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SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps and Compressors
Document Responsibility: Energy Systems Unit, P&CSD
12 March 2011
Page 1 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Table of Contents
Page
1
Introduction
1.1
Purpose
1.2
Scope
1.3
Intended Users
1.4
References and Related Documents
5
5
5
5
5
General
2.1
Definitions
2.2
Principles and Concepts
2.3
Degrees of Freedom
2.4
Affinity Laws
2.5
Drivers
2.6
Data Quality
6
6
6
7
8
8
9
Pump Networks
3.1
Flow Profile
3.2
Number of Operating Trains
3.3
Recycle Minimization
3.4
Best Efficiency Point
3.5
Load Allocation by Efficiency
3.6
Composite Characteristic Curves
3.7
System Curve
3.8
Controls and Instrumentation
16
17
19
28
33
34
35
39
42
Compressor Networks
4.1
Thermodynamics of Gas Compression
4.2
Performance and System Curves
4.3
Control Strategies
4.4
Process Modifications
43
44
48
48
53
ATTACHMENTS
none
Page 2 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exh. No
Title
Page
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
8
10
11
12
13
13
15
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
3.28
16
17
18
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
41
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
3.29
3.30
3.31
41
42
43
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
56
57
Page 4 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Introduction
1.1
Purpose
Large industrial plants commonly use multiple parallel equipment trains for
improved reliability. Very often, installed equipment capacity far exceeds
normal production requirements. This excess capacity can be translated into
energy cost savings through optimum load management. The purpose of this
Best Practice is to describe ways in which energy efficiency improvement can
be achieved for different kinds of equipment.
1.2
Scope
Many types of equipment commonly used in Saudi Aramco plants are
significant energy consumers and amenable to operational optimization through
Load Management, including:
Pumps
Compressors
Steam turbines
Gas turbines
This Best Practice manual focuses on methods to determine the optimum load
management policies for pumps and compressors only. The rest are covered in
other complementary Best Practice manuals.
1.3
Intended Users
This Best Practice manual is intended for use by the engineers working in Saudi
Aramco plants, who are responsible for efficient operation of their facility.
1.4
Page 5 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Centrifugal Pumps
SAES-K-402
Centrifugal Compressors
General
2.1
Definitions
Best Practice: A process or method that, when correctly executed, leads to
enhanced system performance.
Load Management: An operating policy that distributes the load among
multiple machines or equipment installed as series-parallel networks in a way
that minimizes their energy (fuel + power) consumption, without compromising
safety or reliability.
2.2
Reduce the rate at which individual machines are being run, through
minimizing recycle flows
Page 6 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Assign maximum duty to the most efficient equipment (in a parallel set), and
use the least efficient equipment as the swing machine
It must be recognized, though, that there is always a trade-off. The fewer the
number of parallel machines that are running at any given time, the less
redundancy there will be, with consequent loss of some operating flexibility.
The analysis procedure outlined in this manual will help establish the
quantitative relationship between operating flexibility and energy costs, thereby
enabling the operating engineers and foremen to jointly make intelligent choices
about what the optimum operating policy should be.
2.3
Degrees of Freedom
Optimization implies that one has multiple choices to accomplish the desired
objective, and the only problem remaining is to choose the best option.
The range of options available is limited by constraints which can be either
hard or soft. A hard constraint is one which we cannot or are unprepared to
violate at any cost e.g., the laws of physics, market realities, or the directives
of upper management. A soft constraint is one that we have imposed on
ourselves, and which could be relaxed at our discretion upon penalty of
incurring some additional costs elsewhere. An example of a soft constraint is
the requirement for redundancy in installed equipment in order to increase the
level of operator comfort. It follows that the range of available options can be
increased by relaxing soft constraints, and by finding some other way to
alleviate the problem that the constraint was intended to prevent/mitigate.
The range of options can be increased by introducing new Degrees of Freedom,
which are parameters or design features over which one has some control.
For example, in an existing pumping network, one can increase the range of
options available for optimizing operating policies by adding inter-connective
piping (e.g., headers) between parallel trains, retrofitting fixed speed motors
with variable frequency drives, etc.
Basically, one must keep an open mind. Think out-of-the-box. Do not accept
the existing plant configuration as inviolate; try to think of the ideal solution,
and then systematically add features to the existing design that will help to reach
that ideal solution. Learn to recognize the difference between hard and soft
constraints.
Page 7 of 57
2.4
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Affinity Laws
Sometimes it is necessary to determine the performance of an existing pump or
compressor for a different impeller diameter or speed. The pump performance
at off-design conditions can be estimated using what are known as the Affinity
Laws, sometimes also called the Fan Laws, as summarized in Exhibit 2-1.
