Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
FORMULA BOOK
for
ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
NETWORK THEORY CONTROL SYSTEM DIGITAL ELECTRONICS MICROPROCESSOR COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS ANALOG ELECTRONICS SIGNAL AND SYSTEM COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
MICROWAVES ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION MATERIAL SCIENCE
Ac2
R2R3
1 n
R1 =
R
1+
Q2
2 2
m
Ac
Ptotal =
Pcarrier +
PLSB +
PUSB Pcarrier ==
PLSB PUSB =
EY
4
i i
n
2
8
i=
1
R2R3C4
Yeq =
Yi
L1 = 2 Eeq =
2
2 2
2 2
2
n
Ac m
Ac m
Ac
m
1
i=
1
1+
Yi
Ptotal =
+
+
Ptotal =
1+
Pc
Q
2
i=
1
w
L1
1
where, Q =
=
RL
R1 w
R4C4 Yin =
G
i
Inductive
x=0
r=0
Short circuit line
RC
XC
XL IC IC IEP
+
+
j
a
=
=
=
Bg
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
RL +
XL RC +
XC
RC +
XC RL +
XL2 IE IEP IE
x=5
|G(jw
)|
y(t) =
x1(t) *
x2 (t) =
x1(t
)x2 (t t
)dt
x=
G
r y
r=
HS
HS
D=x
y
z
0dB
w
gc
_ _
B = xy + xz + yz f
PM
log w
-x
-180
Capacitive
w
pc
log w
ENGINEERS
INSTITUTE OF INDIA
FORMULA BOOK
for
GATE, IES & PSUs
ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
Published by Engineers Institute of India
A WORD
WORD TO
TO THE
THE STUDENTS.
A
GATE and
and Engineering
Engineering Services Examinations are the
GATE
most prestigious
prestigious competitive
competitive examinations conducted
most
for graduate
graduate engineers.
engineers. Over the past few years, they
for
have become
become more
more competitive
competitive as more and more
have
numbers of
of aspirants
aspirants are increasingly becoming
numbers
interested in
in post
post graduate qualifications &
interested
government jobs
jobs for
for aa secured
secured and bright career.
government
This Formula
Formula Book
Book consists
consists of
of well
well illustrated
illustrated concepts, important
This
formulae and
and diagrams,
diagrams, which
which will
will be
be highly
highly beneficial at the last leg of
formulae
candidates preparation.
preparation.
candidates
includes all
all the
the subjects
subjects of
of Electronics
Electronics & Communication Engineering,
ItIt includes
Instrumentation Engineering,
Engineering, which
which are
are required for all type of
Instrumentation
competitive examinations.
examinations. Adequate
Adequate emphasis
emphasis has been laid down to all
competitive
the major
major topics
topics in
in the
the form
form of
of Tips
Tips / Notes, which will be highly
the
lucrative for
for objective
objective and
and short
short answer
answer type
type questions.
lucrative
Proper strategy
strategy and
and revision
revision is
is aa mandatory
mandatory requirement for clearing
Proper
any competitive
competitive examination.
examination. This
This book
book covers short notes and
any
formulae for
for Electronics
Electronics &
& Communication
Communication Engineering. This book will
formulae
help in
in quick
quick revision
revision before
before the
the GATE,
GATE, IES
IES & all other PSUs.
help
We are
are highly
highly thankful
thankful to
to Syed
Syed Zahid
Zahid Ali Quadri (ES Rank16, GATE Rank
We
34), Ankur
Ankur Gupta,
Gupta, Ashish
Ashish Choudhary
Choudhary and
and the EII Team for their efforts in
34),
bringing out
out this
this book
book in
in the
the present
present form.
form. We have tried our best to
bringing
steer you
you ahead
ahead in
in the
the competitive
competitive examinations.
examinations.
steer
With best
best wishes
wishes for
for future
future career
career
With
R. K.
K. Rajesh
Rajesh
R.
Director
Director
Engineers Institute
Institute of
of India
India
Engineers
eii.rkrajesh@gmail.com
eii.rkrajesh@gmail.com
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
287-300
12. MICROWAVES ..
301-328
329-364
Why IES?
Indian engineering services (IES) constitute of engineers that work under the
govt. of India to manage a large segment of public sector economy which
constitutes of Railroads, Public works, Power, Telecommunications, etc. IES
remain the most sought-after careers for the engineering graduates in India. A
combined competitive examination is conducted by UPSC for recruitment to
the Indian Engineering Services. The exam constitutes of a written exam
followed by an interview for personality test.
