Relations & Functions

Contents
1 Preliminary ideas
1.1 Real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Absolute value of a real number . . . . . . . .
1.3 Variables and constants . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 The range of a variable . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Ordered, monotonic, bounded variables

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2
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2 Relations
2.1 Product sets . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Relations . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Inverse Relation . . .
2.3 Types of Relations . . . . . .
2.3.1 Equivalence Relations

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5
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3 Functions
3.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Ways of representing functions . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Tabular representation of a function .
3.2.2 Graphical representation of a function
3.2.3 Analytical representation of a function
3.3 Classification of functions . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Algebraic Operations on Functions

12

5 Inverse of a function

13

6 Elementary functions
6.1 Basic elementary functions . . . . . .
6.1.1 Power function . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 General exponential function .
6.1.3 Logarithmic function . . . . .
6.1.4 Trigonometric functions . . . .
6.1.5 Inverse trigonometric functions
6.2 Elementary functions . . . . . . . . .

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15
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16
16

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Preliminary ideas

1
1.1

Preliminary ideas
Real numbers

Number is one of the basic concepts of mathematics. It originated in ancient times and has
undergone expansion and generalization over the centuries.
Whole numbers and fractions, both positive and negative, together with the number zero are
p
called rational numbers. Every rational number can be expressed in the form of a ratio, , of
q
p
two integers p and q. In particular, the integer p may be regarded as a ratio of two integers: .
1
Rational numbers may be represented in the form of periodic terminating or nonterminating
fractions. Numbers represented by nonterminating,
but nonperiodic, decimal fractions are called
irrational numbers; such are the numbers 2, 3, , e, etc.
The collection of all rational and irrational numbers makes up the set of real numbers. The
set of real numbers shall be denoted by R. The real numbers are ordered in magnitude; that is to
say, for each pair of real numbers x and y there is one, and only one, of the following relations:
x < y,

x = y,

x>y

Real numbers may be depicted as points on a number line. A number line is an infinite straight
line on which are chosen: (i) a certain point O called the origin, (ii) a positive direction indicated
by an arrow, and (iii) a suitable unit of length. We shall generally make the number line horizontal
and take the positive direction to be from the left to the right.
If the number x1 is positive, it is depicted as point P1 at a distance OP1 = x1 to the right of
the origin O; if the number x2 is negative, it is represented by a point P2 to the left of O at a
distance OP2 = x2 (Fig. 1). The point O represents the number zero.
1

0
1

P2
2 1

P1
1

Fig. 1: Representation of real numbers on the number line and the correspondence from the set R to the number
line.

It is obvious that every real number is represented by a point on the number line. The
following assertion is also true: each point on the number line represents only one real number
(rational or irrational). To summarize: all real numbers and all points on the number line are in
onetoone correspondence. This is diagrammatically shown in Fig. 1.
We state without proof the following important property of the set of the real numbers: both
rational and irrational numbers may be found between any two real numbers.
In conclusion, the following theorem follows, which, in a certain sense, represents a bridge
between theory and practice.
Theorem 1. Every irrational number may be expressed, to any degree of accuracy, with the
aid of rational numbers.
Indeed, let the irrational number > 0 and let it be required to evaluate with an accuracy
1
of (for example, 1/10, 1/100, and so forth). No matter what is, it lies between two integers
n
N and N + 1. We divide the interval between N and N + 1 into n equal parts; then will lie
m
m+1
somewhere between the rational numbers N +
and N +
. Since this dierence is equal
n
n
1
to n , each of them expresses to the given degree of accuracy, the former being too small and
the latter, too large.
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531

Preliminary ideas

Example 1. The irrational number 2 is expressed by the rational numbers:

1.4 and 1.5 to one decimal place,
1.41 and 1.42 to two decimal places,
1.414 and 1.415 to three decimal places, and so on.