Exhibit 2-1: The Affinity Laws
Constant Impeller Diameter
Capacity
Q1 N1
Q2 N 2
Q1 D1
Q2 D 2
Head
H1 N1
H 2 N 2
Horsepower
BHP1 N1
BHP2 N 2
2.5
H1 D1
H 2 D2
3
BHP1 D1
BHP2 D2
Drivers
Pumps and compressors are usually driven by electric motors, but not always.
Sometimes the motive power is provided by steam turbines (usually in the
500-10,000 HP range) or by gas turbines (usually >10,000 HP).
Electric motors generally operate at fixed speeds. For 60 Hz power supply,
these are usually around 1200, 1800, or 3600 rpm. For 50 Hz a/c power supply
the corresponding speeds are 1000, 1500, or 3000 rpm. When speed variation is
desired for either process reasons or for power savings, they have to be fitted
with some sort of a speed control, such as a belt & pulley system (obsolete
technology), a hydraulic clutch and gear box, or a variable frequency drive.
Steam and gas turbines, on the other hand, are inherently variable speed devices,
and elaborate controls are required to make them operate at constant speed.
The correct choice of driver whether motor or turbine depends on whether
speed control would be beneficial in that particular application, and on the size
(power consumption) of the pump or compressor. The overall site steam and
power balance also has a considerable influence on the economics of driver
selection (especially for the larger sizes), and should not be ignored.
Page 8 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Data Quality
Data quality refers to both the consistency and accuracy of measured values.
Consistency is necessary; accuracy (within the specified limits) is sufficient.
{The terms necessary and sufficient are used here in accordance with their strict
mathematical definitions.}
It should be common sense that bad data will lead to the wrong decisions no
matter how brilliant the quality of the analysis. But how do we define Bad
and Good? There is no such thing as perfect accuracy. An acceptable level of
error in data accuracy is that which will not lead to the wrong process design or
operating decision. As long as the correctness of the decision is not affected, the
data quality can be considered to be Good.
2.6.1
Density
Feed
100
0.85
6198
P1
10
0.70
510.4
P2
25
0.80
1458.3
P3
35
0.90
2296.9
P4
30
0.95
2078.1
Page 9 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
CRUDE OIL
DISTILLATION
UNIT
P2
Feed
P3
P4
Would it be right to conclude that the data are consistent? No, because
what is conserved is mass, not volume. This is a common mistake that
should be avoided.
Sum of product flows on mass basis = 510.4 + 1458.3 +2296.9 +2078.1
= 6343.7 Klb/h.
It is not possible for the flow out to be more than the flow in. So, strictly
speaking the measured data should be considered to be inconsistent.
However, if we look at the magnitude of the error, it is 146 Klb/h, or 2.4%
of the feed rate, which is within the accuracy of the meters, and so we
would accept the data as being acceptable despite being inconsistent; in
effect we deem the data to have acceptable consistency. If, on the other
hand, the error was found to be greater than the meter accuracy, then the
data would be determined to be unacceptable, and some action would be
required to reconcile the discrepancies before analysis can begin.
Example 2: Material Balance Check
Let us say that we want to check the quality of flow data for the AM and
AH product shipment pumps from one of the GOSPs. Sample raw data
from the PI system are shown in Exhibit 2-3, columns 4 and 5. How can
we check for consistency?
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
One way is to calculate the yield, which we shall define as the ratio of
product flow to feed flow. Because a certain (variable) amount of vapor
flashes off in the wet crude receiving tank, the yield is expected to be
less than 100%. The computed values shown in columns 6 and 7 reveal
that the yield for AM crude is fairly steady throughout the year at around
94%, indicating the data are consistent. The computed values of yield
for AH crude, on the other hand are often in excess of 100%, and
occasionally in excess of even 200% (see circled areas in Exhibit 2-4).
Exhibit 2-3: Raw PI Data for Crude Oil Flow Rates
Page 11 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
AH Crude
200
Dry/Wet Yield, %
AM Crude
150
100
50
0
1
31
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
331
361
Since it is impossible for the yield to be higher than 100% (see numbers
highlighted in brown in Exhibit 2-3), we conclude that the measured data
for AH crude feed and product flow rates are inconsistent with each
other, and there was obviously some problem with the metering system
for the first 5 months that appears to have been fixed subsequently.
Example 3: Properties Check
Consider the product recovery system in Exhibit 2-5, in which vapor
from a liquid-butane storage tank is compressed and condensed against
air before being returned to storage.