Why GATE?
1. MATERIAL SCIENCE
[1]
1
MATERIAL SCIENCE
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS .
11-14
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1. MATERIAL SCIENCE
[2]
1. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
1.
2.
3.
3
a
2
1
1 2
8
Fe, Cr, Na
a
2
Coordination number = 12
No of atoms per unit cell = 8
Packing efficiency = 74%
Example Cu, Silver, Gold
1
3 4
8
1
3 4
12
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1. MATERIAL SCIENCE
[3]
OA
2
OA
2
OB
0
OC
( h, k , ) (2, 0, 0)
k
2.
OA
1
OA
OB
k
1
OB
OC
1
OC
( h, k , ) (1, 1, 1)
h
3.
OA
1
OA
OB
k
0
OC
l
0
(h, k , l ) (1, 0, 0)
h
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[15]
2
MEASUREMENT
&
INSTRUMENTATION
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
AC BRIDGES 24-26
4.
5.
6.
Q-METER .. 31-31
7.
TRANSDUCERS
8.
32-34
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[16]
1. MEASURING INSTRUMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
Generalized Measuring Instrument: The block diagram of generalized measuring
system may be represented as:
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value
of the variable being measured. It can be improved by recalibration.
Precision: It is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement differ
from one another.
It is design time characteristic.
High precision does not mean high accuracy. A highly precise instrument may be
inaccurate.
Ex: If reading are 101, 102, 103, 104, 105. Most precise value is 103
Resolution: The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will
respond. It is improved by re-calibrating the instrument.
Sensitivity: It is ratio of change in output per unit change in input quantity of the
instrument. It is design time characteristic.
Drift: It means deviation in output of the instrument from a derived value for a
particular input.
Reproducibility: It is degree of closeness with which a given value may be
measured repeatedly for a given period of time.
Repeatability: It is degree of closeness with which a given input is repeatably
indicated for a given set of recordings.
Errors:
1.
Absolute Error/Static Error/Limiting Error:
A Am AT
2.
3.
4.
Relative Error:
AT
AT
A
% r
100
Percent Error:
AT
Instrument Error is generally given in percent error.
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[17]
x x x x
X
1 1 2 2
X
X x1 X x2
2. Error due to product or quotient of quantities
x1
1
Or
or
X x1 x 2 x3
x2 x3
x1 x2 x3
x
X
x x
1 2 3
X
x2
x3
x1
% r
3. Composite factors
x
X
x
n 1 m 2
X
x2
x1
CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS:
X x1n . x2m
Standards of EMF:
(a) Saturated Weston cell is used for Primary standard of emf.
Its emf is 1.01864 volt, maximum current drawn is 100 A. It contains
CdSO 4 crystal and its internal resistance is 600 to 800 .
(b) Unsaturated Weston cell is used for secondary standards. Its emf is 1.0180
to 1.0194 volt and does not have CdSO 4 crystal.
Standard of Resistance:
Maganin (Ni + Cu + Mn)
Nickel 4%
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3. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
[37]
3
ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS ..
47-48
5.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ..
49-53
6.
7.
ANTENNAS
58-58
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3. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
[38]
z
For Spherical:
V
1 V
1 V
a r
a
a
r
r
r sin
For Cartesian:
.A
For Cylindrical:
.A
For Spherical:
.A
A x A y A z
x
y
z
1
1 A A z
(A )
1 2
1
1 A
(r A r )
(sin A )
2
r r
r sin
r sin
For Cylinderical:
For Spherical:
a x
A
x
Ax
a y
y
Ay
a z
z
Az
a r
a
A
A A
a r
r 2sin
A
r
Ar
a z
z
Az
a
r sin
a
r
rA
r sin A
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[39]
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
2V
1 V 1 2 V 2 V
2 2 z 2
1 2 V
1
V
1
2V
r
sin
r 2 r r r 2 sin
r 2 sin 2 2
Laplacian of Vector: It is a vector quantity.
2 V
For Spherical:
2 A (.A) A
A ( . A) 2 A
. (A B) B . ( A) A . ( B)
Divergence Theorem: It states that total outward flux of vector field A through
A.ds . A dv
s
Stokes Theorem: It states that line integral of a vector field A over a closed path is
A . dl ( A) . ds
l
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[59]
4. NETWORK THEORY
4
NETWORK THEORY
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
RESONANCE . 73-76
5.
