ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL

TECHNICAL PAPER

Title No. 112-S66

Modeling of Near-Surface-Mounted Carbon FiberReinforced Polymer for Strengthening Reinforced Concrete

Beams in Sustained Load
by Yail J. Kim
This paper presents a theoretical model for predicting the longterm behavior of near-surface-mounted (NSM) carbon fiberreinforced polymer (CFRP) strips embedded in a reinforced
concrete beam subjected to creep-induced distress. The concept
of age-adjusted effective properties is employed, including timedependent material characteristics. Upon validation of the modeling
approach using a previously conducted test program, a parametric
investigation is performed to examine the effect of various material
parameters such as concrete strength, CFRP modulus, and reinforcement ratio. A design proposal is made to facilitate NSM CFRP
technologies for practical strengthening application. Four design
categories are suggested depending on the level of sustained load.
The proposed long-term design factors are in conformance with the
time-dependent multipliers of ACI 318-11.
Keywords: carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP); long-term; modeling;
near-surface-mounted (NSM); strengthening; sustained load.

INTRODUCTION
Extensive research has been carried out to understand
the flexure of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-strengthened beams for over a couple of decades; the majority of
technical emphasis was paid to short-term responses.1 The
time-dependent behavior of such structural members is
complicated and hard to predict because a number of parameters are engaged simultaneously. ACI 440.2R-082 recognizes that the long-term behavior of FRP systems is unclear
and recommends further research. Several experimental
and predictive methods were reported to address the creep
behavior of concrete members strengthened with externally
bonded FRP sheets. Plevris and Triantafillou3 proposed an
analytical method for the long-term curvature of reinforced
concrete beams retrofitted with FRP laminates, based on the
age-adjusted effective modulus method. A numerical parametric study was done with various strengthening considerations (for example, fiber types). It was found that carbon
FRP (CFRP) and glass FRP (GFRP) showed favorable longterm strengthening effects, whereas aramid FRP (AFRP)
was not suitable because of its substantial creep deformation. Tan and Saha4 discussed two approaches to predict the
time-dependent deflection of GFRP-strengthened concrete
beams: the effective modulus method and the adjusted effective modulus method. Predicted deflections were compared
with experimental data. The age-adjusted effective modulus
method revealed better prediction than the effective modulus
method. Sobuz et al.5 detailed a prediction method for the
long-term deflection of reinforced concrete beams upgraded
ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

with CFRP sheets. The approach taken was basically identical to the one used by Tan and Saha.4 A test program was
conducted to evaluate the modeling method. The level of
sustained load was 56% of the control capacity, applied
for a period of 180 days (4320 hours). CFRP strengthening
decreased long-term deflections of the beams. The predicted
long-term deflections tended to overestimate test values.
Although some endeavors have been made on predicting
the time-dependent behavior of FRP-strengthened flexural
members, there still are significant needs for long-term
design criteria in all aspects of FRP application. Insufficient information is available when conducting a strengthening design with near-surface-mounted (NSM) CFRP for
constructed reinforced concrete beams. In particular, the
effects of sustained intensity, a load duration period, and
service environments are not yet understood. A lack of
long-term design factors causes incomplete implementation of NSM CFRP technology from a practice perspective.
This paper deals with a theoretical model for predicting the
long-term strain of NSM CFRP subjected to creep-induced
distress. The concept of the age-adjusted effective modulus
method was employed, which was proven to be robust for
predicting the time-dependent behavior of a reinforced
concrete member.3,4,6,7 The modeling approach was validated with test data and led to understanding the effect of
various engineering parameters on the long-term behavior
of NSM CFRP-strengthened beams. A design proposal was
developed to help implement such a strengthening method
on site.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Existing investigations related to CFRP-strengthened
members are concerned with long-term deflections based
on effective material moduli,4,5 while the time-dependent
response of the CFRP and associated effects are not emphasized, which is a major consideration for strengthening
design. In addition, most investigations do not explicitly
consider specific service conditions (that is, sustained intensity and exposure environment) and corresponding consequences are not known. NSM CFRP is a promising technique
ACI Structural Journal, V. 112, No. 6, November-December 2015.
MS No. S-2014-137.R3, doi: 10.14359/51687659, received January 2, 2015, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright 2015, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including authors
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journals date if the discussion
is received within four months of the papers print publication.