Page 12 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
P2
T2
Air Cooler
Compr
T3
P1
T1
Measured
Pressure (psia)
13
Measured Temp
(F)
30
Tsat at measured
Pressure
25.5
Psat at measured
Temp
14.3
110
169
155
130.1
107
160
153
116.7
Point #
Page 13 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Pressure, psia
Temperature, F
14.3
30
110
169
107
153
Valve B
Filling
open
closed
Unloading
closed
open
Page 14 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
According to the meter, the amounts of oil that flow in and out are each
1,200,000 gallons (28,571 barrels). So, the data are consistent. But are
they accurate?
For this we need independent verification.
FI
B
Level 2
A
Level 1
Truck or Ship
B
Let us say that the tank is a vertical cylindrical type with a diameter
D = 80ft. Let us say that the difference between the initial and final level
in the tank (after filling) is 30 ft. Then, the volume of oil pumped in is
V = (D/4) x h = 150,797 ft = 1,130,976 gal.
This is 6% less than what the meter reading shows, and so would be
considered inaccurate, because the standard of accuracy for custody
transfer meters is usually less than 0.5%.
Page 15 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Pump Networks
The methodology used for estimating savings potential will be described for a single
representative pumping system only (see Exhibit 3-1), as all systems can be evaluated in
an identical manner.
Exhibit 3-1: Typical Pump Network and Control System
2.
Determine optimum operating policy for each of the four load management
strategies noted in Section 2.2
3.
Estimate the power cost savings potential by comparing the costs of operation
under the prevailing operating practices against those from following the optimum
operating policy
Page 16 of 57
3.1
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Flow Profile
First and foremost, we have to develop a histogram of the load profile from raw
PI data, as in Exhibits 3-2 and 3-3. PI data should be recorded as daily averages
for a period of at least 12 months to capture seasonal variations.
Exhibits 3-2a and b: Fluid Flow Historical Data (sample only). Note:
800
600
400
200
A M Crude
12/1
11/1
10/1
9/1
8/1
7/1
6/1
5/1
4/1
3/1
2/1
1/1
Flow , MBD
1000
DATE
Page 17 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
Flow, MBD
HELP NOTE
For those of you using Microsoft Excel, there is a useful feature that enables you to generate
histograms easily from tabular data. However, this feature is not part of the basic installation of MS
Office, and must be loaded manually. If you do not see Data Analysis on the Tools menu, you will
need to load the Add-In as follows:
Click on Tools > Add-Ins
Check the box named Analysis ToolPak
After a few seconds, you should see Data Analysis on the Tools menu.
Histogram, and follow the instructions.
Page 18 of 57
3.2
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
There is a certain minimum flow required through each pump below which
cavitation could occur and damage the pump. This type of cavitation (as
opposed to the type caused by inadequate NPSH) is due to eddy formation
in the pump suction/discharge nozzles at low flows, and generally begins
when the flow falls below 60% of flow at the best efficiency point. Short
term episodes of low flow are not a problem; damage occurs only if lowflow operation is sustained for several weeks or months. However, if the
pump flow falls below 30% of the best-efficiency flow, the fluid could
overheat due to low pump efficiency, and reach its bubble point inside the
pump casing. If this happens, the pump will seize, and stop working
altogether due to internal mechanical damage. The recycle line is designed
to prevent these types of problems.
b)
Page 19 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Head, ft of oil
1400
1200
1000
system hd, 3 p/l
800
1 train
400
2 trains
200
3 trains
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
The fractional load at which we make the switch between N and N+1 pumps has
been named the Trigger Point. Numerically, the Trigger Point is expressed as
the ratio (%) of actual flow at which the switch is made to the ideal flow at
which the switch should be made. The flow rate at which we should ideally
switch from N pumps to N+1, and vice versa, is when the composite
characteristic curve for the pump network intersects the system curve (inclusive
of required minimum control valve P), as in Exhibit 3-4. This corresponds to a
Trigger Point of 100%.
The pump characteristic curve is obtained from the data sheets, and verified
against operating data in the PI (plant data historian) system. For pumping
networks consisting of multiple pumps connected in series and/or parallel, we
have to construct a composite characteristic curve from the individual pump
curves, according to the procedure explained in Section 3.6. For pumps
connected in series, we must add the individual heads at a given flow rate.
For pumps connected in parallel, we must add the flows at a given head.
The system curve can either be determined from the data sheets, or from PI data,
as illustrated in Section 3.7. One should keep in mind that the design manual
and data sheets are usually based on new pipe, for which the pressure drop per
linear foot is less than for old pipe, and make the necessary adjustments.
Another potential complicating factor is that sometimes there could be more
than one pipeline available for use. In the case of the AM and AH crudes, there
Page 20 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
are several pipelines that could be used interchangeably. For AM crude either 2
or 3 pipelines are normally used, depending on the flow rate.
