DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF TEMPERATURE

MEASUREMENT SET UP
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

ARUN KUMAR.S

(105914144005)

RAJESH KUMAR.M

(105914144039)

RAJSHEKAR.S

(105914144040)

SEENIVASAGAN.R

(105914144046)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

RAJA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, MADURAI

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2013

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report "DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SETUP" is the bonafide work of ARUN
KUMAR.S (105914144005), RAJESH KUMAR.M (105914144039),
RAJSHEKAR.S (105914144040), and SEENIVASAGAN.R (105914144046)"
who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

Prof. P.SUGUMARAN M.E., (Ph.d)

T.KATHIRAVAN B.E

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

SUPERVISOR
Assistant professor

Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

Raja College of Engg&Tech,

Raja College of Engg &Tech,

Madurai- 625020.

Madurai- 625020.

Submitted for the project vice-voce held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project has been successfully completed owing comprehensive

endurance of many distinguished persons.
First and foremost we would like to thank the almighty, our family members
and friends for encouraging us to do this project.
We extend our thanks to our Chairman PDG.Lion. G. Nagarajan , M.A and
our Principal Dr. S.M. Sekkilar, M.E., Ph.D for their advice and ethics inculcated
during the entire period of our study.
We are extremely indebted to Prof. P. Sugumaran, B.E. (Distn), M.E.,
(Ph.D), The Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering for the devoted
attention, love and affection shown on us in making this project grand success.
We profusely thank our internal guide, Mr. T. Kathiravan, B.E., Asst.
professor, Mechanical Engineering for his support throughout the project. His
suggestions and participative encouragement throughout the project will ever hold
a memorable place in our hearts.
Finally, we thank one and all for their valuable support in this project work.
4

ABSTRACT

This project can be used for measuring, controlling and acquisition of the
temperatures in the engineering systems. The project is used mainly to observe the
source temperature by sensor and to generate graph between temperature and time
by using the program in the microcontroller. Graphs can be drawn between a
temperature and time. The graph can be used for knowing the deviations.
The acquisited data in the project can be used for controlling the temperature
and its deviation in the IC engines, Boilers, and other engineering equipments.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO
PAGE NO.

TITLE

ABSTRACT
iv
LIST OF TABLES

viii

LIST OF FIGURES
ix
1.

2.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Temperature

1.2 Temperature control

SENSOR

4
2.1 Sensor

2.2 Sensor deviation

2.3 Resistance thermometer

2.4 R Vs T relationship of various metals

2.5 Element types

2.6 Function

3.

2.7 Advantages and limitations

10

2.8 Sources of error

11

2.9 RTDs Vs thermocouples

12

2.10 Construction

12

2.11 Classifications of RTDs

13

2.12 Applications

13

2.13 History

13

2.14 Pt100 Sensor

15

TEMPERATURE READER (CONTROLLER)

20

3.1 Introduction of Temperature

controllers

21

3.2 Different types of controllers

4.

5.

and working

21

3.3 Selec TC303

25

PIC16F877A and RS232

27

4.1 PIC16F877A

28

4.2 RS232

30

GRAPHICAL DISPLAY

36
5.1 Graphical LCD 128*64
5.2 Interfacing of 16F877A with 128*64
7

37

Graphical Display
6.

PROCEDURE

37
42

6.1 Procedure

43

COST ESTIMATION

44

CONCLUSION

45

LIST OF TABLES
PAGE NO
TABLE 4.1.1

FEATURES OF PIC16F877A

29

TABLE 4.2.1

SIGNALS IN RS232

33

TABLE 4.2.2

PIN ASSIGNMENTS

33

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGENO

FIG 2.10.1

CONSTRUCTION OF RTD

12

FIG 2.14.1

Pt100 SENSOR

16

FIG 3.2.1

STANDARD PANEL SIZES

24

FIG 3.3.1

TEMPERATURE READER
(CONTROLLER)

26

FIG 4.1.1

PIC16F877A

30

FIG 4.2.1

RS232 CABLE

35

FIG 5.1.1

GRAPHICAL LCD 128*64

37

FIG5.2.1

INTERFACING OF 16F877A WITH 128*64

GRAPHICAL DISPLAY

FIG 6.1

41

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TEMPERATURE

MEASUREMENT SETUP

10

43

CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION
1

1.1 Temperature:
Temperature is a physical quantity that is a measure of hotness and coldness
on a numerical scale. It is a measure of the thermal energy per particle of matter or
radiation; it is measured by a thermometer, which may be calibrated in any of
various

temperature

scales:

Celsius,

Fahrenheit,

Kelvin,

etc.