1.2

Absolute value of a real number

 Definition 1 (Absolute value). The absolute value (or modulus) of a real number x (written
|x|) is a nonnegative real number that satisfies the conditions
{
x
if x 0
|x| =
(1)
x if x < 0
For example |2| = 2, | 5| = (5) = 5, |0| = 0 etc.
Geometrically, on the number line, |x| represents the distance of the point representing the number
x from the origin. Similarly, |x y| represents, geometrically, the distance of x from y on the
number line. From the definition it follows that the relationship x |x| holds for any x. Some
useful properties of the absolute values follow.
1. The absolute value of an algebraic sum of several real numbers is no greater than the
sum of the absolute values of the terms:
|x + y| |x| + |y|

(2)

Proof. Let x + y 0, then

|x + y| = x + y |x| + |y|

(since x |x| and y |y|)

Now, let x + y < 0, then

|x + y| = (x + y) = (x) + (y) |x| + |y|
This completes the proof.
The above result can be easily extended to any finite number of terms:
|x1 + x2 + + xn | |x1 | + |x2 | + + |xn |

(3)

2. The absolute value of a dierence is no less than the dierence of the absolute values of
the minuend and subtrahend:
|x y| |x| |y|

(|x| > |y|)

(4)

Proof. Let x y = z, then x = y + z and using the previous result,

|x| = |y + z| |y| + |z| = |y| + |x y|

|x| |y| |x y|

thus completing the proof.

3. The absolute value of a product is equal to the product of the absolute values of the
factors:
|x1 x2 x3 xn | = |x1 | |x2 | |x3 | |xn |
(5)
4. The absolute value of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the absolute values of the
dividend and the divisor:
 
 x  |x|
 =
(6)
 y  |y|
The latter two properties follow directly from the definition of the absolute value.
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531

Preliminary ideas

1.3

Variables and constants

A variable 1 is a quantity that takes on various numerical values, while a constant is a quantity
whose numerical values remain fixed under some given set of circumstances. We shall use the
letters x, y, z, u, . . . etc to designate variables, and the letters a, b, c, . . . etc to designate constants.
Remark 1. In mathematics, a constant is frequently regarded as a special case of a variable
whose numerical values are the same.
Quantities that have the same value under all circumstances are called absolute constants.
For example, the ratio of the circumference of a circle on a plane to its diameter is an absolute
constant: = 3.14159 . . ..
1.3.1

The range of a variable

 Definition 2. The set of values that a variable takes on is known as the range of the variable.
For example, the variable quantity x = cos can take on all values from 1 to +1. The range
of a variable are geometrically depicted as points on a number line.
 Definition 3 (Interval). An interval is the collection of all numbers x lying between the given
points a and b (the end points) and is called closed or open accordingly as it does or does not
include its end points.
An open interval is the collection of all numbers x lying between and excluding the given
numbers a and b (a < b); it is denoted as (a, b) or by means of the inequalities a < x < b.
A closed interval is the collection of all numbers x lying between and including the given
numbers a and b (a < b); it is denoted as [a, b] or by means of the inequalities a x b.
If one of the numbers a or b, say a belongs to the interval, while the other does not, we have
partially closed (half closed ) interval, which may be given by the inequalities a x < b and is
denoted [a, b).
If the variable x assumes all possible values greater than a, such an interval is denoted (a, +)
and is represented by the conditional inequalities a < x < +. In the same way we regard the
infinite intervals and half closed infinite intervals by the conditional inequalities2
a x < +,

< x < c,

< x c,

< x < +

The foregoing definitions may be formulated for a point in place of a number.