The ideal operating policy at a Trigger Point of 100% as derived from
intersection of the system curves with the pump composite curves in Exhibit 3-4
is shown in Exhibit 3-5.
Exhibit 3-5: Ideal Operating Policy for AM Shipper Pumps (at Trigger Point = 100%)
Unfortunately following the ideal policy runs the risk of having to throttle
back production during the time it takes to get the extra pump/train up and
running. In practice, therefore, it is safer to start up the N+1th pump a little bit
before it is needed, and to keep it running a bit longer after it is no longer
needed. In effect, therefore, the optimum Trigger Point for fixed speed motors
drives is somewhat less than 100% (see Exhibit 3-6).
The approximate relationship between Trigger Point and reliability (measured in
terms of lost production during the switchover period) is shown semiquantitatively in Exhibit 3-6. The optimum operating zone is around the sharp
bend in the curve, when reliability falls off rapidly for small increases in Trigger
Point. For fixed speed motors the optimum range of Trigger Points centers
around 95%, which is the number recommended, and is the basis for estimating
the energy savings potential compared to existing operations.
Significantly greater power savings can be realized if the Trigger Point is raised
from 95% to 100% or 105%. This can be achieved if the pump driver has overspeed capacity, e.g., if the motor is fitted with a variable frequency drive (VFD),
or the driver is a steam- or gas turbine.
Page 21 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Reliability Index
100
80
Optimum
Zone
60
40
fixed spd motor
var spd drive
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Trigger Point, %
To calculate the energy savings potential, one has to compare the cost of the
current operating practice versus the cost of following the optimum policy. The
energy consumption and cost of actual operation can be obtained either from the
power meters (if the pumps have them), or by following the methodology
described below.
Step 1: Prepare a summary of the pumps data.
Step 2: Determine pump on/off status over a period that represents typical
operation.
Step 3: Calculate minimum number of pump trains required for each operating
interval, for a range of Trigger Points, say 85% to 105%.
Step 4: Estimate power savings potential on the basis of shutting down the
excess pumps during each operating interval, and sum these savings for
all intervals within the selected period of interest.
Step 5: Prepare a table and plot of power/cost savings potential vs Trigger Point.
Page 22 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
From the PI system, determine the on/off status (and flow rate if ON) of the
pumps at the mid-point of the selected period. For example, if the year is
divided into 365 24-hour periods, and the periods are counted from midnight to
midnight, then you would check the on/off status at noon every day. If the
period is elected to be a shift, and the shift timings are 6 am 2 pm, 2 pm
10 pm, and 10 pm 6 am, then the mid-points of the periods would be 10 am,
6 pm, and 2 am. The selection of sampling interval can be important, and is
discussed in detail at the end of this section. Sample output from the PI system
for the AM Booster/Shipper pumps at Safaniya is shown in Exhibit 3-8 for
illustration.
Page 23 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Exhibit 3-8: Pump Operating Status and Flow Data (from PI system)
From the pump flow data and the ideal operating policy table (Exhibit 3-5),
calculate the number of pump trains required during each selected period for a
range of Trigger Points (e.g., 85% to 105%, in increments of 5%).
The computational logic is as follows:
Let number of parallel trains required = NP, and assumed Trigger Point (%)
= TP.
Let the minimum required flow through a pump to avoid cavitation or
seizure be FM.
Then,
For FM < Flow < 825*TP, NP = 1
For 825*TP < Flow < 960*TP, NP = 2
For Flow > 960*TP, NP = 3
Page 24 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
The power savings are estimated assuming that each excess pump will be
operating for exactly one full interval. While this is not strictly true, it is not a
bad approximation, as there will be some intervals during which an excess pump
may be operating part of the time but does not get recorded because it happened
to be off at the sampling moment, and these discrepancies should cancel one
another on average.
It is helpful to also plot the fractional number of pump trains required against
actual number of trains in operation (as in Exhibit 3-8) to get a visual feel for
how much of the time excess trains are being operated.
Page 25 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
1.5
1.0
0.5
No . trains needed
No . Trains Running
0.0
12/10
1/29
3/20
5/9
6/28
8/17
10/6
11/25
1/14
3/4
Date, 2003
1200
Savings, K$/yr
1000
800
600
400
200
0
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
105%
Trigger Point
It can be seen that savings can be substantially higher for pumping systems with
adjustable speed (variable frequency) drives on the motors. In the case of the AM
Booster/Shipper pumps at Safaniya Onshore Plants, an additional $520-760 K/yr
of savings could be realized by fitting the fixed speed motors with VFDs, and
operating at a higher Trigger Point. The economics of installing VFDs are very
attractive because it is possible to design a control system such that only one VFD
Page 26 of 57
110%
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
is needed for any number of parallel trains. For other types of adjustable speed
drives, e.g., hydraulic gears, this is not the case.
