PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

TOPIC 1. Critical Reasoning and Moral Theory

A. KEY TERMS

Act Utilitarianism: a moral theory that states that the only way to judge an act is to examine the
consequences of that act
Casuistry: the determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience by the
application of general principles of ethics
Categorical Imperative: a rule that must always be followed by all rational beings, according to
Kant
Consequentialism: denotes any theory of ethics that holds that the consequence of an action, not
the motivation behind the action, makes the action good or bad
Contractarianism: a moral theory (and political theory) stemming from the writings of Hobbes
that states that people are rational beings who wish to promote their own self-interests, the best
way of doing so being to promote the common interests of society
Cultural Relativism: a moral theory that holds that no valid rational criterion for determining
the right thing to do exists
Deliberative Critical Discussion: a conversation in which the participants consider the partners
in the discussion to be well-intended and informed, and with this understanding, bring their
knowledge to the discussion to share their own opinions and develop more refined perspectives
Deontological Ethical Theory: a moral theory that focuses on the rights, duties, obligations, and
rules placed on members of a society
Principle: the idea that social and economic inequalities are justified only if such inequalities
provide the greatest benefit to the least advantaged
Divine Command Theory: a moral theory that holds that X is good because God commands it,
and for no other reason
Ethics: a set of morally permissible standards of a group that each member of the group (at
his/her rational best) wants every other member to follow even if their doing so would mean that
he/she must do the same
Ethics of Caring: defines goodness in terms of whether or not we take care of the people around
us
Game Theory: a branch of mathematics in which an individual (a player) makes choices that
potentially create points for the player
Good Will: the will of a person to act solely according to a code of morality based purely in
reason
Hobbes, Thomas: an English philosopher from whose writings stemmed the theory of
Contractarianism
Ideal Man: one who possesses the characteristics of a good person (virtues), including courage,
friendliness, and modesty, which represent the half-way point when considering the relevant
factors of risk and generosity
Impartiality: the quality that every person is treated equally and no one is given preferential
treatment
Justice as Fairness: the argument that social and economic inequalities are justified only if
everyone has a fair chance to obtain the better position, and that such inequalities provide the
greatest benefit to the least advantaged
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Kant, Immanuel: a German philosopher whose moral theories stem from the deontological
ethical theories
Moral Theory: a way of defining morality, which explains How do I know that X is good?
and Why is X good?
Morality: the set of standards everyone wants everyone else to follow, even if their following
them means having to do the same
No Harm, No Foul: the approach that it is wrong to punish a person for a simple mistake when
no harm was done
Noddings, Nel: a philosopher who claims that morality boils down to a single virtue, which is
caring for other individuals, which she calls the ethics of caring
One-Caring: the caregiver role one assumes during their interactions with others
Practical Reason: the reasoning used to make decisions
Principle of the End in Itself: a Kantian law of ethics that commands that one treat humans,
both oneself and others, always as ends in themselves, and never merely as a means to an end
Prisoners Dilemma: a scenario in which two people are offered a choice, namely to cooperate
or defect
Pure Reason: deductive reasoning on which Euclidean geometry is based; its purpose is to
establish the truth
Rawls, John: a Contractarian who wrote the classic work, A Theory of Justice, with which he
attempts to solve the problem of impartiality
Rawlss Theory of Justice: a significant book that John Rawls wrote to explore the basic rules
that are necessary to ensure fairness in society as a whole, arguing that the principles of justice
as fairness underlie all just societies
Religious Ethics: a set of ethical standards for the followers of a particular religion
Righteous Indignation: the anger we feel at someones undeserved good or bad fortune
Rule Utilitarianism: a type of utilitarianism in which a society sets a set of rules, and each act is
evaluated as to whether it conforms to them
Tolerance: the willingness to let people do what they wish, as long as there is no overriding
justification to do otherwise
Universal Law of Nature: a Kantian law of ethics that commands one to act only according to
maxims (principles) that could be adopted as universal laws
Universality: the quality denoting that a decision reached by applying a theory should be correct
for everyone who has a similar decision to make
Utilitarian Calculus: the process of calculating which action will lead to the greatest happiness
Utilitarianism: a consequentialist moral theory that says that the right decision is the one that
causes the most happiness
Utility: the measurement of happiness maximization
Veil of Ignorance: a concept derived from a thought experiment that asks you to consider a
social contract unto which one would hypothetically choose to be born
Virtue Theory: a moral theory that concerns the nature of virtue and what it means to have
virtue
Virtues: characteristics of a good person

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B. DISCUSSION POINTS

Explain how the No Harm, No Foul principle may play a role in moral reasoning, and if it
is a valid principle to follow.
No Harm, No Foul is the idea that it is wrong to punish someone for a simple mistake
when no significant harm was done. One common example is in recreational basketball,
which is where the term derived from.