TRANSIENTS
6.
7.
85-88
8.
89-90
9.
FILTERS .
91-94
10.
NETWORK SYNTHESIS .
95-98
69-72
77-80
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[60]
4. NETWORK THEORY
1. NETWORK BASICS
Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge flow.
dq
(Ampere)
i
dt
t
q idt
to
R=
l
ohm
A
R ' n2 R
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[61]
4. NETWORK THEORY
R'
R
n2
Capacitor: All capacitors are linear and bilateral, except electrolytic capacitor
which is unilateral.
Time Domain:
1
v(t) i(t)dt
C
Cdv(t)
i(t) =
dt
I(s) = sCV(s)
1
I(s)
sC
Capacitor doesnt allow sudden change of voltage, until impulse of current is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of electric field and power dissipation in ideal
capacitor is zero.
1
; Xc Capacitive reactance ; = 2f
Impedance Zc =-jXc & Xc =
C
Inductor: Linear and Bilateral element
In s-domain:
V(s) =
Time Domain:
di (t )
v(t ) L
dt
Impedance
Z L jX L & X L
1
i (t ) v(t )dt
L
L
1
V(s)
sL
Inductor doesnt allowed sudden change of current, until impulse of voltage is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of magnetic field.
Power dissipation in ideal inductor is zero.
In s-domain
I(s) =
V(s) = sL I(s)
I2
+
Input
port V1
+
N1
Output
V2 port
N2
V1 N1
V2 N 2
Where
N 2 N1 : Step up transformer
I1 N 2
I 2 N1
N1
K Turns ratio.
N2
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[62]
4. NETWORK THEORY
Ro
V1
I2
V2
R o Coefficient of Gyrator
V1 R o I 2
V2 R o I1
If load is capacitive then input impedance will be inductive and vice versa.
If load is inductive then input impedance will be capacitive.
It is used for simulation of equivalent value of inductance.
Voltage Source:
In practical voltage source, there is small internal resistance, so voltage across the
element varies with respect to current.
Ideal voltmeter, RV (Internal resistance)
Current Source:
In practical current source, there is small internal resistance, so current varies with
respect to the voltage across element.
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[63]
4. NETWORK THEORY
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[99]
5
SIGNAL AND SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Z TRANSFORM . 119-122
8.
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ECE FORMULA
FORMULA BOOK
BOOK
ECE
5. SIGNAL
SIGNAL AND
AND SYSTEM
SYSTEM
5.
[100]
1. BASIC
BASIC PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES OF SIGNALS
1.
Operations on
on Signals:
Signals:
Operations
y (t ) x(t )
Time Shifting:
Shifting:
Time
Shift the
the signal
signal towards
towards right
right side
side by
by || || when
when 0 . This is also called as time
Shift
delay.
delay.
Shift the
the signal
signal left
left towards
towards side
side by
by || || when
when 0 . This is also called as time
Shift
advance.
advance.
Time Reversal
Reversal
(t) == xx (t)
(t)
Time
yy (t)
Rotate the
the signal
signal w.r.t.
w.r.t. y-axis.
y-axis. ItIt is
is mirror
mirror image
image of
of signal.
Rotate
(t) == xx (t)
(t)
yy (t)
Rotate the
the signal
signal w.r.t.
w.r.t. x-axis.
x-axis.
Rotate
Time Scaling
Scaling y(t ) x( t )
Time
When 1,compress
compress the
the signal.
signal.
When
1,
When
expand
the
signal.
When
expand
the
signal.
Eg.
y(t)
y(t) == x(5t
x(5t ++ 3)
3)
Eg.
3
y (t ) x 5 t
5
Steps: 1.
1. First
First rotate
rotate the
the signal
signal w.r.t.
w.r.t. y-axis.
y-axis.
Steps:
2. Compress
Compress the
the signal
signal by
by 55 times.
times.
2.
3
3. Shift
Shift the
the signal
signal by
by unit
unit towards
towards right
right side.
side.
3.
5
Publishedby:
by:ENGINEERS
ENGINEERSINSTITUTE
INSTITUTEOF
OF INDIA
INDIA..