805

Fig. 1Beam details. (Note: Units in mm; 1 mm = 0.0394in.)

for improving the structural performance of constructed
members; however, limited information has been provided
on its long-term behavior. A theoretical model is proposed
in this research program to examine the time-dependent
behavior of NSM CFRP subjected to sustained load. The
model is further used to develop long-term multipliers for
design and practice.
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
A previously conducted test program8 was used to validate the proposed theoretical approach. Of interest was the
time-dependent response of NSM CFRP embedded in a reinforced concrete beam subjected to sustained intensity. The
following are the experimental details.
Materials
The 28-day concrete strength in compression (fc) was
19.8 MPa (2870 psi). The steel reinforcement had a nominal
yield strength of 414 MPa (60 ksi). The CFRP strip dimensions were 16 mm (0.63 in.) wide by 2 mm (0.08 in.) thick,
including a tensile modulus of 124 GPa (18,000 ksi) and
corresponding strength of 2068 MPa (300 ksi).9 The adhesive used for bonding the CFRP had a tensile strength of
24MPa (3500 psi) and a modulus of 2.2 GPa (320 ksi).
Details of test beams
Reinforced concrete beams (100 mm wide x 65 mm deep
x 1240 mm long [4 in. x 6.5 in. x 4.1 ft]) were prepared and
strengthened with the NSM CFRP strip. Each beam encompassed two No. 3 longitudinal reinforcing bars (9.5 mm
[0.38 in.], As = 71 mm2 [0.11 in.2] 2 = 142 mm2 [0.22 in.2])
and No. 2 shear stirrups (6.4 mm [0.25 in.], Av = 32 mm2
[0.05 in.2] each) at a spacing of 75 mm (3 in.). The strengthening scheme included one or two layers of CFRP (Fig. 1).
The size of a groove for the NSM application (13 mm wide x
25 mm deep [0.5 x 1 in.]) was designed as per ACI 440.2R08.2 The level of sustained load reported in this study was
25% and 50% of the static capacity of a strengthened beam
(Pu = 67.5 kN [15.2 kip]), designated 25%Pu and 50%Pu
hereafter. The measured cracking load of the strengthened
beam was 11.4 kN (2.6 kip). To measure the long-term
response of these strengthened beams, strain gauges were
bonded to the NSM CFRP strip at midspan.
Long-term loading
A clamping system was designed to apply long-term load,
as shown in Fig. 2(a). The system consisted of square steel
806

Fig. 2Application of long-term load: (a) jacking operation; and (b) long-term response monitoring.
tubes (50 x 50 mm [2 x 2 in.]), a hydraulic ram, a load cell,
and threaded rods and nuts. The assembled loading apparatus was jacked (Fig. 2(a)) up to the predefined sustained
load levels for each pair of the strengthened beams (that is,
25% and 50% of the static capacity). To address a potential loss in long-term load due to load transfer (seating loss),
10% more load was applied to the necessary jacking load. A
distance of 444 mm (17.5 in.) was maintained between the
clamping points, while the distance between two supports
of the beam was 1140 mm (44.9 in.) (Fig. 1). Once the
jacking operation was completed, the long-term load was
transferred from the jacking apparatus to the beams by
tightening nuts (Fig. 2(b)). The response of the strengthened beams for the first 30 minutes is shown in Fig. 3. The
measured CFRP strains tended to stabilize after 10 minutes
of the jacking operation. The load was then maintained for
4000hours, following previous experimental investigations
as to the long-term behavior of FRP composites for structural application.10-13

ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

Fig. 4Schematic of predictive modeling approach.

Fig. 3Jacking operation and load transfer.
THEORY
An analytical approach was proposed to predict the longterm behavior of NSM CFRP subjected to sustained load.
The following is a summary of fundamental assumptions
and model development.
Assumptions
The basic assumptions made for the present model formulation are as follows:
Plane sections remain plane after bending
All materials are homogeneous
Interfacial slip between the materials (that is, concrete,
steel, and CFRP) does not take place
The creep and shrinkage of a strengthened beam are
estimated independently
The swelling and autogenous shrinkage of concrete are
negligible
Shrinkage is uniformly distributed across the strengthened beam section
Progressive cracking in concrete is not accounted for
(that is, sectional properties are based on those before
and after cracking)
CFRP is a linear elastic material and its constituent
fibers and resin act together.
Instantaneous response
When a reinforced concrete beam strengthened with NSM
CFRP is loaded in bending (Fig. 1 and 4), flexural strain and
stress across the section may be obtained using

i = oi + i y and i = Eci = Ec(oi + i y)