Explain how the book discerns ethical from morally good.

Ethics is a set of morally permissible standards of a group that each member wants every
other member, including oneself, to follow. Morality is THE set of universal standards
that all people want each other to follow, even if doing so requires one to do the same.
Explain how ones religious beliefs can cause issues when addressing general ethics.
We want all people to be ethical regardless of their religious beliefs. Our ethical models
must provide a way for anyone to do the right thing, to the extent that the right thing can
be determined in our larger society.

What moral theory claims that there is never any acceptable justification for one culture
to override the wishes of another?
Cultural Relativism

How are moral structures similar to languages?

Moral structures and languages both have rules that are too complex to articulate in a
few simple statements. However, the fact that we cannot articulate the rules does not
mean they do not exist. Native speakers who are ignorant of grammar are nevertheless
fluent in their speech. Similarly, all human cultures have some form of moral structure.
The rules may have exceptions and can be difficult to pin down, but they still exist.

What is righteous indignation?

Righteous indignation is the anger we feel at someones undeserved good or bad fortune.

What is sometimes referred to as the process of calculating which action will lead to the
greatest happiness?
Utilitarian calculus

What makes a decisions impact on total happiness difficult to estimate?

Some pleasures differ from others in quality and so may count more or less than
others. It is also difficult to know whether a particular action will truly make another
person happierit may be difficult to estimate the scope of a decision.

According to act utilitarianism, is it okay to kill an unhappy person if no one were to

mourn him? Explain.
According to act utilitarianism, it is okay to kill an unhappy person because the total
unhappiness in the world will decrease. Since a decrease in unhappiness results in an

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equal, but inverse, increase in happiness, it is not just okay to kill an unhappy person
it is preferred.

What is the basic premise of rule utilitarianism?

In rule utilitarianism, we select a set of rules designed to maximize happiness if followed
faithfully. Each act is then evaluated against those rules.

According to rule utilitarianism, what is the only case in which we should violate the set
of utilitarian rules?
According to rule utilitarianism, we should only violate rules in light of compelling evidence that
indicates overall utility is increased by such a violation.

What is the basis for Immanuel Kants argument that stealing is wrong?
A Kantian would argue: If it is okay to steal, then we should not expect to have any
personal property; If there is no such thing as personal property, then there is no such
thing as stealing; Hence, the maxim is logically invalid; either there is no such thing
as stealing (so the maxim is invalid), or stealing is wrong (so the maxim is invalid). The
claim that stealing is morally wrong is based purely on a logical argument. The rule it
is okay to steal has been proved to be nonsensical, and all rational beings have a duty
to recognize this fact.

What is one problem with deontological ethics?

The lack of exceptions to the rules is a problem with deontological ethics. One of the most
cited examples is that of a woman who comes to your door and asks to hide from a killer
who is pursuing her. You allow her to hide in your closet and then the killer comes to the
door and asks if she is in your house. According to Kant, you may not lieyou may
refuse to answer, but you may not deceive the killer. Many of us would consider it
acceptable, and in fact mandatory, to lie in this extreme situation. A common view
expressed in this extreme situation is that the value of a human life must take precedence
over telling the truth. The categorical imperative would not allow for this, and so is
viewed by some as a serious flaw in the model.

What are the key ideas of deontological ethics?

- The only good is the good will.
- Each act is to be evaluated as to whether it is consistent with the good will.
- Consistency with the good will is established by the categorical imperative.
- The categorical imperative has more than one formulation:
- Universal law of nature: Act only according to maxims that could be
adopted as universal laws.
- Principle of the end in itself: Treat humans, both yourself and others,
as ends in themselves, never as a means to an end.
What is the tit-for-tat strategy?
- Cooperate in the first round.
- Do whatever the opponent did in the previous round thereafter

What two key qualities do most ethicists look for when studying ethical theories?
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Impartiality and Universality

Who is John Rawls, and what is The Theory of Justice?