Temperature is an intensive property, which means it is independent of the

amount of material present; in contrast to energy, an extensive property, which is
proportional to the amount of material in the system. For example a spark may well
be

(very

briefly!)

as

hot

as

the

Sun.

Empirically it is found that an isolated system, one that exchanges no energy

or material with its environment, tends to a spatially uniform temperature as time
passes. When a path permeable only to heat is open between two bodies, energy
always transfers spontaneously as heat from a hotter body to a colder one. The
transfer rate depends on the thermal conductivity of the path or boundary between
them. Between two bodies with the same temperature no heat flows. These bodies
are

said

to

be

in

thermal

equilibrium.

In kinetic theory and in statistical mechanics, temperature is the effect of the

thermal energy arising from the motion of microscopic particles such as atoms,
molecules and photons. The relation is proportional as given by the Boltzmann
constant.
2

1.2 Temperature control:

Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature of a space
(and objects collectively there within) is measured or otherwise detected, and the
passage of heat energy into or out of the space is adjusted to achieve a desired
average temperature.

CHAPTER 2

SENSOR

2.1 Sensor:
A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical
quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an
(today

mostly

electronic)

instrument.

For

example,

a mercury-in-glass

thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of

a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts
temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy,
most sensors are calibrated against known standards.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons
(tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are
also innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware.
Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and
robotics.
A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal when touched.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the
measured quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves
1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/C (it is
basically the slope dy/dx assuming a linear characteristic).
A good sensor obeys the following rules:
Is sensitive to the measured property only
Is insensitive to any other property likely to be
encountered in its application
Does not influence the measured property

The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal and
measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a
voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear
because the ratio is constant at all points of measurement.
2.2 Sensor deviations:
If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

Sensitivity error
An offset or bias.
Non linearity.
Dynamic error.
Drift (telecommunication).
Long term drift
Noise
Hysteresis
Aliasing errors.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors.

2.3 Resistance Thermometer:

Resistance

thermometers,

also

called resistance

temperature

detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the

resistance of the RTD element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a
length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is
usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The
RTD element is made from a pure material, platinum, nickel or copper. The
material has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes; it is this
predictable change that is used to determine temperature.

They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial

applications below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability.
2.4 R Vs T
Relationship of Various Metals:
Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel
have a unique, and repeatable and predictable resistance versus temperature
relationships (R s T) and operating temperature range. The R vs T relationship is
defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature
change. The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficient of resistance)
varies only slightly over the useful range of the sensor.
Platinum is a noble metal and has the most stable resistance-temperature
relationship over the largest temperature range. Nickel elements have a limited
temperature range because the amount of change in resistance per degree of change
in

temperature

becomes

very

non-linear

at

temperatures

over

572 F

(300 C). Copper has a very linear resistance-temperature relationship, however

copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures and cannot be used over 302 F
(150 C).
Platinum is the best metal for RTDs because it follows a very linear
resistance-temperature relationship and it follows the R vs T relationship in a
highly repeatable manner over a wide temperature range. The unique properties of
platinum make it the material of choice for temperature standards over the range of
-272.5 C to 961.78 C, and is used in the sensors that define the International
Temperature Standard, ITS-90. Platinum is chosen also because of its chemical
inertness.

The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the

linear approximation of the resistance versus temperature relationship between 0
and 100 C. This temperature coefficient of resistance is called alpha, . The
equation below defines ; its units are ohm/ohm/C.

The resistance of the sensor at 0C

The resistance of the sensor at 100C
Pure platinum has an alpha of 0.003925 ohm/ohm/C and is used in the
construction of laboratory grade RTDs. Conversely two widely recognized
standards for industrial RTDs IEC 60751 and ASTM E-1137 specify an alpha of
0.00385 ohms/ohm/C. Before these standards were widely adopted several
different alpha values were used. It is still possible to find older probes that are
made with platinum that have alpha values of 0.003916 ohms/ohm/C and
0.003902 ohms/ohm/C.
These different alpha values for platinum are achieved by doping; basically
carefully introducing impurities into the platinum. The impurities introduced
during doping become embedded in the lattice structure of the platinum and result
in a different R vs. T curve and hence alpha value.
Calibration:
To characterize the R Vs T relationship of any RTD over a temperature range
that represents the planned range of use, calibration must be performed at
temperature other than 0C and 100C. Two common calibration methods are the
fixed point method and the comparison method.
1) Fixed point calibration
2) Comparison calibration
8