When evaluating the existing load management practices of a set of parallel
equipment it is important to ensure that the data sampling technique is an
accurate representation of reality, because in order to have an accurate estimate
of savings potential, we need to get the closest correlation possible between the
average flow rate over the sampling period, and the on/off status of the pumps
(which is an instantaneous measurement) and the average flow rate during the
interval. This would argue for the shortest possible interval, say 15 minutes.
However, since it normally takes at least 2 hours to get a pump fully operational
from a cold start, there is unlikely to be a disconnect between average flow rate
and pump status for sampling intervals less than 2 hours. In order to reduce the
computational effort, we can limit the number of samples to 365 by making the
assumption that average flow rates over the sampling period are representative
of the average flow rates for the whole day, and calculate estimated savings
accordingly. The relationship between sampling time interval and calculated
savings is shown in Exhibit 3-12, which confirms that for savings from
optimizing the number of running pumps, the sampling period does not have a
statistically significant impact on the results.
Exhibit 3-12: Impact of Sampling Interval on Calcd Savings from Minimizing Excess Pumps
Savings from Excess Pumps
129
128
Savings, K$/yr
127
126
125
124
123
122
0
12
16
20
24
Sampling Interval, hr
Page 27 of 57
3.3
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
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SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
800
PV pow er
Power, BHP
700
Pw r to Heat
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Flow, gpm
PV power is the useful energy absorbed into the process for increasing
pressure or driving the fluid. However, a certain amount of input power is lost
to heat due to friction. Observe that the pump efficiency (useful energy divided
by input power) is not constant but in fact goes through a maximum over the
pumps operating range, falling off to near zero at extremely low flow rates.
In general, there are two situations that we could encounter:
a)
b)
In case (a), there should be no recycle; in case (b) some recycle is unavoidable,
but should be kept to the minimum.
Page 29 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
MINIMUM
Power, BHP
800
REQUIRED
ACTUAL
600
SAVINGS
400
200
RECYCLE
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Flow , gpm
REQUIRED MINIMUM
Power, BHP
800
ACTUAL
UNAVOIDABLE
RECYCLE
600
SAVINGS
400
200
RECYCLE
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Flow , gpm
Consider Exhibit 3-15, which shows the power-flow curve for a typical pumping
system. Let us adopt the following nomenclature:
Parameters: F =Flow, HP= Power
Subscripts: A=Actual, R=Required, M=Minimum
Then, the potential power savings for a given time interval are:
HP = HPA max ( HPR, HPM )
Page 30 of 57
where BHP
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
To calculate the power consumption for each case (actual, required, minimum),
use the average flow rate and head for that time interval. Pump efficiencies at
the relevant flow rates should be obtained either from the pump manufacturers
data sheet/curve or from the efficiency data generated during the most recent
pump performance test.
The power savings for each time interval must be added up for all intervals
during the year to get the total annual savings. It is recommended to use either
365 intervals of 1-day each, or 730 intervals of 12 hours each.
The pump flow profile histogram is a very good indicator of whether there is
significant cost saving potential from elimination or minimization of recycle.
Exhibit 3-16: Inferring Recycle Requirements from Flow Profile
Flow Distribution Histogram
140
100
Design
Capacity
Minimum
Flow
120
80
60
40
20
0
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000 1050
Flow , gpm
Specific steps to be taken are listed below and illustrated in Exhibit 3-17:
a)
b)
Develop correlation for pump efficiency curve (from factory test or data
sheet)
c)
Establish minimum flow requirement per pump (if not specified on pump
data sheet, assume 35% of flow at best efficiency point)
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
d)
Gather PI data for net process flow and actual flow through pump (= process flow
+ recycle flow)
e)
Calculate power consumption and potential savings from recycle flow elimination
or minimization using the formulas given above.
1702
15
2.5
14.48
14
0.8
Operating Data:
liquid sp gr
Cost of power
Interval duration
0.86
26.7
24
$/MWH
hours
571
1706
68.3
309
gpm
feet
%
HP
Page 32 of 57
3.4
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
100
1600
80
1200
60
800
40
Head
Efficiency
400
200
400
600
Case 1
2700
2
1350
1449
57.7
735
1471
normal
Case 2
2700
3
900
1635
75.7
421
1264
best eff
20
0
0
Efficiency, %
Head, ft of liquid
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0
2000
Flow, gpm
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Load Management for Energy
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100
1600
80
1200
60
800
40
Efficiency, %
Head
Power
400
20
Efficiency
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0
2000
Flow , gpm
3.5
The calculation procedure is straight-forward. Consider the case of three equalsized pumps of varying efficiency of which only two are normally operated in
parallel (see Exhibit 3-20). The best combination is pumps 1+3, while the worst
is pumps 2+3. The savings potential between best and worst combinations is
$1039 - $996 = $42K per year. While this may not be very great compared to
some of the other savings, it can be achieved easily with zero capital investment.