John Rawls is a contractarian who argues that all social contract theories of ethics must
share a common core, which is that the society should be fair. He also argues that two
principles of justice and fairness underlie all just societies.

What is the Veil of Ignorance?

The Veil of Ignorance is a concept derived from a thought experiment: consider a social
contract unto which one hypothetically chooses to be born.

What are the core ideas behind deliberate critical discussion?

- There is no winner of a successful deliberative critical discussion. The goal is not to
defeat the other parties in the discussion; the goal is to understand their position and to
help them understand yours.
- Assume that everyone taking part in the discussion is a well-intended, rational person
who deserves your respect.
- In oral discussions, agree to let one person speak at a time, with no interruptions and
no filibusters.

What are a few things to avoid when engaging in deliberate critical discussion?
- Avoid rhetorical devices intended to persuade without a rational substantive basis.
- Avoid charged language and hyperbole.
- Avoid ad hominem attacks, which are arguments against the person arguing rather
than against the statements being made.

How does context play an important role in ethical arguments?

One essential step in analyzing a case is determining what facts are relevant and what
facts are not. In practical situations, it is possible for supposedly irrelevant facts to
become significant factors.

C. CASES; PROJECT and RESOURCES

Case 1: Borrowing a Password

1.

Consider the affected parties, as well as the risks, involved with Alices providing
Josh her password.

2.

Consider how you would react if Alice were a software engineer at a software
development firm, and ask why this circumstance would affect their decision.

Case 2: Warning or Ticket?

1. Consider the affected parties, as well as the risks, involved with Dolores failure to
stop at the stop sign.

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Consider what Officer Schmidt should do in this situation. Be clear that you
are not asking what might happen.

2. Suppose Dolores hit a pedestrian how that would change their response. Ask
why their opinion has or has not changed.

Suppose the pedestrian were the mayorask if this should this influence
Officer Schmidts action.

Project 1. Research online/newspaper, magazine, journals- Situations/Cases where the scenario of

COMMON ISSUES IN COMPUTER ETHICS (PRIVACY, PROPERTY, ACCURACY &
ACCESIBILITY) can be applicable.

Source: Cite in the output paper

Project 2. Watch the Split or Steal? Episode aired on March 14, 2008 and consider Hobbes
claim that humans are naturally selfish. Explain in one paragraph whether or not the contestants
confirm or refute this claim.
Source: Video: Golden Balls - 100,000 Split or Steal? 14/03/08
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p3Uos2fzIJ0

Project 3.
1.

Read the case To Tell or Not To Tell and determine whether Arnolds actions were
ethical or unethical. Have students elaborate on their reasons behind their decisions.

2.

Read 1.5.5, Case A Sample Deliberative Critical Discussion. How opinions may have
changed after reading the dialogue.

Source: Brinkman II, W.J., Sanders A.F. Computer Ethics, Philippine Edition, Cengage
Learning, (Reprint, 2012) pp 35 37.

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TOPIC 2. Computing Professions and Professional Ethics
A. KEY TERMS
Association for Computing Machinery: the worlds first scientific and educational computing society;
founded in 1947
Asimov, Issac: a well-known science fiction writer who wrote a series of stories about robots with three
inherent laws: robots cannot injure humans; robots must obey orders given to them by human unless
doing so interferes with the first law; robots must protect their own existence as long as doing so does not
interfere with the first or second laws
Bayles, Michael: a philosopher who argues that all professions require extensive training, involve
significant intellectual effort, and provide an important service to society
Ethics: according to Davis, a set of morally permissible standards of a group that each member of the
group (at his/her rational best) wants every other member to follow, even if their doing so would mean
that he/she must do the same
Good Works Project: a research project conducted at Harvard Graduate School of Education that
examines who young people deal with ethical problems in their professions
Ideals: according to Davis model, goals that are inherently good to achieve, although failing to achieve
them is not necessarily wrong
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: a non-profit professional association headquartered
in the United States that is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence; the institute
has over 400,000 members
Kultgen, John: a professor at the University of Missouri, Columbia, who presents twenty attributes
compiled by sociologist Geoffrey Millerson from twenty-one scholars of sociology as necessary for a
vocation to be considered a profession
Moral Idea: according to Davis, a state of affairs that, though not morally required, everyone (that is,
every rational person at his/her rational best) wants everyone else to approach, all else being equal;
moreover, everyone wants that so much that they are willing to reward, assist, or at least praise such
conduct if that is the price for others to do the same
Principles: according to Davis' model, truths that are to be consistently maintained unless there is a
compelling reason to do otherwise; there are eight principles in the ACM/IEEE Software Engineering
Code of Ethics and Professional Practice: public, client and employer, product, judgment, management,
profession, colleagues, and self
Rules: according to Davis' model, ethical standards that tell us certain things we must do (obligations)
and certain things we must not do (prohibitions)