2.5 Element Types:

There are three main categories of RTD sensors; Thin Film, Wire-Wound, and
Coiled Elements. While these types are the ones most widely used in industry there
are some places where other more exotic shapes are used, for example carbon
resistors are used at ultra low temperatures (-173 C to -273 C).
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Carbon resistor elements

Strain free elements
Thin film elements
Wire-wound elements
Coiled elements
The current international standard which specifies tolerance and the

temperature-to-electrical

resistance

relationship

for

platinum

resistance

thermometers is IEC 60751:2008, ASTM E1137 is also used in the United States.
By far the most common devices used in industry have a nominal resistance of
100 ohms at 0 C, and are called Pt100 sensors ('Pt' is the symbol for platinum).
The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is a nominal 0.385 ohm/C. RTDs
with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/C as well as a variety of others are also
available.
2.6 Function:
Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer
greater stability, accuracy and repeatability in some cases than thermocouples.
While thermocouples use the Seebeck effect to generate a voltage, resistance
thermometers use electrical resistance and require a power source to operate. The
resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature.

The platinum detecting wire needs to be kept free of contamination to

remain stable. A platinum wire or film is supported on a former in such a way that
it gets minimal differential expansion or other strains from its former, yet is
reasonably resistant to vibration. RTD assemblies made from iron or copper are
also used in some applications. Commercial platinum grades are produced which
exhibit a temperature coefficient of resistance 0.00385/C (0.385%/C) (European
Fundamental Interval). The sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100 at
0 C. This is defined in BS EN 60751:1996 (taken from IEC 60751:1995). The
American Fundamental Interval is 0.00392/C, based on using a purer grade of
platinum than the European standard. The American standard is from the Scientific
Apparatus Manufacturers Association (SAMA), who are no longer in this standards
field. As a result the "American standard" is hardly the standard even in the US.
Measurement of resistance requires a small current to be passed through the
device under test. This can cause resistive heating, causing significant loss of
accuracy if manufacturers' limits are not respected, or the design does not properly
consider the heat path. Mechanical strain on the resistance thermometer can also
cause inaccuracy. Lead wire resistance can also be a factor; adopting three- and
four-wire, instead of two-wire, connections can eliminate connection lead
resistance effects from measurements (see below); three-wire connection is
sufficient for most purposes and almost universal industrial practice. Four-wire
connections are used for the most precise applications.
2.7 Advantages and Limitations:
The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:
1) High accuracy
2) Low drift
3) Wide operating range
10

4) Suitability for precision applications.

Limitations:
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 C. At
temperatures above 660 C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the
platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities from the metal sheath of the
thermometer. This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal
sheath with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say below -270 C (or
3 K), because there are very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly
determined by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent
of temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and
therefore not useful.
Compared to thermistor, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small
temperature changes and have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a
smaller temperature range and stability.
2.8 Sources of error:
The common error sources of a PRT are:
1) Interchangeability
2) Insulation Resistance
3) Stability
4) Repeatability
5) Hysteresis
6) Stem Conduction
7) Calibration/Interpolation
8) Lead Wire
9) Self Heating
10)
Time Response
11)
Thermal EMF
2.9 RTDs Vs thermocouples:
11

The two most common ways of measuring industrial temperatures are with
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermocouples. Choice between them
is usually determined by four factors.
1)
2)
3)
4)

Temperature
Response time
Size
Accuracy and stability requirements

2.10 Construction:

FIG 2.10.1 CONSTRUCTION OF RTD

These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At
temperatures below about 250 C PVC, silicon rubber or PTFE insulators are used.
Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are used. The measuring point, and usually most
of the leads, require a housing or protective sleeve, often made of a metal alloy
which is chemically inert to the process being monitored. Selecting and designing
protection sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the sheath must
withstand chemical or physical attack and provide convenient attachment points.