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Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Pumps ID
1+2
1+3
2+3
S HP
5052
4942
5152
K$/yr
1018
996
1039
Cm
3.6
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Wet Crude
Storage
Tank
Storage
Tank
Pump 2
Pump 3
Pump 1
Pump 2
Head, feet
Pump 3
1200
800
400
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Flow, gpm
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
It should be noted that the quadratic formulation is a good fit only for
heads less than 95% of the shut-off value. In the very low flow region,
when head is between 95 and 100% of the shut-off value, the
relationship is more accurately correlated as a linear function:
h = a - dQ. (The shut-off head is the value at zero flow)
Step 2: Add the a, b, c and d parameters of the pumps connected in series
(#2 and 3 in the example) to get the composite values for the two
together.
Exhibit 3-23: Correlation (Curve-Fit) of Pump Characteristic Curve Data
Exhibit 3-24: Composite Characteristic Curve for Pumps 2 & 3 in Series, and Pump 1 by itself
Composite Characteristic Curves for Pumps in series
2000
Head, feet
1600
1200
800
Pump #1
400
Pumps 2/3
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Flow , gpm
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Step 3: Construct a new table showing the flow for pump 1 and the 2/3
combination at the same head. Then, add the two flows together at each
value of head, which gives the composite characteristic curve for the
whole network.
Exhibit 3-25: Characteristic Curve Data for Pumps 1 and 2 & 3 (in Series) in Parallel
Flow, gpm
Pumps 2/3
Head, ft
1550
1545
1540
1520
1500
1495
1485
1450
1400
1300
1100
800
Pump 1
0
0
0
0
0
250
750
1212
1477
1870
2440
3076
in series
0
147
294
882
1338
1360
1402
1536
1701
1975
2407
2911
1 + 2/3
0
147
294
882
1338
1610
2152
2749
3178
3845
4846
5987
Head, feet
1200
1000
800
600
P ump 1
400
P umps 2/3
Co mpo site
200
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Flow, gpm
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Observe that if system head is greater than the shut-off head for Pump 1
(= 1500 ft), it will not be able to contribute any flow, and the combined network
flow will be equal to the flow from Pumps 2/3 (in series) only. Both parallel
lines can contribute flow only when the system head falls below the shut-off
head for the lower one of the two.
3.7
P2
P1
2g
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
In normal industrial piping systems, the kinetic energy (V2/2g) term is generally
small, and can be safely neglected. Strictly speaking, the frictional term in the
Bernoulli equation includes pressure losses in the piping, equipment,
instruments and the pump itself (bearings, seals, etc). It is common practice,
however, to separate pump losses from piping/equipment losses. Internal losses
within the pump are accounted for as pump efficiency, and only the piping,
equipment and instrument losses are included in the dynamic head component of
system P.
Frictional pressure drop in turbulent flow (Reynolds numbers > 10,000) can be
very closely estimated by the equations:
P = 2f LV2 / gD
and
f = 0.0029 (DV/)-0.2
Because the Moody friction factor f is itself a function of velocity, the net
proportionality between frictional pressure drop and pump flow works out to be
approximately
P Q1.8
With a proper understanding of these basic principles, it becomes easy to
develop the system curve from available data.
If the engineering design contractor and the procurement group have done their
jobs right, the static and dynamic heads at the design condition will be recorded
on the pump documentation supplied by the manufacturer. Only four items of
information are needed design flow rate, liquid density, static head, and
piping/equipment frictional drop at design flow to calculate the system curve
over its entire range of operation:
(Pf ) d
H = HS +
Qd
1.8
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
suction discharge
24
86
12.0
31.1
3.9
25.7
2.0
293
0.0
4.3
Exhibit 3-29: Calculation of Static and Dynamic Head at Design & Maximum Flow
Flow, gpm
Liquid density (specific gravity)
Static head, ft
Dynamic head, ft
System head, ft
Delivered head, ft
Control valve DP, ft
, psi
, % of TDH.
Design Maximum
825
1070
0.8605
0.8605
100
100
884
1419
984
1519
1656
1576
672
58
250
21
41%
4%
The control valve drop is the difference between the TDH of the pump and the
system head. For good control, this should generally be about 1/3 of the total
pump delivered head. Even in the fully open position, the control valve incurs
some pressure drop, equal to 21 psi (58 ft) in the illustrative example, which
defines the maximum flow possible from the pump and piping system.