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System Administrator: a person who has access to all files of a computer system, and has the authority
to move, copy, and delete any or all files on the system.

B. DISCUSSION POINTS

According to Davis model, what are the three forms of ethical standards?
Rules, Principles, and Ideals

How are ideals different than rules?

Ideals are goals that are inherently good to achieve. However, failure to achieve them is
not necessarily wrong. Rules tell us certain things we must do (obligations) and certain
things we must not do (prohibitions). If we fail to stay in line with the rules, we will not be
acting ethically.

What does Davis mean when he says that a professional puts profession first?
When a conflict arises between the professionals code and the policy of an employer or
perhaps even the law, the professionals code must take precedence.

What is the only state in the United States that once conducted an effort to license
computer scientists?
Texas

What project provides the least restrictive definition of the word professional?
The Good Works Project

What are Bayles three required attributes of a profession?

- requires extensive training
- involves significant intellectual effort
- provides an important service to society

What is a moral ideal?

A moral ideal is a state of affairs that, though not morally required, everyone (that is,
every rational person at his/her rational best) wants everyone else to approach, all else
being equal. Moreover, everyone wants that so much that they are willing to reward,
assist, or at least praise such conduct if that is the price for others to do the same.

What is Davis definition of a profession?

Davis defines profession in terms of moral issues: A profession is a number of
individuals in the same occupation voluntarily organized to earn a living by openly
serving a certain moral ideal in a morally permissible way beyond what law, market, and
morality would otherwise require.

What is a fuzzy concept?

Often, our perception of descriptive words varies according to the people with whom we
are talking.
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D. CASES; PROJECT and RESOURCES

Case 1: Fighting Injustice

1.

Explain why or why not Ms. McFarland is justified in firing Rachael.

2.

Suppose Rachael was merely a student who had nothing to do with IT services, and
she happened to come across this information in the same way. Should her actions
be considered differently? Would the morality of the situation change at all? Justify
your opinions.
Source: Brinkman II, W.J., Sanders A.F. Computer Ethics, Philippine Edition, Cengage
Learning, (Reprint, 2012) pp 45 47.

Case 2: Refusing to Do a Favor for a Friend

1.

In your own perspective, did Greg do the right thing in refusing Michaels request
to submit his homework for him. Justify your answer.

2.

Discuss the implications of the universitys Code of Student Conduct. Does the
Code still apply to Greg, even though he is not a student anymore?

3.

Looking back at Gregs refusal to submit his friends paper, is there actually any rule in
the ACM/IEEE Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice that
supports Gregs decision? Would Greg have been breaking any rules if he did help his
friend with submitting the paper?
One might argue that there are various kinds of computing professions. Do you think so?
Explain.
Suppose a team of engineers working for a software firm was negligent, and that the
teams faulty software caused a major accident involving loss of life. The company was
sued and settled the case. What do you think should happen to the software engineers?
Specifically, should their company, their professional organization, or the court system
levy any punitive action against them? Explain.

4.
5.

Sources:
1. Brinkman II, W.J., Sanders A.F. Computer Ethics, Philippine Edition, Cengage
Learning, (Reprint, 2012) pp 45 47.
2. ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct
http://www.acm.org/about/code-of-ethics

Project 4.
1.

Watch & look up the details of the Toyota recall of the Prius in 2010. Explain how,
if at all, the standards of professional practice in computing could have been
involved with this issue.
2. Every university has a registrar. Research the duties of a registrar and decide
whether a registrar is a professional. If not, should a registrar be considered a
professional? Explain.
Sources: http://blog.caranddriver.com/toyota-acknowledges-software-problem-with-2010prius-brakes/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ObZFp5hgbI8

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