Wiring configurations:
Two-wire configuration
Three-wire configuration
Four-wire configuration

12

2.11 Classification of RTDs:

Standard platinum Resistance Thermometers.
Secondary Standard platinum Resistance Thermometers.
Industrial PRTs.
2.12 Applications:
Sensor assemblies can be categorized into two groups by how they are installed or
interface with the process:
Immersion sensors
Surface mounted sensors.
Immersion sensors generally have the best measurement accuracy because
they are in direct contact with the process fluid. Surface mounted sensors are
measuring the pipe surface as a close approximation of the internal process fluid.
2.13 History:
The application of the tendency of electrical conductors to increase
their electrical resistance with rising temperature was first described by Sir William
Siemens at the Bakerian Lecture of 1871 before the Royal Society of Great Britain.
The necessary methods of construction were established by Callendar , Griffiths,
Holborn and Wein between 1885 and 1900.
Resistance thermometer elements can be supplied which function up to
1000 C. The relation between temperature and resistance is given by
the Callendar-Van Dusen equation,

13

RT = R0 [1+AT+BT2+CT3(T-100)] (-200C<T<0C)
RT = R0 [1+AT+BT2] (0C<T<850C)
Here,

is the resistance at temperature T,

is the resistance at 0 C, and

the constants (for an alpha=0.00385platinum RTD) are:

A=3.9083*10-3C-1
B=-5.775*10-7C-2
C=-4.183*10-12C-4
Since the B and C coefficients are relatively small, the resistance changes
almost linearly with the temperature.

2.14 Pt100 Sensor:

Platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs), offer excellent accuracy over
wide temperature range (from-200 to +850 C). Standard Sensors are available
from many manufacturers with various accuracy specifications and numerous
packaging options to suit most applications. Unlike thermocouples, it is not
necessary to use special cables to connect to the sensor.
The principle of operation is to measure the resistance of a platinum
element. The most common type (PT100) has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0 C and
138.4 ohms at 100 C. There are also PT1000 sensors that have a resistance of
1000 ohms at 0 C.

14

The relationship between temperature and resistance is approximately linear

over a small temperature range: for example, if you assume that it is linear over the
0 to 100 C range, the error at 50 C is 0.4 C. For precision measurement, it is
necessary to linearise the resistance to give an accurate temperature. The most
recent definition of the relationship between resistance and temperature is
International Temperature Standard 90 (ITS-90).

FIG 2.14.1 Pt100 SENSOR

This linearisation is done automatically, in software, when using Pico signal
conditioners. The linearisation equation is:
Rt = R0 * (1 + A* t + B*t2 + C*(t-100)* t3)
Where:
Rt is the resistance at temperature t,
R0 is

the

resistance

A=3.9083E-3
B =-5.775E-7

15

at

0C,

and

C =-4.183E-12(below0C),

or

C = 0 (above 0 C)
For a PT100 sensor, a 1 C temperature change will cause a 0.384 ohm
change in resistance, so even a small error in measurement of the resistance (for
example, the resistance of the wires leading to the sensor) can cause a large error in
the measurement of the temperature. For precision work, sensors have four wirestwo to carry the sense current, and two to measure the voltage across the sensor
element. It is also possible to obtain three-wire sensors, although these operate on
the (not necessarily valid) assumption that the resistance of each of the three wires
is the same.
The current through the sensor will cause some heating: for example, a sense
current of 1 mA through a 100 ohm resistor will generate 100 W of heat. If the
sensor element is unable to dissipate this heat, it will report an artificially high
temperature. This effect can be reduced by either using a large sensor element, or
by making sure that it is in good thermal contact with its environment.
For example, a 100 V voltage measurement error will give a 0.4 C error in
the temperature reading. Similarly, a 1 A error in the sense current will give 0.4
C temperature error.
Because of the low signal levels, it is important to keep any cables away
from electric cables, motors, switchgear and other devices that may emit electrical
noise. Using screened cable, with the screen grounded at one end, may help to
reduce interference. When using long cables, it is necessary to check that the
measuring equipment is capable of handling the resistance of the cables. Most
equipment can cope with up to 100 ohms per core.
16

The type of probe and cable should be chosen carefully to suit the
application. The main issues are the temperature range and exposure to fluids
(corrosive or conductive) or metals. Clearly, normal solder junctions on cables
should not be used at temperatures above about 170 C.
Sensor manufacturers offer a wide range of sensors that comply with
BS1904 class B (DIN 43760): these sensors offer an accuracy of 0.3 C at 0 C.
For increased accuracy, BS1904 class A (0.15 C) or tenthDIN sensors (0.03
C). Companies like Isotech can provide standards with 0.001 C accuracy. Please
note that these accuracy specifications relate to the SENSOR ONLY: it is necessary
to add on any error in the measuring system as well.
The function for temperature value acquisition (C++):
The following code estimates a Pt100 or Pt1000 sensor's temperature from
its current resistance (input parameter r).
float GetPt100Temperature(float r)
{
float

const

Pt100[]