The maximum flow must be found by trial and error until the system head +
control valve drop (in fully open position) equal the delivered head.
Exhibit 3-30 shows the system curve in relation to the pump characteristic
curve.
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
2000
Pump Curve
System Curve
1600
Control
Valve P
1200
800
Dynamic head
(frictional P)
400
Static head
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Flow, gpm
3.8
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
The combined total flow may be set on either flow control (shown) or level
control (not shown), depending on process requirements. If the stream is a
process feed, we would normally prefer flow control, as this makes for better
operating stability. If on the other hand, it is a product stream going to a
pipeline or bulk storage facility, we may prefer to use level control.
The flow controller output signal passes through a hand switch, controlled by
the operator, which is routed to one of the three control valves in the individual
pump discharge lines. Only one of the valves should be controlled at any given
time; the other two would be either fully open or fully closed, depending on
whether the pump is running or not. The valves should be set to the fail-open
mode. Check valves, block valves, bleed valves, pressure gages, and other
details of standard piping and instrumentation are not shown.
4
Compressor Networks
The methodology for estimating savings potential from load management of
compressors is similar to that for pumps, except that several important differences must
be taken into account:
a)
Gases are compressible while liquids, for all practical purposes, are
incompressible. Physical properties such as specific heat and compressibility can
vary significantly at high compression ratios, affecting power consumption.
b)
Density variations (due to composition and suction pressure drift) are more prevalent.
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Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
c)
Compressors are generally more difficult to startup and shut down (normal startup
period is on the order of 4 hours vs less than 1 hour for even very large pumps)
partly because they usually operate between their first and second critical speeds,
and partly because they have to be properly purged every time when compressing
flammable hydrocarbon gases.
d)
e)
The surge limit generally occurs at 50% of the design flow at the design speed.
4.1
P = pressure, psia
v = specific volume, ft3/mole
T = temperature, R
R = universal gas constant = 1545 ft-lb/moleR = 1.987 Btu/moleR
= 10.729 for the units of measure indicated above
and
ZWT1 460 1
BHP
1281.55 MW ad
where
T1
k 1
k P2 k
1
k - 1 P1
= suction temperature, F
MW
ad
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
T2' T1
T2 T1
P
T2 ' T1 460 2
P1
k 1
k
1 460
n 1 k
p
where
Page 45 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
ad
k 1
P2 k
1
P1
P2
P1
n 1
n
oa a . m
and
where
op p . m
Page 46 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Centrigugal Compressors
79.0
12000
10000
78.0
8000
77.5
Efficiency
6000
Speed
77.0
4000
76.5
Polytropic Eff, %
78.5
2000
76.0
75.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Impeller diam, in
For multi-stage compressors, the total power requirement is simply the sum of
the power for each individual stage. From a thermodynamic viewpoint, the
defining characteristic of a compression stage is that there should be no intercooling between successive impellers. Thus, a compressor casing containing
multiple impellers without intermediate coolers would be considered a single
stage. Confusion often arises because some manufacturers and authors of
technical articles refer to each impeller as a stage. These are not
thermodynamic stages unless an intercooler is provided between each impeller.
In order to keep the temperature rise within reasonable limits, the single-stage
compression ratio is normally limited to about 3.0.
Page 47 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
When calculating the power consumption of the 2nd and later stages, one should
take into account the pressure drop in the interstage cooler and piping, the new
suction inlet temperature, and differences in gas properties at the new suction
conditions.
Performance and System Curves
In general, the head vs capacity curve (also called the performance curve) for
a centrifugal compressor operating at a fixed speed is quite flat, with the total
head at the minimum throughout (the surge point) typically being only 105115% of the head at design throughput. Similarly, the system curve is also
relatively flat, because the static head usually dominates frictional (dynamic)
head. The operating point occurs at the intersection of the compressor
performance curve and the system curve.
30
Head, 1000 ft
4.2
28
Surge limit
26
24
Performance Curve
System Curve
22
20
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Page 48 of 57
4.3
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Control Strategies
For almost all compressor applications, some form of flow regulation is
required, whether to maintain a constant discharge pressure or a constant flow.
Furthermore, the flow set point could be in terms of volume or mass. The type
of control scheme also depends on the type of driver whether fixed speed or
variable speed. The optimal control scheme therefore varies from case to case.
Speed control is considerably more efficient than throttling the flow with a valve
(or even worse, by employing flow recycle) at constant compressor speed, since
the valve resistance creates an unrecoverable power loss. Steam and gas
turbines are inherently variable speed machines, with speed control being easily
achieved by regulating either the steam flow or fuel/air flow. Compared to fixed
speed drivers, variable speed drivers permit a much wider range of control in a
highly efficient manner.