ALL
ALL RIGHTS
RIGHTS RESERVED
RESERVED
Published
www.engineersinstitute.com
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[101]
Standard Signals:
Continuous time signals
Impulse signal (Direct Delta Function)
,
(t )
0 ,
t 0
t0
(t )dt 1
&
(ii) x (t ) (t to ) x (to ) (t to )
1
(t )
||
(iv)
) x (t o )
(vi) x (t ) * (t to ) x (t to )
(iii) [ (t )]
(t ) dt 1
(v)
x (t ) (t t
1, t 0
u (t )
0, t 0
t , t 0
r (t )
0 , t 0
Parabolic signal:
x(t )
At 2
u(t )
2
At 2
,t0
x (t ) 2
0 , t0
t2
t0
t0
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[102]
1
1
(t ) u t u t
2
2
Triangular signal:
|t |
1 , | t | a
x(t )
a
0, | t | a
Signum Signal:
1, t 0
x(t ) sgm(t )
1, t 0
sgn(t ) 2u (t ) 1
sgn u (t ) u (t )
Relationship between u(t), (t ) and r(t): u (t )
(t )dt
r(t) = tu(t)
dt u (t )
dt (t )
r (t )
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[103]
Energy
Ex
| x(t) |
dt
Power
1
Px
| x(t) |2dt
2T T
(T )
Ex
(T )
2T
(i) When energy is finite; then power is zero (Energy Signal).
(ii) When power is finite, then energy is infinite (Power Signal).
All periodic signals are power signals but the converse is not true.
Absolute stable signal is energy signal.
Unstable signal is neither energy nor power signal.
Marginally stable signal is power signal.
Px
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[125]
6
ELECTRONIC DEVICES &
CIRCUITS
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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[126]
VT
T
volt
11600
0.72 eV
1.1 eV
1.47 eV
dv volt
dx meter
drift velocity
v
m2
sec
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Mobility Vs
[127]
curve
< 10 3
constant
So drift velocity: V d
Vd 1/ 2
10 3 10 4
1/ 2
10 4
Vd constant
Mobility indicates how quick is the e or hole moving from one place to
another.
Electron mobility > hole mobility
Mobility of charge carriers decreases with the temperature.
T m
Mass Action Law: In a semi conductor under thermal equilibrium (at constant
temperature) the product of electrons and holes in a semiconductor is always
constant and equal to the square of intrinsic concentration.
[no po ni2 ]
no Concentration of e in conduction band
Po Concentration of holes in valance band
ni Intrinsic concentration at given temperature
Majority carrier concentration =
ni2
Minority carrier concentration
Intrinsic concentration
ni2 AoT 3e
Eg
2 KT
Dn D P
VT KT
n P
The unit of
D
is volts.
Where,
D n e diffusion constant
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[128]
Jn
Jp
Jn
Jn
current due to e
For e
J n nqn qDn
For holes
J p pq p qDp
dn
A / cm2
dx
dp
A / cm2
dx
e diffusion length
Ln
Dn cm
LP
DP cm
Conductivity
In Metals: Metals are uni-polar, so current is carried only by e
nqn
In metal, conductivity decreases with temperature.
nqn pq P
In Semi Conductors
n Concentration of e in CB
e Concentration of holes in VB
n , p Mobility of holes and electrons
N D q n
ND = donor concentration
For p type
N A q p
NA = acceptor concentration
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7. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
[157]
7
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.
ANALOG MODULATION .
158-164
2.
165-170
3.
NOISE .
171-172
4.
173-174
5.
175-176
6.
INFORMATION THEORY ..
177-178
7.
ANTENNA THEORY ..
179-181
8.
RADAR ..
182-183
9.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
184-185
10.
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
186-190
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7. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
[158]
1. ANALOG MODULATION
Modulation is the process of placing the message signal over some carrier signal to
make it suitable for transmission.
Need for Modulation:
1. Size of antenna required for receiving the wave is reduced if signal is transmitted
at high frequency.
2. Many number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously by selecting the
carriers of different frequencies.
3. The interference of noise and other signals can be reduced by changing the
frequency of transmission.