{80.31,82.29,84.27,86.25,88.22,90.19,92.16,94.12,96.09,98.04,100.0,101.95,103.9
,105.85,107.79,109.73,111.67,113.61,115.54,117.47,119.4,121.32,123.24,125.16,1
27.07,128.98,130.89,132.8,134.7,136.6,138.5,140.39,142.29,157.31,175.84,195.84
};
int t=-50,i=0,dt=0;
if (r>Pt100[0])
while (250>t)
17

{
dt =(t<100)? 5: (t>110)? 50:40;
if(r<Pt100[++i])
return t+(r-Pt100[i-1])*dt /Pt100[i]-Pt100[i-1]);
t+=dt;
};
return t;
}
float GetPt1000Temperature(float r)
{
return GetPt100Temperature(r/10);
}

18

CHAPTER3

TEMPERATURE READER (CONTROLLER)

19

3.2
Different
3.1Introduction to Temperature Controllers:

Types of

How do Temperature Controllers work?

To accurately control process temperature without extensive operator
involvement, a temperature control system relies upon a controller, which
accepts a temperature sensor such as a thermocouple or RTD as input. It
compares the actual temperature to the desired control temperature, or set
point, and provides an output to a control element. The controller is one part
of the entire control system, and the whole system should be analyzed in
selecting the proper controller. The following items should be considered
when selecting a controller:
1.

Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and temperature

range

2.

Type of output required (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog

output)

3.

Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional, PID)

Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm, limit)

Controllers, and Working:
4.

There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, proportional and PID.
Depending upon the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or
another

to

control

20

the

process.

On/Off Control:

An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output
from the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch
the output only when the temperature crosses the set point. For heating control, the output
is on when the temperature is below the set point, and off above set point. Since the
temperature crosses the set point to change the output state, the process temperature will
be cycling continually, going from below set point to above, and back below. In cases
where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to prevent damage to contactors and valves, an onoff differential, or hysteresis, is added to the controller operations. This differential
requires that the temperature exceed set point by a certain amount before the output will
turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output from chattering or making
fast, continual switches if the cycling above and below the set point occurs very rapidly.
On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in systems which
cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of the
system is so great that temperatures change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a limit controller. This controller uses
a latching relay, which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down a process when
a certain temperature is reached.
Proportional Control:

21

Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off
control. A proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to the heater as
the temperature approaches set point. This has the effect of slowing down the heater so
that it will not overshoot the set point, but will approach the setpoint and maintain a stable
temperature. This proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the output on and
off for short time intervals. This "time proportioning" varies the ratio of on time to "off"
time to control the temperature. The proportioning action occurs within a proportional
band around the setpoint temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions as an
on-off unit, with the output either fully on (below the band) or fully off (above the band).
However, within the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio of the measurement
difference from the set point. At the set point (the midpoint of the proportional band), the
output on: off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time are equal. if the temperature is
further from the set point, the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the temperature
difference. If the temperature is below set point, the output will be on longer; if the
temperature is too high, the output will be off longer.
PID Control:

The third controller type provides proportional with integral and derivative
control, or PID. This controller combines proportional control with two additional
adjustments, which helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the system.
These adjustments, integral and derivative, are expressed in time-based units; they are
also referred to by their reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively. The proportional,
integral and derivative terms must be individually adjusted or tuned to a particular
system using trial and error. It provides the most accurate and stable control of the three
controller types, and is best used in systems which have a relatively small mass, those
which react quickly to changes in the energy added to the process. It is recommended in
22

systems where the load changes often and the controller is expected to compensate
automatically due to frequent changes in set point, the amount of energy available, or the
mass to be controlled. OMEGA offers a number of controllers that automatically tune
themselves.

These

are

known

as

auto-tune

controllers.

Standard Sizes:
Since temperature controllers are generally mounted inside an instrument panel,
the panel must be cut to accommodate the temperature controller. In order to provide
interchangeability between temperature controllers, most temperature controllers are
designed to standard DIN sizes. The most common DIN sizes are shown below.

FIG 3.2.1 STANDARD PANEL SIZES

23

3.3 SELEC TC303:

Selec TC303 temperature controller is a single set point controller.