(1)

where i and i are the initial strain and stress across the
section at an arbitrary depth y, respectively; Ec is the elastic
modulus of the concrete; i is the initial curvature of the
section; and oi is the top fiber concrete strain of the section
which is in compression. The axial force N and bending
moment M applied to the strengthened section are given
bydefinition

N = i dA = Ec ( oi + i y )dA
= Ec oi A + Ec i Q = Ec ( oi A + i Q)

(2)

where A, Q and I are the cross-sectional area, first moment

of area, and the moment of inertia of the transformed section
about the top fiber of the strengthened beam, respectively.
Given sustained load applied to an existing member is typically within a service range, the sectional response of the
strengthened beam can be linear elastic. Combining Eq. (2)
and Eq. (3) yields
i =

NQ MA

Ec Q 2 IA

(4)

From the strain profile of the beam section at midspan,

oi = ic

(5)

where c is the neutral axis depth of the transformed beam

section measured from the extreme compression fiber, which
can be refined further
cun =

ccr =

Ac h / 2 + (ns 1) As d s + (n f 1) Af d f
Ac + (ns 1) As + (n f 1) Af

for bottom < fr (6a)

(ns As + n f Af ) + (ns As + n f Af ) 2 + 2b(ns As d s + n f Af d f )

b

for bottom fr

(6b)

where cun and ccr are the uncracked and cracked neutral axes
of the section, respectively; Ac is the cross-sectional area of
the concrete; ns = Es/Ec; nf = Ef/Ec; As and Af are the crosssectional areas of the steel and CFRP, respectively; ds and df
are the effective depths of the steel and CFRP, respectively;
h and b are the depth and width of the beam, respectively;
and bottom and fr are the tensile stress of the concrete beam at
the extreme tension fiber and the modulus of rupture, respectively. The first moment of area and the moment of inertia of
the transformed section are calculated
Qun = bh2/2 + (ns 1)Asds + (nf 1)Af df for bottom < fr (7a)

Qcr = bccr2/2 + nsAsds + nfAf df for bottom fr

(7b)

Iun = bh3/3 + (ns 1)Asds2 + (nf 1)Af df2 for bottom < fr (8a)

Icr = bccr3/3 + nsAsds2 + nfAf df2 for bottom fr

(8b)

M = i ydA = Ec oi ydA + Ec i y 2 dA = Ec ( oi Q + i I ) (3)

ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

807

where Qun and Qcr are the first moment of area of the
uncracked and cracked beam sections, respectively, and Iun
and Icr are the corresponding moment of inertia.

Table 1Creep coefficient factors based on ACI 209

i =

NQe MAe

Ece (Qe2 I e Ae )

(9)

ce un =

Aconc h /2 + (nse 1) As d s + (n fe 1) Af d f
Aconc + (nse 1) As + (n fe 1) Af

for bottom < fr

cvs = 2/3(1 + 1.13e{0.0213(V//S)})})

V/S = 29.7

1.07

cs = 0.82 + 0.00264s

s = 75 mm

1.02

c = 0.88 + 0.0024

= 47.6%

0.99

c = 0.46 + 0.09

= 5.5%

0.96

shtc = 1.202 0.2337log(tc)

tc = 7 days

1.01

h = 0.77

0.61

V/S = 29.7

1.04

shs = 0.89 + 0.00161s

s = 75 mm

1.01

sh = 0.30 + 0.014

= 47.6%

shvs = 1.2e

shc = 0.75 0.00061c

0.97

c = 513 kg/m

1.06

= 5.5%

1.00

sh = 0.95 + 0.008

hd is relative humidity in decimals; V and S are specimen volume and surface area,
respectively; s is slump, in mm; is ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate, in
percent; tc is end of moisture curing, in days; c is cement content; and is air content,
in percent.
*

Fargo, ND.23

(10a)
f (t ) =

f (t )
f0

(14)

(nse As + n fe Af ) + (nse As + n fe Af ) 2 + 2b(nse As d s + n fe Af d f )

b

for bottom fr

Ece (t ) =

E fe (t ) =

(10b)

Ec 0

1 + c (t )
Ef 0
1 + f (t )

(11)