Speed variation can be used to alter the position of the H-Q performance curve
such that it exactly intersects the system curve, as illustrated in Exhibit 4-3, with
power consumption rising and falling roughly in proportion to the process load.
The performance curves at different speeds are developed using the affinity
laws.
Exhibit 4-3: Compressor Performance with Variable-Speed Drive
R92-K151
33
31
29
System Curve
1780 rpm
27
1767 rpm
1630 rpm
25
1484 rpm
1362 rpm
23
Current Compr
Flow Rate,
fixed speed
21
19
17
15
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Page 49 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Page 50 of 57
SABP-A-002
Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Various alternative control strategies for different conditions and scenarios are
described in the following excellent reference texts:
[1]
[2]
In most Saudi Aramco plants, when the compressor is not turbine driven, the
electric motor is normally operated at fixed speed (although there are a few rare
cases where variable speed capability is provided either using a hydraulic gear
box or a variable frequency drive). Since variable speed operation is one of the
ways to improve energy efficiency, it is worth noting that this is a relatively easy
retrofit that can have excellent economics when dealing with networks of parallel
compressors. The reason is that only one of the compressors needs to be fitted
with a VFD; the rest can be left on fixed speed, as illustrated in Exhibit 4-6 (surge
protection controls not shown). It is not necessary, as some mistakenly believe, to
install a VFD on each and every motor in the network.
Page 51 of 57
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Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Exhibit 4-6: Control of Parallel Compressors (One ASD and Rest Fixed Speed)
TI
TI
FC
FI
PI
PI
M
TI
TI
SC
PC
FI
FI
Page 52 of 57
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Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Suction throttling
80
230
2.875
0.1113
0.1247
1.00
Discharge throttling
90
240
2.667
0.1113
0.1154
0.9248
Suction throttling
80
230
2.875
0.1113
0.1247
1.00
1.00
1.00
Discharge throttling
90
240
2.667
0.1113
0.1154
1.2112
1.2112
1.1201
The final point to keep in mind is that the interaction of compressor operations
with the rest of the plant must be given due consideration in the design of the
control system.
For example, if the process upstream of the compressors is under constant
pressure control, then the compressor control system must be designed (or
modified) in such a way that starting and stopping a compressor will not disturb
the upstream process. In short, an integrated control philosophy is needed.
4.4
Process Modifications
The principal process parameters that affect compressor power consumption are
mass flow rate, suction (inlet) temperature, and the compression ratio, so
anything we can do to reduce these three parameters through process
modifications will help to reduce power consumption.
Flow requirements are generally set by process conditions, but one should
examine the overall process flowsheet to look for opportunities to change the
material balance in such a way that the flow through the compressor is minimized.
Inlet temperature can obviously be reduced by installing a heat exchanger in the
process stream entering the compressor, but this seldom pays out, because the
new cooler creates additional pressure drop in the system that will increase the
Page 53 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Page 54 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
From Exhibit 4-8a, it can be seen that the suction stream to the Sales Gas
compressor is being used to cool the feed gas to the Gas Treating process.
Effectively, we have a heater in the compressor suction line; by bypassing it,
as shown in Exhibit 4-8b, we can reduce not only the suction temperature but
also the compression ratio by eliminating the heaters P. The process stream
which was being cooled against compressor suction must now be cooled against
some other stream, with consequent net energy savings.
Power consumption can also be reduced by minimizing the required discharge
pressure. For example most Aramco compressors have a fin-fan cooler in their
discharge line, whose cooling capacity varies with ambient temperature. One of
the power conservation strategies used by the operators is to shed power load on
the fans during cooler weather (a laudable attempt at thermal load management)
once the temperature set point downstream of the cooler is being met. However,
maintaining a constant condenser temperature is the wrong control objective if
the compressor discharge stream is going to a condenser, because the required
pressure for condensation is not constant but varies with ambient temperature.
In such cases, even greater power savings could be obtained by following a
different operating policy viz. to maximize the fin-fan cooling capacity but
save even more power by minimizing the discharge pressure (and therefore, the
compression ratio). A suggested control scheme is shown in Exhibit 4-19, with
the supporting calculations presented in Exhibit 4-10.
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Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
The tricky part is being able to determine when exactly we have achieved total
condensation, something very difficult to do. The proposed solution is to have
two condensers in series. The main condenser would condense only about
90-95% of the vapor, and the vent condenser would condense the balance.
The control system would be set up to maintain a fixed 10:1 or 20:1 flow ratio
between the main flow and the vent flow.
Page 56 of 57
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Load Management for Energy
Efficiency: Pumps & Compressors
Revision Summary
Revised the "Next Planned Update". Reaffirmed the contents of the document, and reissued
with editorial changes.
Page 57 of 57