//Manufacturer SELEC Controls Pvt. Ltd Code No SELEC TC303//
Features:
Single display
4 digits
7 segment LED
TC / RTD input PID
ON/OFF control
Single set point C / F
selectable Field selectable control output (Relay or SSR)
Auxiliary output: Relay

24

Easy to use. FF

SFIG 3.3.1 TEMPERATURE READER (CONTROLLER)

25

FIGFI

CHAPTER 4

26

PIC16F877A and RS232

4.1 PIC16F877A:
This powerful (200 nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-program
(only 35 single word instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller pack
Microchip's powerful PIC architecture into an 40- or 44-pin package and is
upwards compatible with the PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX and PIC16C7X devices.
The PIC16F877A features 256 bytes of EEPROM data memory, self programming,
an ICD, 2 Comparators, 8 channels of 10-bit Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2
capture/compare/PWM functions, the synchronous serial port can be configured as
either 3-wire Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated
Circuit (IC) bus and a Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART).
All of these features make it ideal for more advanced level A/D applications in
automotive, industrial, appliances and consumer applications.
Features

27

2 PWM 10-bit
256 Bytes EEPROM data memory
ICD
25mA sink/source per I/O
Self Programming
Parallel Slave Port

Parameter Name

Value

Program Memory Type

Flash

Program Memory (KB)

14

CPU Speed (MIPS)

RAM Bytes

368

Data EEPROM (bytes)

256

Digital Communication

1-A/E/USART, 1-

Peripherals

MSSP(SPI/I2C)

Capture/Compare/PWM

2 CCP

Peripherals
Timers

2 x 8-bit, 1 x 16-bit

ADC

8 ch, 10-bit

Comparators

Temperature Range (C)

-40 to 125

Operating Voltage Range (V)

2 to 5.5

Pin Count

40
28

TABLE 4.1.1 FEATURES OF PIC16F877A

FIG 4.1.1 PIC16F877A

4.2 RS232:
In telecommunications, RS-232 is the traditional name for a series of
standards

for serial

binary single-ended data and control signals

connecting

between a DTE (data terminal equipment) and a DCE (data circuit-terminating

equipment). It is commonly used in computer serial ports. The standard defines the
electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the
physical size and pinout of connectors. The current version of the standard is TIA232-F Interface between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-Terminating
Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange, issued in 1997.
An RS-232 serial port was once a standard feature of a personal computer,
used for connections to modems, printers, mice, data storage, uninterruptible
power supplies, and other peripheral devices. However, the low transmission
speed, large voltage swing, and large standard connectors motivated development
of the Universal Serial Bus, which has displaced RS-232 from most of its
peripheral interface roles. Many modern personal computers have no RS-232 ports
and must use an external USB-to-RS-232 converter to connect to RS-232
29

peripherals. RS-232 devices are still found, especially in industrial machines,

networking equipment, or scientific instruments.
History:
RS-232 was first introduced in 1962 by the Radio Sector of the EIA. The
original DTEs were electromechanical teletypewriters, and the original DCEs were
(usually) modems. When electronic terminals (smart and dumb) began to be used,
they were often designed to be interchangeable with teletypewriters, and so
supported RS-232. The C revision of the standard was issued in 1969 in part to
accommodate the electrical characteristics of these devices.
Many fields (for example, laboratory automation, surveying) provide a
continued demand for RS-232 I/O due to sustained use of very expensive but aging
equipment. It is often far cheaper to continue to use RS-232 than it is to replace the
equipment. Additionally, modern

industrial

automation

equipment,

such

as PLCs, VFDs, servo drives, and CNC equipment are programmable via RS-232.
Some manufacturers have responded to this demand: Toshiba re-introduced
the DE-9M connector on the Tecra laptop.
Serial ports with RS-232 are also commonly used to communicate
to headless systems such as servers, where no monitor or keyboard is installed,
during boot when operating system is not running yet and therefore no network
connection is possible. An RS-232 serial port can communicate to some embedded
systems such as routers as an alternative to network mode of monitoring.

30

Signals:
The following table lists commonly used RS-232 signals and pin
assignments. See serial port (pinouts) for non-standard variations including the
popular DE-9 connector.

Signal

Name

Origin

DB-25
pin

Abbreviatio DT DC

Typical purpose

Data Terminal Indicates presence of DTE to

Ready

DCE.

Data Carrier

DCE is connected to the

Detect

telephone line.