(12)

where Ec0 and Ef0 are the elastic moduli of the concrete
and CFRP at the time of loading ( Ec 0 = 0.043 1c.5 f c by
ACI209.2R-0814 in which c is the density of the concrete
[c = 2400 kg/m3 (150 lb/ft3)] and fc is the concrete compressive strength when Ec0 is calculated), respectively; and
c(t) and f(t) are the creep coefficients of the concrete and
CFRP at time t, respectively. The CFRP modulus Ef0 can be
assumed to be the same as Ef. The creep coefficients of the
concrete and CFRP may be estimated using Eq. (13) and
(14), respectively

808

0.75

where nse = Es/Ece(t) and nfe = Efe(t)/Ece(t). It is assumed that

the creep of the reinforcing steel is negligible. The effective
time-dependent moduli of the concrete and CFRP (Ece(t) and
Efe(t), respectively) may be obtained from Eq. (11) and (12)

0.72

h = 0.77

{0.00472(V//S)})}

ce cr =

tl = 110 days

shRH = 1.40 1.02h

where N and M are the axial force and bending moment

restraining free creep and shrinkage, respectively; Ece is
the effective modulus of the concrete; and Qe and Ie are the
first and second moments of area about the top fiber of the
strengthened beams associated with Ece, respectively. The
neutral axis of the effective transformed section, ce, may be
determined by Eq. (10)

Factor used

cRH = 1.27 0.67h

cto = 1.25tl

0.118

Time-dependent response
The time-dependent increment of curvature, i, due to
creep and drying shrinkage may be derived by a similar
procedure used for Eq. (4) along with the properties based
on the effective modulus

Condition for present

research

Equation*

c (t ) =

(t t0 ) k
u
d + (t t0 ) k

(13)

where t is the time, in days; t0 is the initial time; d and k are

empirical constants (d = 10 and k = 0.6 are recommended
by ACI 209.2R-08); f(t) is the time-dependent CFRP strain;
and u is the ultimate creep coefficient of the concrete that
can be determined by Eq. (15)14

u = 2.35ctocRHcvscscc

(15)

where cto is the curing factor for creep; cRH is the relative
humidity factor for creep; cvs is the volume-surface factor
for creep; cs is the slump factor for creep; c is the fine
aggregate factor for creep; and c is the air content factor
for creep. Details of these factors are summarized in Table 1.
The time-dependent behavior of the CFRP may be modeled
using the Findleys power law15

f (t) = f + m(t/t0)n

(16)

where f(t) is the long-term strain of the CFRP in hours; f0

is the initial CFRP strain; t0 is the initial time (typically 1
hour for Eq. (16) according to Findley15); and m and n are
the material constants. For the present study, the constants
proposed by Plevris and Triantafillou3 were adopted to estimate the behavior of the CFRP: m = 0/62,670 in GPa (m =
0/(9 109) in psi) and n = 0.123, in which 0 is the constant
stress applied. It is worthwhile to note that: 1) the creep
response of CFRP is controlled by the fibers rather than the
resin matrix16; and 2) the long-term behavior of the CFRP is
not as significant as that of the concrete (that is, the global
response of a strengthened beam is controlled by the concrete
ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 5Long-term CFRP stain of strengthened beams: (a) one-layer beam subjected to 25%Pu; (b) one-layer beam subjected
to 50%Pu; and (c) two-layer beam subjected to 50%Pu.
and the effective moduli of the steel and the CFRP). The
axial force and moment restraining free creep and shrinkage
may be calculated by Eq. (17) and (18), respectively

N = i dA = ( Ece oi + Ece i y ) dA + Ece sh dA

= Ece ( oi Ac + i Qc ) + sh Ac

{(

M = i ydA = Ece oi y + Ece i y 2 dA + Ece sh ydA

= Ece ( oi Qc + i I c ) + sh Qc

(17)

(18)

where Ac is the cross-sectional area, and Qc and Ic are

the first and second moments of area, respectively, of the
concrete section without reinforcement. It should be noted
that N and M need to be negative for Eq. (9) because they
inversely act against the restraining effects of the long-term
free deformation. Further discussion on this sign convention
is available elsewhere.6,7 The ultimate shrinkage strain of
the beam, shu, may be used for the shrinkage strain sh in
Eq.(17) and (18) because NSM CFRP is generally installed
after sufficient time of concrete casting14

shu = 780shtcshRHshvsshsshshcsh 106

(19)

where shtc is the curing factor for shrinkage; shRH is the

relative humidity factor for shrinkage; shvs is the volumesurface factor for shrinkage; shs is the slump factor for
shrinkage; sh is the fine aggregate factor for shrinkage; shc
is the cement content factor for shrinkage; and sh is the air
content factor for shrinkage. Table 1 explains the details of
these factors. The drying shrinkage of the concrete may be
assumed to be uniform across the beam section.3 The strain
of each constituent at a structure level is calculated by

oi = ic

(20)

s = i(ds c)

(21)

f = i(df c)

(22)

where oi, s, and f are the time-dependent increments

of the top fiber concrete strain, steel strain, and CFRP
strain,respectively.

ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

MODEL VALIDATION AND APPLICATION

This section discusses the predictive behavior of the NSM
CFRP, including experimental validation and application.
Validation of proposed approach
Figure 5 compares the predicted long-term CFRP strains
with the measured counterparts at midspan of the strengthened beams. The model generated gradually increasing
CFRP strains with time until a stabilized pattern was
observed after 2000 hours. The prediction reasonably agreed
with the test data; however, some discrepancy was noticed
because of the following reasons: 1) progressive cracking
of the beam along the loading span was not able to be simulated in the model (that is, energy dissipation of the experimental beam through the time-dependent flexural cracks
cannot be predictable, which was obvious in the single-layer
CFRP beams (Fig. 5(a) and (b)) showing some reduction
in experimental CFRP strain); 2) plane sections of the test
beam might not be plane due to the partial degradation of
the CFRP-concrete interface with time; and 3) the long-term
material constants taken from the design guidelines such
as the ACI 209 documents include fundamental limitations
due to their empirical nature. Previous long-term studies
reported similar disagreement between model estimation
and test.4,17 Despite such a prediction margin, the proposed
approach can reasonably represent the long-term behavior
of the NSM CFRP embedded in a reinforced concrete beam
subjected to sustained load.
Variation of long-term parameters
Figure 6 depicts the variation of material parameters with
time. The effective modulus of the CFRP (Efe) was virtually identical to the initial CFRP modulus (Ef0) and, hence,
the creep coefficient of the NSM CFRP was not influenced
by time. On the other hand, the effective modulus of the
concrete (Ece) was abruptly reduced at its early stage (that
is, t < 200hours), beyond which such a decreasing tendency
stabilized. The creep coefficient of the concrete increased
accordingly. These results can be explained by the fact
that the micro-hydration of cement paste in the concrete
approached steady-state, including the relocation of water
molecules associated with the long-term mechanical distress
inducing creep deformation of the concrete.18 The timedependent effective modular ratios of the steel and CFRP
are compared in Fig. 6(b). Given that the long-term effect
809

Fig. 6Variation of time-dependent parameters: (a) material characteristics; and (b) effective modular ratio.

Fig. 7Efficacy of NSM CFRP strengthening: (a) variation of steel strain; and (b) strain reduction in steel due to strengthening.
on the moduli of the steel and CFRP was insignificant, the
effective modulus of the concrete (Fig. 6(a)) was the primary
factor controlling the response of the strengthened beam
(that is, the effective stress in the reinforcement then consistently increases under a constant creep-loading environment,
which is aligned with the long-term prediction of the CFRP
strain in Fig. 5).
Effectiveness of NSM CFRP strengthening
The long-term strain of the internal reinforcing bars is
predicted in Fig. 7(a). The case with a sustained load of
25%Pu (strengthened with one-layer CFRP) showed a
30% lower steel strain at t = 4000 hours when compared
with the one-layer counterpart with 50%Pu. A similar trend
was estimated for the cases without CFRP strengthening,
while the strain reduction rate was larger (that is, 38% at
t = 4000hours). This result illustrates that CFRP strengthening has enhanced the time-dependent response of the steel
reinforcement. The efficacy of CFRP strengthening was
further examined by comparing the degree of strain reduction in steel reinforcement with and without the NSM CFRP,
as shown in Fig. 7(b). The strain reduction of the one-layer
beam subjected to 50%Pu was consistently higher than that
of the beam exposed to 25%Pu. Adding one more CFRP
layer significantly improved strain behavior, evidenced by
the fact that the steel strains were reduced by 11% and 6% in
4000 hours for the two-layer and one-layer beams subjected
to 50%Pu, respectively, in comparison to the strain of the
unstrengthened beam.

