or pplastic. Then consult the related
tables of data.
140 of 172

Which steel materials to choose:

through-hardened
steel ? (Fig 9-9)

case-hardened steel ?
(Table 9-3)

Y
1.determine the required
hardness.
2.specify a steel material
3 heat treatment
3.heat
(Appendices 3 and 4.)

1. carburized steelsAppendix 5
2 flame or induction
2.
hardeningspecify a material with
a good hardenability . Appendix 4.
3. case depths for surface-hardened
steels. Fig.9-10 or 9-11

This is similar to that for material selection by bending

stress just different Figures or Tables to be referred to!
stress,
141 of 172

Summary
y
1. Stress analysis in Gear Tooth
Bending
di stress consideration
id i
Contact stress consideration
f il
failure:
pitting,
i i hypothesis:
h
h i cylinders
li d under
d a radial
di l
load, modification factors
The
h four
f
variables
i bl producing
d i the
h most significant
i ifi
effect on stresses are: diametral pitch, pitch diameter
off the
h pinion,
i i face
f
width,
id h andd quality
li number
b
Open gearing and enclosed gearing units
2. Gear material
i l selection
l i procedures
d
based
b d on stress
calculation (bending or contact)
142 of 172

Summary-bending stress consideration

143 of 172

Summary- contact stress

consideration

144 of 172

Summary-gear material selection

procedure
1. Decide the type of material;
2. For steel material:
through-hardened
steel ?

case-hardened steel ?

Y
1.determine the required
hardness.
2.specify a steel material
3.heat treatment
(Appendices 3 and 4.)
4)
145 of 172

1. carburized steelsAppendix 5
2. flame or induction
hardeningspecify a material with
a good hardenability . Appendix 4.
3. case depths for surface-hardened
steels.
t l

Chapter
p
9 Spur
p Gear Design
g

Assignments:
P313: Problem 4; P387: Problem 2.
Due: April 2, next Thursday, after class.
146 of 172

Chapter 9 Spur gear designind x

index
Class I, II, and III
Th big
The
bi picture
i
9-1
Objectives of this chapter
92
9-2
Concepts from previous chapters
9-3
Forces on gear teeth
9-4
Gear manufacture
9-5
Gear quality
99-66
Allowable stress numbers
9-7
Gear material
9-8
Stress in ggear teeth
9-9
Selection of gear material based on bending force
9-10 Pitting resistance of gear teeth
9-11 Selection of gear material based on contact stress
147 of 172

Chapter 9 Spur gear design-index

(Cont d)
(Contd)
Review
9-12 Design of spur gears
9 13 Gear design for the metric module system
9-13
9-14 Computer-aided spur gear design and analysis
9-15 Use of the spur gear design spreadsheet
9-16 Power-transmittingg capacity
p y
9-17 Practical considerations for gears and interfaces with
other elements
8.1
S
Summary
off th
the chapter
h t
148 of 172

Review
1. Stress analysis in gear tooth
Bending
di stress consideration
id i
Contact stress consideration
f il
failure:
pitting,
i i hypothesis:
h
h i cylinders
li d under
d a radial
di l
load, modification factors
The
h four
f
variables
i bl producing
d i the
h most significant
i ifi
effect on stresses are: diametral pitch, pitch diameter
off the
h pinion,
i i face
f
width,
id h andd quality
li number
b
Open gearing and enclosed gearing units
2. Gear material selection procedures based on stress
calculation ((bending
g or contact))
149 of 172

Reviewbending stress consideration

Lewis
equation:

t =

Wt Pd
FY

Ko: overload factor

Ks: size factor
Km: load distribution factor
KB: rim thickness factor
Kv: dynamic factor

150 of 172

Reviewcontact stress
consideration

151 of 172

9-12

Design
g of spur
p gears
g

Known:
the required speeds of rotation of the pinion and the gear
the amount of power that the drive must transmit are known.
the
th environment
i
t andd operating
ti conditions
diti
the type of driving device and the driven machine.
S l ti
Solution:
the type of gears to use;
the arrangement of the gears on their shafts;
tthee materials
ate a s of
o gears,
gea s, including
c ud g their
t e heat
eat treatment;
t eat e t;

the geometry of the gears.

152 of 172

There iis no one b

Th
bestt solution
l ti to
t a gear design
d i
problem. Several good designs are possible.