4. Integration of different communication system is possible.
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulated Signal:
AM may be defined as a system in which the maximum amplitude of the carrier
wave is made proportional to the instantaneous value (amplitude) of the modulating
or base band signal.
x m ( t ) Am cos m t
xc ( t ) Ac cos c t
x(t ) Ac [1 Ka xm (t )]cos ct
where = KaAm
Bandwidth = 2 f m
Frequency band from f c to f c f m is called as upper sideband
Frequency band from f c f m to f c is called as lower sideband
Amax Amin
Amax Amin
Amax AC [1 ]
Amin AC [1 ]
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7. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
[159]
Ptotal
2
8
8
Ac2
2 Ac2
PLSB PUSB
2
8
2
1
Pc
2
Pcarrier
Ptotal
AM
2
AM 2
100%
2
PSB
100%
Pt
2
Pt 1
Pc
2
I tIC 1
2
Ic
2
modulation index
A c carrier amplitude
In DSB-SC the carrier signal is suppressed at the time of modulation. Only sidebands are transmitted in modulated wave.
2
Bandwidth = 2 f m
Transmitted Power Pt Pc
2
Power saving = 66.67% (for = 1)
Single Sideband Modulation (SSB): In this technique, along with modulation
carrier one side band gets suppressed from AM modulated wave.
s (t ) Ac m (t ) cos 2 f c t Ac m (t ) sin 2 f c t
( t ) is Hilbert transform of message signal.
m
Bandwidth = f m
Transmitter Power Pt
2
PC
4
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7. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
[160]
AM Modulators:
For Generation of AM or DSB/Full carrier wave
A. Product Modulator B. Square Law Modulator C. Switching Modulator
For Generation DSB-SC wave
A. Filter method/frequency discrimination method
B. Phase shift method/Phase discrimination method
C. Third method/Weavers method
Demodulation of Amplitude Modulate wave:
A. Synchronous or coherent detection
Envelop Detector:
r(t)
B. Envelop detector
m (t )
r(t) is received signal and m(t) is message signal and for better reception RC must
1
1
be selected such as
RC
fc
W
fc = carrier frequency
w is bandwidth of message signal
m
1
RC
1 2
Key points:
Demodulation of AM signal is simpler than DSB-SC and SSB systems,
Demodulation of DSB-SC and SSB is rather difficult and expensive.
It is quite easier to generate conventional AM signals at high power level as
compared to DSB-SC and SSB signals. For this reason, conventional AM
systems are used for broad casting purpose.
The advantage of DSB-SC and SSB systems over conventional AM system is
that the former requires lesser power to transmit the same information.
SSB scheme needs only one half of the bandwidth required in DSB-SC system
and less than that required in VSB also.
SSB modulation scheme is used for long distance transmission of voice signals
because it allows longer spacing between repeaters.
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[191]
8. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
8
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
SHIFT REGISTERS
217-218
7.
COUNTERS
219-221
8.
222-228
9.
229-232
10.
MEMORIES ..
233-234
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[192]
8. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
A number system with base r, contents r different digits and they are from 0 to
r 1.
Decimal to other codes conversions: To convert decimal number into other system
with base r, divide integer part by r and multiply fractional part with r.
Other codes to Decimal Conversions: ( x2 x1 x0 . y1 y2 ) r (A)10
A x2 r 2 x1 r x0 y1 r 1 y 2 r 2
(5 AF )16
Eg : (943)10 1001
0100
0011
4
9 BCD
9
It is also known as 8421 code
Invalid BCD codes
Total Number possible 2 4 16
Valid BCD codes 10
Invalid BCD codes 16 10 6
These are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111
Excess-3 code: (BCD + 0011)
It can be derived from BCD by adding 3 to each coded number.
It is unweighted and self-complementing code.
Published by: ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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[193]
8. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Gray Code:
It is also called minimum change code or unit distance code or reflected code.
Binary code to Gray code:
MSB 1
MSB 1
0 Binary
1 Gray
5321
2456
1
8's complement
5321
5322
Find 2s complement of 101.110
1s complement 010.001
For 2s complement add 1 to the LSB
010.001
7's complement
2'scomplement
1
010.010
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[194]
8. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Data Representation:
5 101
5 Not possible
Signed Magritude: Range with n bit (2 n 1 1) to (2 n 1 1)
6 0110
6
1 110
1 0000 110
sign bit
with 4 bits
1s complement:
6 0110
sign bit
with 8 bits
n 1
In any representation
+ve numbers are represented similar to +ve number in sign magnitude.
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[235]
9. CONTROL SYSTEM
9
CONTROL SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
STABILITY . 247-249
5.
6.
253-254
7.
POLAR PLOTS
255-258
8.
BODE PLOTS ..
259-262
9.
COMPENSATORS ..
263-266
10.