810

Parametric investigation
A parametric investigation was conducted to study the
effect of specific material parameters on the long-term
behavior of the NSM CFRP. The parametric study was implemented based on the beam strengthened with one-layer NSM
CFRP subjected to a sustained load of 50%Pu. Figure8(a)
shows the effect of concrete strength in compression (fc) on
the response of long-term CFRP strains within the investigation range studied (t 4000 hours). Although the concrete
strength did not influence the trend of a gradually increasing
CFRP strain with time, it affected the increment rate of
the strain in such a manner that the long-term CFRP strain
decreased with an increasing concrete strength. For instance,
the CFRP strain with fc = 50 MPa (7250 psi) at 4000 hours
was 10% lower than that with fc = 20 MPa (2900psi). This
observation can be attributable to the fact that the composition of higher-strength concrete is denser (for example, a
low water-cement ratio [w/c], reduced voids with more fine
aggregate, or improved hydration) than that of lower-strength
concrete so that the physical creep deformation of the denser
concrete becomes less. Existing test results support that the
degree of creep is inversely proportional to the compressive strength of concrete.19 The effect of a CFRP modulus
on the creep response of the strengthened beam is revealed
in Fig. 8(b). The range of CFRP moduli taken (100 GPa
[14,500ksi] Ef 250 GPa [36,300ksi]) was determined
based on currently available commercial products. When a
CFRP modulus increased, the creep strain of the NSM CFRP
was marginally reduced. From a structural analysis point of
view, an increase in CFRP modulus augments the flexural
ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

Fig. 8Parametric study with strengthened beam subjected to 50%Pu: (a) concrete strength in compression (fc); (b) CFRP
modulus (Ef); (c) steel reinforcement ratio (s); and (d) CFRP reinforcement ratio (f).

Fig. 9Predicted long-term CFRP strain: (a) effect of sustained intensity; and (b) increment of long-term CFRP strain.
rigidity of a strengthened beam to a certain extent, which
would result in less deflection (advantageous long-term
response of the strengthened beam). Steel reinforcement
ratios s of the strengthened beam significantly influenced
the creep strain of the NSM CFRP, as shown in Fig. 8(c). The
lightly reinforced beam with s = 0.5% demonstrated a 21%
higher CFRP strain at t = 4000 hours when compared to the
beam with s = 2.0%. The difference in CFRP strain between
the beams having s = 1.5% and 2.0% was, however, insignificant. This result indicates that the creep behavior of an
NSM CFRP-strengthened beam having a reinforcement ratio
less than 1.5% may need refined long-term analysis. The
effect of a CFRP reinforcement ratio (f) was similar to that
of the steel reinforcement ratio (s), as shown in Fig.8(d),

ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

while the increment rate of CFRP strain was consistent with

the CFRP reinforcement ratio.
DESIGN PROPOSAL
As briefly mentioned previously, no design information is
currently available on the behavior of NSM CFRP-strengthened members in sustained load. This section is dedicated to
developing design guidelines for such structural members.
Figure 9(a) exhibits the predicted long-term strain of the
NSM CFRP based on the properties of the experimental
beam (one-layer CFRP) discussed previously. To comply
with the long-term design criteria of ACI 318,20 the theoretical model was extrapolated up to 5 years. The level of
sustained load varied within a range from 10%Pu and 50%Pu.
Existing research states that typical sustained loads in resi811

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
(e)
(f)
Fig. 10Variation of long-term incremental factors and proposed design categories: (a) concrete strength in compression (fc);
(b) CFRP modulus (Ef); (c) steel reinforcement ratio (s); (d) CFRP reinforcement ratio (f); (e) relative humidity (hd); and (f)
slump (s).
Table 2Proposed time-dependent factors for
NSM CFRP in sustained load

Category

Se*

Multiplier

Applicable range

Low

Se 10%

1.2

20 MPa fc 50 MPa
(2.9ksi fc 7.3 ksi)
100 GPa Ef 250 GPa
(14,500 ksi Ef 36,300 ksi)
1.0% s 2.0%
0.2% f 0.8%
0.4 hd 1.0
25 mm s 100 mm
(1 in. s 4 in.)