 Definition 4 (Neighborhood). The neighborhood of a given point x0 is an arbitrary interval
(a, b) containing this point within it, that is the interval (a, b) whose end points satisfy a < x0 < b.
One often considers the neighborhood (a, b) of which x0 is the midpoint. Then x0 is called
ba
the center of the neighborhood and the quantity
, the radius of the neighborhood.
2
1.3.2

Ordered, monotonic, bounded variables

We shall say that the variable x is an ordered variable if its range is known and if about each of
any two of its values it may be said which value is the preceding one and which is the following
one. Here the notions preceding and following are not connected with time but serves as a
way to order the values of the variable.
A particular case of an ordered variable is a variable whose values form a number sequence
x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn , . . . . Here, for r < k, the value xr is the preceding value, and the value xk is
the following one, irrespective of which one is the greater.
1

The concept of a variable is the basic concept of dierential and integral calculus. In his Dialectics of Nature,
Friedrich Engels wrote:The turning point in mathematics was Descartes variable magnitude. With that came
motion and hence dialectics in mathematics, and at once too, of necessity the dierential and integral calculus.
2
Remember that is not a real number.
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531

Relations

 Definition 5. A variable is called increasing if each subsequent value value of it is greater than
the preceding one. A variable is called decreasing if each subsequent value of it is less than the
following one.
Increasing or decreasing variables are called monotonically varying variables or just monotonic
variables.
Example 2. When the number of sides of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle is doubled, the area
of the polygon is an increasing variable. The area of a regular polygon circumscribed about a circle, when
the number of sides are doubled, is a decreasing variable.

Remark 2. Not every variable is increasing or decreasing. For example, if is an increasing

variable over the interval [0, 2], the variable x = sin is not a monotonic quantity. If first
increases from 0 to 1, then decreases from 1 to 1, and then increases from 1 to 0.
 Definition 6. The variable x is called bounded if there exists a constant M > 0 such that all
subsequent value of the variable, after a certain one, satisfy the condition
M x M

or

|x| M

In other words, the variable x is bounded if it is possible to indicate and interval [M, M ]
such that all subsequent values of x, after a certain one, will belong to this interval. However, one
should not think that the variable will necessarily take all values on the interval [M, M ]. For
example, the variable that assumes all possible rational values on the interval [2, 2] is bounded,
and nevertheless it does not take all values on [2, 2], namely, it does not take on the irrational
values.

Relations

There are many relations which we use quite frequently in mathematics, e.g., less than, is
parallel to, is a subset of, and so on. In a certain sense, these relations consider the existence
or non-existence of certain connections between pair of objects taken in definite order. Formally,
relations are defined in terms of these ordered pairs.
Ordered pairs
Relations, as noted above, will be defined in terms of ordered pairs (a, b) of elements, where a is
designated as the first element and b as the second element. Specifically:
(a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d
In particular, (a, b) = (b, a) unless a = b. This contrasts with sets where the order of elements is
irrelevant, for example, {3, 5} = {5, 3}.

2.1

Product sets

Let A and B be two sets. The product set or Cartesian product of A and B, written A B and
read A cross B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a A and b B. Namely:
A B = {(a, b) | a A, b B}
One usually writes A2 instead of A A.
Example 3. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}. Then
AB
BA

= {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
= {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}

Also
A A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531

Relations

There are two things worth noting in the above example. First, A B = B A. The
cartesian product deals with ordered pairs, so naturally the order in which the sets are considered
is important. Secondly |A B| = 6 = 2 3 = |A| |B| (where |A| = number of elements in the set
A). This is in general true:
|A B| = |A| |B|
for finite sets A and B.
Product of Three or More Sets
The idea of a product of sets can be extended to any finite number of sets. Specifically, for any
sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An , the set of all n-element lists (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) where each ai Ai , is called the
(cartesian) product of the sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An ; it is denoted by A1 A2 An or equivalently
n

Ai . Just as we write A2 instead of A A, so we write An for A A A where there are

i=1

n factors. For example, R3 = R R R denotes the usual three-dimensional space.

2.2

Relations

We begin with a definition.