Data Set

DCE is ready to receive

Ready

commands or data.

DTR

20

DCD

DSR

RI

22

DCE has detected an

Ring Indicator incoming ring signal on the
telephone line.

31

Request To

DTE requests the DCE

Send

prepare to receive data.

Clear To Send

RTS

Indicates DCE is ready to

accept data.

Transmitted

Carries data from DTE to

Data

DCE.

Received Data

Carries data from DCE to

DTE.

Common
Ground
Protective
Ground

CTS

TxD

RxD

GND

common

PG

common

TABLE 4.2.1 SIGNALS IN RS232

The signals are named from the standpoint of the DTE. The ground signal is
a common return for the other connections. The DB-25 connector includes a
second "protective ground" on pin 1.
Data can be sent over a secondary channel (when implemented by the DTE
and DCE devices), which is equivalent to the primary channel.
32

Pin assignments are described in following table:

Signal

Pin

Common Ground

7 (same as primary)

Secondary Transmitted Data (STD)

14

Secondary Received Data (SRD)

16

Secondary Request To Send (SRTS)

19

Secondary Clear To Send (SCTS)

13

Secondary Carrier Detect (SDCD)

12

TABLE 4.2.2 PIN ASSIGNMENTS

Ring Indicator' (RI), is a signal sent from the modem to the terminal device.
It indicates to the terminal device that the phone line is ringing. In many computer
serial ports, a hardware interrupt is generated when the RI signal changes state.
Certain personal computers can be configured for wake-on-ring, allowing a
computer that is suspended to answer a phone call.
Cables:
The standard does not define a maximum cable length but instead defines
the maximum capacitance that a compliant drive circuit must tolerate. A widely
used rule of thumb indicates that cables more than 50 feet (15 m) long will have
33

too much capacitance, unless special cables are used. By using low-capacitance
cables, full speed communication can be maintained over larger distances up to
about 1,000 feet (300 m). For longer distances, other signal standards are better
suited to maintain high speed.
Other serial interfaces similar to RS-232:
RS-422 (a high-speed system similar to RS-232 but with differential
signaling)
RS-423 (a high-speed system similar to RS-422 but with unbalanced
signaling)
RS-449 (a functional and mechanical interface that used RS-422 and RS-423
signals - it never caught on like RS-232 and was withdrawn by the EIA)
RS-485 (a descendant of RS-422 that can be used as a bus in multidrop
configurations)
MIL-STD-188 (a system like RS-232 but with better impedance and rise
time control)
EIA-530 (a high-speed system using RS-422 or RS-423 electrical properties
in an EIA-232 pinout configuration, thus combining the best of both; supersedes
RS-449)
EIA/TIA-561 8 Position Non-Synchronous Interface Between Data Terminal
Equipment and Data Circuit Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data
Interchange

34

EIA/TIA-562 Electrical Characteristics for an Unbalanced Digital Interface

(low-voltage version of EIA/TIA-232)
TIA-574 (standardizes the 9-pin D-subminiature connector pinout for use
with EIA-232 electrical signalling, as originated on the IBM PC/AT)
SpaceWire (high-speed serial system designed for use on board spacecraft).
Serial line analyzers are available as standalone units, as software and
interface cables for general-purpose logic analyzers, and as programs that run in
common personal computers.

FIG 4.2.1 RS232 CABLE

CHAPTER 5

35

GRAPHICAL DISPLAY

5.1 Graphical LCD 128*64:

Description:
This is a framed graphical LCD 128*64 with LED backlight. This unit is a very clear
STN type LCD with a simple command interface. This new module includes the
negative voltage circuitry on board!
Dimensions:

Overall: 75x52.7mm
Viewable area: 55.01x27.49mm
36

FIG 5.1.1 GRAPHICAL LCD 128*64

5.2 Interfacing of PIC16F877A with 128*64 graphical display :
Components/ Software:
MPLAB IDE (PIC microcontrollers simulator) PIC BURNER 3 with
software to load the code LCD (Displaytech 162A) Computer System with
Windows operating system and RS 232 cable PIC16F877 Microcontroller +5V
D.C Power Supply Resistors - 10K -1,50-1 Capacitors - 27 F-2
Potentiometers - 10K -1 20MHz Crystal oscillator SPST switches -1
Procedure:
Write the assembly code in MPLAB IDE simulator , compile it and check
for errors Once the code was error free, run it and check the output in the
simulator. After checking the code in the simulator, load the code (in .HEX format)
into PIC16F877 microcontroller using PIC BURNER3. Make connections as
shown in the circuit diagram. Switch on the power supply and observe "IITK"
displayed

in

the

37

LCD.