Design
g objectives
j

153 of 172

The resulting drive should be compact and small

Operate smoothly and quietly;
Have long life;
Be low in cost;;
Be easy to manufacture;
Be compatible with the other elements in the
machine, such as bearings, shafts, the housing, the
driver and the driven machine
driver,
machine.

Design
procedure
1. Propose a geometry that satisfies the required velocity ratio and
application limitations,
limitations such as center distance and physical size.
size
2. Choose material (steel, cast iron) tentatively.
3 Choose
3.
Ch
a ttrial
i l diametral
di
t l pitch.
it h
4. Determine the loads, face width, and design factors.
5. Compute St on the pinion teeth;
If a reasonable value results, the procedure continues. Otherwise, a
new pitch
it h or revised
i d geometry
t is
i selected.
l t d
6. Compute Sc to check against the required material properties.
7. Make final specifications of the materials for the pinion and the
gear to satisfy the requirements of both strength and pitting
resistance.
154 of 172

Design guideline Choose Pd, diametral

pitch
Figures 9-25 shows a graph of power capacity of a pair of
steell gears versus the
h speedd off rotation
i off the
h pinion,
i i with
ih
several values of diametral pitch shown.
The hardness for the pinion and the gear used for these
curves are in the middle range of possible values for steel
(approximately HB300).
The curves assume a uniform load (Ko=1.0) and good
alignment (Km=1.0). If your application has higher values for
either factor,
factor the entire set of curves is shifted downward.
downward
you should choose a lower value for diametral pitch than
indicated on the graph.

155 of 172

Figure 9
9-25
25

Standard diametral pitches

compared with tooth size

156 of 172

Design guidelines
guidelineschoice
choice of the face width F
Although
g a wide range
g of face widths is ppossible,, the following
g
limits are used for general machine drive gears:
8 / Pd < F < 16 / Pd
Nominal value of F = 12/Pd

Also,

F < Dp

(9 - 28)

Pitch diameter of the pinion

An upper
pp limit is pplaced on the face width to minimize problems
p
with alignment.
A very wide face width increases the chance for less than full
face loading of the teeth. When the face width is less than the
lower limit of equation(9-28), it is probable that a more compact
design can be achieved with a different pitch.
157 of 172

Design guidelinesfor an optmimal design

Decreasing Pd larger teeth generally lower stresses.
stresses
means a larger face width decreases stress
and increases surface durability.
Increasing Dp decreases the transmitted loadlowers the
stresses, and improves
p
the surface durability.
y
Increasing the face width F lowers the stresses and improves
the surface durability, with lesser impact than changes of Pd and
Dp .

158 of 172

Design guidelinesfor an optimal design(Contd)

Gears with more and smaller teeth run more smoothlyy and
quietly than gears with fewer and larger teeth.
Standard values of diametral pitch should be used ease of
manufacture
f t
andd lower
l
costt (see
(
table
t bl 8-2).
8 2)
Using high-alloy steels with high surface hardness the most
compact system, but the cost is higher.
Using very accurate gears (with ground or shaved teeth)
lower dynamic loads and consequently lower stresses and
improved surface durability, but the cost is higher.
The number of teeth in the pinion should generally be as
small as possible to make the system compact.
compact But the
possibility of interference is greater with fewer teeth. Ensure
no interference will occur!
159 of 172

9-16 Power transmitting

m
g capacity
p
y
IIs th
the capacity
it when
h the
th tangential
t
ti l load
l d causes the
th
expected stress to equal the allowable stress
number
b will
ill all
ll off the
th modifying
dif i factors
f t
considered.
The capacity should be computed for both bending
and pitting resistance and for both the pinion and
the gear.