Medium 11% < Se 20%

1.5

High

21% < Se 30%

1.8

Critical

31% < Se or
unknown

2.1

Ratio between expected sustained intensity and members short-term capacity.

fc is compressive strength of concrete; Ef is tensile modulus of CFRP; s is steel

reinforcement ratio; f is CFRP reinforcement ratio; hd is relative humidity; s is
slump of concrete.

dential and commercial buildings are from 10% to 25% of

design loads and hardly exceed 50%.21,22 A minimal increase
in CFRP strain was noted for the case with 10%Pu, while
the significance of long-term distress became pronounced
beyond a load level of 20%Pu (Fig. 9(a)). The CFRP strains
tended to stabilize after 3 years in all cases. The increment
of long-term CFRP strain is depicted in Fig. 9(b), depending
upon the level of sustain load. The incremental factor was
determined by a time-dependent CFRP strain divided by the
CFRP stain at t = 0 hours. The factor was found to be almost
constant, irrespective of time, at a sustained load level of
10%Pu; however, a noticeable divergence was observed with
an increasing sustained intensity.
For design purposes, the time-dependent strain increment
of the NSM CFRP was classified into four categories, as
listed in Table 2. Specific long-term multipliers were then
proposed based on the observation of Fig. 9 and 10, including
various service environments. These suggested long-term
812

multipliers are fundamentally aligned with the empirical

factors of ACI 318 for estimating long-term deflection (that
is, varies from 1.0 to 2.0 for a sustained load duration
of 3 months to 5 years). When apparent sustained loads are
expected for an NSM CFRP-strengthened beam in practice,
the instantaneous strain of the NSM CFRP is recommended
to be magnified when analyzing a long-term effect using
the proposed increment factors. The upper limit of a CFRP
strain can be taken as 55% of the CFRP rupture strain as per
the provision of ACI 440.2R-08.2
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study developed a theoretical model to predict the
long-term behavior of NSM CFRP for strengthening a
reinforced concrete beam. The model accounted for the
time-dependent response of the CFRP and the creep and
shrinkage of the concrete in conjunction with the concept
of age-adjusted effective properties. The proposed approach
was validated with a previously conducted test program
and was further used for a parametric investigation. Creep
is known as a size-independent phenomenon in structural
concrete18 and, thus, the present model can be employed for
full-scale strengthening application with NSM CFRP. As for
the members strengthened with NSM CFRP subjected to
sustained loads (for example, retrofitting structural elements
in a machine room), the level of sustained intensity should
be estimated and explicitly taken into consideration when a
strengthening design is conducted. Such a refined consideration will enhance the sustainability of CFRP-strengthened
structures. The following conclusions can be made:
The effective modulus of concrete was the primary
factor influencing the long-term behavior of NSM
CFRP-strengthened reinforced concrete beams, rather
ACI Structural Journal/November-December 2015

than that of the CFRP. A stress-sharing mechanism was

noticed because of CFRP strengthening, and the longterm stress level of the internal steel reinforcement
was reduced accordingly. This effect became more
pronounced when a sustained load level increased.
Time-dependent CFRP strains decreased when the
compressive strength of the concrete and the elastic
modulus of the CFRP increased. The steel reinforcement
ratio of the strengthened beams played an important
role in determining long-term CFRP strains within the
investigation range studied (0.5% 2.0%). A refined
analysis was recommended when a strengthening design
is conducted for a case with a steel reinforcement ratio
lower than s = 1.5%.
A design proposal was made to facilitate NSM CFRP
technologies for strengthening existing reinforced
concrete members. The proposal was fundamentally in
conformance with the long-term multipliers of ACI 318.
Four design categories were established and specific
long-term design factors were suggested, varying from
1.2 to 2.1 depending upon the level of anticipated
sustained intensity. The applicable ranges of these
factors were also provided.
AUTHOR BIOS

ACI member Yail J. Kim is an Associate Professor in the Department

of Civil Engineering at the University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO.
He is the Chair of ACI Committee 345, Concrete Bridge Construction,
Maintenance, and Repair, and ACI Subcommittee 440-I, FRP-Prestressed
Concrete; and is a member of ACI Committees 342, Evaluation of Concrete
Bridges and Bridge Elements; 343, Concrete Bridge Design; and 440,
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement. His research interests include
the application of advanced composite materials for structures, complex
systems, and science-based structural engineering, including statistical and
quantum physics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges financial support from the National

Science Foundation through North Dakota Experimental Program to
Simulate Competitive Research, North Dakota State University, and the
U.S. Department of Transportation through the Mountain Plains Consortium program. F. Khan conducted the experimental program used for
modelvalidation.

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