Initializing LCD by sequence of instructions Executing commands

depending on our settings in the LCD Writing data into the DRAM locations of
LCD

in

the

Standard

Character

Pattern

of

LCD.

MPLABIDE is free software which can be downloaded from the

websitewww.microchip.com

Working with MPLABIDE :

MPLABIDE is a simulator for PIC microcontrollers to write and edit the

code in assembly language, compile it and also to run the code. Output can be
verified using simulator.
Steps to Use MPLABIDE:

After Installing the software MPLABIDEv7.2, open MPLABIDE. To built a

new project, open Project Wizard Project wizard New Device 16F877 Location
(C:\ProgramFiles\Microchip\MPASM Suite\MPASMWIN.EXE) Next <Project
name>&<Project Directory> Next (Add file "f877tmpo.asm" which was located in
38

program files microchip MPASM Suite Template Object) (Add file "16f877.lkr"
which was located in program files microchip MPASM Suite LKR) Next Finish To
have more clear refer to MPLABIDE help files. After building the project open the
editor f877tmpo.asm and write the assembly code After writing the assembly code
in the editor, build the project by clicking on the following option Project Build all
Check for the errors in the output window View Output Once the error free code
was made, simulate the code by following option Debugger Select Tool MPLAB
SIM Simulator options are Step into - Each time only one instruction will be
executed (Single stepping mode) Run - To run the whole code at once. Animate - to
animate the executing the code Additional things: To view DRAM, program
memory, SFRs, and External memory use the option VIEW To set break points in
the

code

(where

simulation

stops

at

that

point).

After checking the code in the simulator, the code (file with .HEX extension)
is loaded into 16F877 microcontroller using PIC BURNER 3.
PIC BURNER3:

PIC BURNER3 can be used to program PIC microcontrollers. The steps to

be

followed

to

program

the

IC

safely

are

as

follows.

Connect the PIC BURNER3 through RS232 Port to computer system with
windows98 as operating system. Execute the file "icprog" which was in the
software that comes with PIC BURNER3. Set the device as PIC16F877 Switch on
the power supply of PIC BURNER3 Settings Hardware {JDM Programmer, Com1,
Direct I/O} Settings Hardware check 1. On clicking "Enable Data out", Data in
39

must be clicked automatically 2. On clicking Enable MCLR, red LED on the

PICBURNER3 must glow Settings Options Confirmation [Erasing the device,
Code Protecting the Device] Settings Options MISC Process Priority Normal
Settings Options Programming Verify after Programming. Remaining options keep
them at default settings. [Refer Manual of PICBURNER3 for detail] Now insert
the 16F877 microcontroller into the slot provided on the PICBURNER3 as the
direction specified in the manual of PICBURNER3. load the .hex file open file
Command Erase All Command Blank Check Then there should be a notice on the
window that "Device is Blank " Command Program All Command Blank Check
Then there should be a notice on the window that "Device is not blank at address
0x0000H". Close the window, remove the IC from the PIC BURNER3 and switch
off the power supply for PIC BURNER3.

FIG 5.2.1 Interfacing of PIC16F877A with 128*64 graphical display

40

CHAPTER6

41

PROCEDURE

6.1 Procedure:

Ensure proper electrical connections.

Place the sensor (tip probe) in a heat source.
The temperature will be shown in temperature reader (controller).
This output will be given into microcontroller and program gets executed.
From microcontroller chip, connect RS232 cable to a PC or Laptop.

Pt 100
Temperature
sensor

Temperature
Reader/
Controller

PIC16F877A
Microcontroller

42

RS232

128*64
Graphical
Display

FIG 6.1BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SETUP

COST ESTIMATION
Components

Cost

Pt100 Sensor

Rs.480

SELEC TC303

Rs.1200

Microcontroller kit

Rs.2500

128*64 Graphical Display

Rs.800

CONCLUSION
This project can be used for measuring, controlling and acquisition of the
temperatures in the engineering systems such as IC Engines, Boilers, etc. Graphs
can be drawn between a temperature and time and can be used for knowing the
deviations.
The acquisited data in the project can be used for controlling the temperature
and its changes (deviation) in the IC engines, Boilers, and other engineering
equipments.

43

44