 Definition 7. Let A and B be nonempty sets. A binary relation or, simply, a relation from
A to B is a subset of A B.
Suppose R is a relation from A to B. Then R is a set of ordered pairs where each first element
comes from A and each second element comes from B. That is, for each pair A A and b B,
exactly one of the following id true:
(i) (a, b) R; we say that a is R-related to b, written aRb.
(ii) (a, b) R; we say that a is not R-related to b, written a R
b.
The domain of a relation R from A to B is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs which
belong to R, and so it is a subset of A; and the range of R is the set of all second elements, and
so it is a subset of B.
Sometimes R is a relation from a set A to itself, that is, R is a subset of A2 = A A. In such
a case, we say that R is a relation on A.
Example 4. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y, z}, and let R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y)}. Then R is a relation
from A to B since R is a subset of A B. With respect to this relation, 1Ry, 1Rz, 3Ry, but 1 R
x, 2 R
x,
2R
y, 2 R
z, 3 R
x, 3 R
z. The domain of R is {1, 3} and the range is {y, z}.
Example 5. Suppose we say that two countries are adjacent if they have some part of their boundaries
in common. Then is adjacent to is a relation R on the countries of the earth. Thus (Italy, Switzerland)
R, but (India, Italy) R.

For a set A, and A A are both subsets of A A and hence are relations on A called the
empty relation and universal relation, respectively. Thus, for any relation R on A, we have
RAA

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531

Relations

2.2.1

Inverse Relation

Let R be any relation from a set A to a set B. The inverse of R, denoted by R1 , is the relation
from B to A which consists of those ordered pairs which, when reversed, belong to R; that is
R1 = {(b, a) | (a, b) R}
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y, z}, and let R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y)}. Then
R1 = {(y, 1), (z, 1), (y, 3)}
Clearly, if R is any relation, then (R1 )1 = R. Also, the domain of R1 is the range of R, and
vice versa. Moreover, if R is a relation on A, i.e., R A2 , then R1 is also a relation on A.

2.3

Types of Relations

Consider a given set A. We can then have the following types of relations on A.
(i) Reflexive Relations: A relation R on a set A is reflexive if aRa for every a A, that is,
if (a, a) R for every a A. Thus, R is not reflexive if there exists an a A, such that
(a, a) R.
(ii) Symmetric Relations: A relation R on a set A is symmetric if for a, b A, not necessarily
distinct, whenever aRb then bRa, that is, whenever (a, b) R, then (b, a) R. Thus, R is
not symmetric if there exist a, b A, such that (a, b) R but (b, a) R.
(iii) Antisymmetric Relations: A relation R on a set A is antisymmetric if for a, b A, not
necessarily distinct, whenever aRb and bRa then a = b, that is, whenever (a, b) and (b, a)
belong to R, then a = b. Thus, R is not antisymmetric if there exist a, b A, such that
(a, b) and (b, a) both belong to R but a = b.
(iv) Transitive Relations: A relation R on a set A is transitive if for a, b, c A, not necessarily
distinct, whenever aRb and bRc then aRac, that is, whenever if (a, b), (b, c) R, then
(a, c) R. Thus, R is not transitive if there if there exist a, b, c A, such that (a, b), (b, c)
R but (a, c) R.
Remark 3. The properties of being symmetric and antisymmetric are not negatives of each
other. For example, the relation R = {(1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 3)} is neither symmetric nor antisymmetric.
On the other hand, the relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2)} is both symmetric and antisymmetric.
2.3.1

Equivalence Relations

Consider a non-empty set A. A relation R on A is an equivalence relation if R is reflexive,

symmetric, and transitive. That is, R is an equivalence relation on A if it has the following three
properties:
(i) For every a A, aRa.
(ii) If aRb, then bRa where a and b are not necessarily distinct.
(iii) If aRb and bRc, then aRc where a, b and c are not necessarily distinct.
For example, the relation is equal to is an equivalence relation on the set of real numbers.