267-268
241-246
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[236]
9. CONTROL SYSTEM
1. BLOCK DIAGRAM
Open Loop Control System:
In this system the output is not feedback for comparison with the input.
Open loop system faithfulness depends upon the accuracy of input calibration.
Transfer function =
C(s)
G(s)
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
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[237]
9. CONTROL SYSTEM
2. Moving a
summing point
after a block
3. Moving a
summing point
ahead of block
X1
4. Moving a take
off point after a
block
X1 G
X1
X1
X1
X1 G
1/G
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X1
5. Moving a take
off point ahead of
a block
[238]
9. CONTROL SYSTEM
X 1G
G
X1
X 1G
X 1G
6. Eliminating a
feedback loop
X1
X 1G
X2
1GH
(GX1 X2 )
Signal Flow Graphs:
It is a graphical representation of control system.
Signal Flow Graph of Block Diagram:
Transfer function =
pk k
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[269]
10. MICROPROCESSOR
10
MICROPROCESSOR
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
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[270]
10. MICROPROCESSOR
1. MICROPROCESSOR BASICS
A Microprocessor includes ALU, register arrays and control circuits on a single
chip.
Microcontroller:
A device that includes microprocessor, memory and input and output signal lines on
a single chip, fabricated using VLSI technology.
Architecture of 8085 Microprocessor
1. 8085 MPU:
8 bit general purpose microprocessor capable of addressing 64 K of memory.
It has 40 pins, requires a +5V single power supply and can operate with 3 MHz
single phase clock.
2. 8085 programming model:
It has six general purpose register to store 8 bit data. These are B, C, D, E, H
and L. It can be combined as BC, DE, and HL to perform 16 bit operations.
B, D, H high order register and C, E, L low order register.
Accumulator: Is an 8 bit register that is used to perform arithmetic and logic
functions.
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10. MICROPROCESSOR
[271]
Flags: 5 flags
Flag Register:
D7
D6
D5
D4
AC
D3
D2
D1 D0
CY
Carry Flag (CY): If an arithmetic operation result in a carry or borrow, the CY flag
is set, otherwise it is reset.
Parity Flag (P):
If the result has au even number of 1s, the flag is set, otherwise the flag is reset.
Auxiliary Carry (AC): In an arithmetic operation
If carry is generated by D 3 and passed to D 4 flag is set.
Otherwise it is reset.
Zero Flag (Z): Zero Flag is set to 1, when the result is zero otherwise it is reset.
Sign Flag (S): Sign Flag is set if bit D7 of the result is 1. Otherwise it is reset.
Program counter (PC): It is used to store the l6 bit address of the next byte to be
fetched from the memory or address of the next instruction to be executed.
Stack Pointer (SP): It is 16 bit register used as a memory pointer. It points to
memory location in Read/Write memory which is called as stack.
8085 Signals:
Address lines:
There are l6 address lines AD0 AD7 and A8 A15 to identify the memory
locations.
Data lines/ Multiplexed address lines:
Multiplexed address lines: The signal lines AD7 AD0 are bi-directional i.e. they
serve dual purpose. The AD7 AD0 address lines are shared with the data lines.
The ALE signal is used to distinguish between address lines and data lines.
Control and Status Signals:
Address Latch Enable (ALE): This is positive going pulse generated every time
and indicates that the AD7 AD0 bits are address bits.
RD : This is active low signal indicates that the selected I/O or memory device is to
be read.
WR : Active low signal indicates that data on data bus are to be written into a
selected memory or I/O location.
IO/M:
When this signal is high, it indicates an I/O operation.
When it is low it indicates memory operation.
S1 and S0 : These are status signals.
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[287]
11
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
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[288]
1. PROGRAMMING BASICS
Computer cannot execute a program written in assembly or high level language.
The program first must need to be translated to machine language (machine
language program is nothing more than sequence of 0s and 1s) which the computer
can understand.
Compiler: Compiler is a translator, which converts high level language program
into assembly language program.
Assembler: Assembler is a program that translates assembly language program into
machine language (sequence of 0s and 1s) program.
Linker: Linker is a computer program that takes one or more object files generated
by a compiler and combine them into a single executable program.
Loader: Loader is the part of an operating system that is responsible for loading
programs. It places programs into memory and prepares them for execution.
Data types in C:
Data type Size (in bytes)
char
1
int
2
float
4
double
8
int i = 10;
This declaration tells the C compiler to:
(a) Reserve space (2B) in memory to hold the integer value.