160 of 172

9-16 Power transmitting

m
g capacity
p
y
Wh
When similar
i il materials
t i l are usedd for
f both
b th the
th
pinion and the gear, it is likely that the pinion will
b critical
be
iti l for
f bending
b di stress.
t
But
B t the
th mostt critical
iti l
condition is usually pitting resistance. The
f ll i relationship
following
l ti hi can be
b usedd to
t compute
t the
th
power-transmitting capacity. In this analysis, it is
assumedd that
th t the
th operating
ti temperature
t
t
off the
th
gears and their lubricants is 250F and that gear
are produced
d d with
ith the
th appropriate
i t surface
f
finish.
fi i h

161 of 172

Bending
g
Wr Pd
YN
K 0 K s K m K B K v = S t < S at
FJ
( SF ) K R
satYN FJ
Wt =
( SF ) K R K 0 K s K m K B K v K d

(9 - 19)

(9 - 29)

Wt = (126000)( P ) /(n P D p )

(9 - 6)

satYN FJ
(126000)(P)
=
np Dp
( SF ) K R K 0 K s K m K B K v Pd

(9-30)
162 of 172

Pitting
g

Squaring both sides and solving for Wt

substituting into the power equations

(9-31)
163 of 172

9-17 Practical considerations for gears and

interfaces with other elements

Types of gear blank

S
Shaft,
a , key,
ey, axial
a a fixing,
g, housing
ous g
Lubrication

164 of 172

Types
yp of gear
g
blank
Gear shaft
for precision
machine

Cast blank
with spoke
structure (da
>500mm or
dp >8.0 in )
165 of 172

web structure
(da 500mm or
dp 5.0 in-8.0 in)

Assembly
structure
da600mm

Shaft, key, axial fixing, housing

In general machine design, gears are usually
mountedd on separate shafts,
h f with
i h the
h torque
transmitted from the shaft to the gear through
the key
key. This setup provides a positive means
of transmitting the torque while permitting
easy assembly and disassembly
disassembly.
The axial location of the gear must be
provided by another means
means, such as a
shoulder on the shaft, a retaining ring, or a
spacer.
p
The housing design must provide adequate
support
pp for the bearings
g and protection
p
of the
interior components.
166 of 172

Lubrication

Whyy gear
g drives need lubrication?
The action of spur gear teeth is a combination of
rolling and sliding, and because of the high local
forces exerted at the gear faces, adequate
lubrication is critical to smoothness of operation
p
and gear life.
A continuous supplyy of oil at the pitch line is
desirable for most gears unless they are lightly
loaded or operate only intermittently.
The primary functions of gear lubricants are to
reduce frication at the mesh and to keep operating
temperatures at acceptable
bl levels.
l l
167 of 172

Types
yp of lubrication
Splash-type lubrication :
one of the gears in a pair dips into an oil supply sump and
faces of the case; then it flows down, in a controlled
fashion onto the pitch line.
fashion,
line Simultaneously,
Simultaneously the oil can be
directed to the bearings that support the shafts. One
difficulty with the splash type of lubrication is that the oil
i churned;
is
h
d at high
hi h gear speeds,
d excessive
i heat
h can be
b
generated, and foaming can occur.

168 of 172

Types
yp of lubrication (contd)
(
)
A positive oil circulation system is used for high-speed
high speed and high
highcapacity systems. A separate pump draws the oil from the sump
and delivers it at a controlled rate to the meshing teeth.

169 of 172

Concerns of lubrication
It is essential that a continuous film of lubricant be
maintained between the mating tooth surfaces of highly
loaded gears and that there be a sufficient flow rate and
t t l quantity
total
tit off oil
il to
t maintain
i t i cooll temperatures.
t
t
Heat is generated by the meshing gear teeth, by the
bearings, and by the churning of the oil. This heat must be
dissipated from the oil to the case or to some other external
heat-exchange device in order to keep the oil itself below
160F ( approximately
i t l 70C).
70C)
Above this temperature, the lubricating ability of the oil, as
indicated by its viscosity, is severely decreased. Also,
chemical changes can be produced in the oil, decreasing its
lubricity.
170 of 172

Summary
y of Chapter
p
9
Force analysis: Wn, Wt, Wr, values and directions
Material selection:Steel(with heat treatment), iron,
bronze,, plastic
p
Failure modes of spur gears: bending, pitting and more
Stress analysis:
1. Bending stress analysis & select material based on bending stress
2 Contact
2.
C t t stress
t
analysis
l i & select
l t material
t i l based
b d on contact
t t stress
t
3. Open & enclosed gearing, four variables that affect stress

Design of spur gear:

standards, procedures, power capacity, practical
considerations.
171 of 172

Assignments:
g
P313: Problem 4;
P387: Problem 2.
Due: April 2, Thursday, after class

172 of 172