(b) Associate the name i with this memory location.
(c) Store that value of i at this location
i
Location name
10
1000
Value at location
Address
main ( )
{
int i = 10;
printf (%u, &i);
printf (%d, i);
printf (%d, * (&i));
}
Output:
/*printf (%u, &i); */
1000
/*printf(%d, i); */
10
/*printf(%d, * (&i));
*(1000) = 10
* is called value at address operator.
Pointer: Pointers are variables which holds the address of another variable.
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[289]
Example:
main( )
{
int x = 5;
int * y = &x;
int**z = &y;
prin tf("%u",&x);
prin tf("%u",y);
prin tf("%u",z);
printf("%d",x);
printf("%d",*y);
printf("%d",**z);
}
Solution:
5
x
1000 1001
1000
y
2000 2001
2000
z
3000 3001
printf("%u",&x);
1000
printf("%u",y);
1000
printf("%u",z);
2000
printf("%d",x);
5
printf("%d",*y);
*1000=5
printf("%d",**z);
**2000=*1000=5
Note: Every pointer variable takes 2 byte
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[301]
12. MICROWAVES
12
MICROWAVES
CONTENTS
1.
302-304
2.
WAVEGUIDES .
305-308
3.
309-311
4.
312-312
5.
313-317
6.
318-324
7.
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS .
325-328
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[302]
12. MICROWAVES
Frequency
Wavelength
ELF
30 300 Hz
10 1 Mm
VLF
3 30 kHz
100 10 km
LF
30 300 kHz
10 1 km
MF
3003000 kHz
1000100m
HF
3 30 MHz
100 10 m
VHF
30 300 MHz
10 1 m
UHF
3003000 MHz
100 10 cm
Propagation
characteristics
Penetration into earth
and sea.
Surface wave up to
1000 km. Sky wave in
the night extends
range. Low attenuation
during day and night.
Surface wave and sky
wave at night. Surface
wave attenuation
greater than VHF.
Ground wave in day
and sky wave in night.
Attenuation is high in
day and low in night.
Reflection from
ionosphere.
Applications
Communication with
submarines.
Long distance point to
point communication,
Sonar navigation.
Point-to-point marine
communication, Time
standard frequency
broadcast.
AM broadcasting,
direction finding,
coastguard and marine
communication.
Moderate and long
distance communication
of all types: telephone,
telegraph, radio.
Television FM service,
aviation and police.
Short distance
communication,
including radar, T.V,
satellite communication.
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[303]
12. MICROWAVES
1
2
Skin depth
a Inner conductor radius
1 1
/ m
b
c a
c Conductivity
b Outer conductor radius
b
ln H/m
2 a
2
Capacitance: C
F/m
b
ln
a
Inductance: L =
Characteristic Impedance:
Zo
L
1
C 2
Zo
60
r
ln
b
n
b
Breakdown power in coaxial cable: Pbd 3600 a 2 ln KW
a
Strip Lines:
These are modifications of coaxial lines and used at frequency from 100 MHz to
100 GHz.
The dominant mode is TEM mode and has no radiation losses.
These have higher isolation between adjacent circuits and no fringing fields after
a certain distance from the edges of a conductor.
It is difficult to mount active components on strip lines (i.e. line diode,
circulators).
Characteristic Impedance:
Zo
4b
ln
r d
60
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12. MICROWAVES
[304]
377 h
r w
If w >> h
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[329]
13
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
OSCILLATORS . 348-351
7.
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[330]
% Regulation =
VFL -Fullload
Smaller the regulation better is the circuit performance.
Zener Voltage Regulator Circuit:
I I z min I L max
I I z min I L
Vi VL
Rs
I z min
IL
Ripple factor:
Form factor:
V
r rms 1
Vdc
rms value Vrms
F
dc value
Vdc
Peak value
Crest factor =
RMS value
Rectifier Efficiency =
r F2 1
DC power output
100%
AC power input
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DC power output
AC rating of transformer
I
V
RMS value of current and voltage:
I rms m ,
Vrms m
2
2
Efficiency 40.6%
Ripper factor = 1.21
Frequency of ripple voltage = f
Form factor = 1.57
Peak inverse voltage = Vm
TUF = 0.286
Full Wave Rectifier: Average value of current and voltage:
2I
2V
Idc m , Vdc m
Vrms
Vm
2
, I rms
Im
2
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