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531

Functions

Functions

3.1

Definitions

 Definition 8. Let A and B be two nonempty sets. A function from the set A to the set B is
a rule that associates, to each element in set A, a unique element in set B.
Symbolically, a function is denoted
f :A

/B

or

/B

Remark 4. Note the following facts.

The sets A and B can be sets of any quantities or objects whatsoever.
We shall hence forth consider only those functions for which the sets A and B are both
subsets of the set of real numbers R. Such functions are called realvalued functions of
real variables.
Note the word unique in the above definitions. The rule must assign all elements of the
set A (as defined above) only a single element of the set B. That means that for example,
if a A and a rule associates to a elements b1 and b2 from the set B, then in this case a
function has not been defined. However, the rule may assign the same value of b B to
two distinct elements a1 and a2 belonging to the set A.
Remark 5. Every function is a relation but every relation may not be a function.
We might phrase the definition in terms of variables. If to each value of a variable x (within
a certain range) there corresponds one definite value of another variable y, then y is a function
of x, or in functional notation y = f (x), y = (x) and so forth. The variable x is called the
independent variable or the argument. The relation between the variables x and y is called a
functional relation. The letter f in the functional notation y = f (x) indicates that some kind of
operations must be performed on the value of x to obtain the value of y.
 Definition 9 (Domain and range of a function). Let A and B be two subsets of R and let
f : A B. Let x be a variable that takes values from the set A. Then the set {x | x A} is
called the domain of the function: dom (f ). The element of the set B that the function associates
with x A (denoted as f (x)) is called the image of x under f or simply the f image of x. The
set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies over dom (f ) is called the range of the function:
range (f ) = {f (x) | x A}. The range is a subset of the set B, which is called the codomain of
the function.
Often, as already mentioned, the values f (x), will be taken as the values of another variable
y, so that the function might be written y = f (x).
If we have a function y = f (x) and if we regard x and y as ordered variables, then of the
two values of the function y1 = f (x1 ) and y2 = f (x2 ) corresponding to two values, x1 and x2 ,
of the argument, the subsequent value of the function will be that one which corresponds to the
subsequent value of the argument. The following definition is therefore natural.
 Definition 10. If the function y = f (x) is such that to a greater value of the argument x, there
corresponds a greater value of the function, then the function is called increasing. On the other
hand, if to a greater value of the argument, there corresponds a smaller value of the function, it
is called a decreasing function.
Symbolically, we have for the function y = f (x)
x1 > x2
Anant Kumar

f (x1 ) f (x2 ): increasing function;

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531

Functions

x1 > x2

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ): strictly increasing function;

x1 > x2

f (x1 ) f (x2 ): decreasing function;

x1 > x2

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ): strictly decreasing function.

For example, let us define a function f that assigns the value y = x2 to any x (0, ), then f is
an increasing function because to a greater value of x, there a corresponds a greater value of y.

3.2

Ways of representing functions

Functions are generally represented in three ways: tabular, graphical, and analytical. We take
them one at a time.
3.2.1

Tabular representation of a function

Here, the values of the argument x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn and the corresponding values of the function
y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . , yn are written out in a definite order as shown in Table 1. Examples are tables of
Table 1: Tabular representation of a function

x1

x2

x3

xn

y1

y2

y3

yn

trigonometric functions, tables of logarithms, and so on.

3.2.2

Graphical representation of a function

If in a rectangular coordinate system on a plane, we have a set of points P (x, y) and no two
points lie on a straight line parallel to the y axis, this set of points defines a certain (single valued )
function y = f (x); the abscissa of the points are the values of the argument, the corresponding
ordinates are the values of the function (Fig. 2). The collection of points in the xy plane whose
y = x sin x

y=

x)
f(

P (x, y)
O

Fig. 2: Graphical representation of a function y = f (x).

Fig. 3: Graph of the function y = x sin x.

abscissae are the values of the independent variable and whose ordinates are the corresponding
values of the function is called a graph of the given function.

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3.2.3

Analytical representation of a function

By analytical expression, we mean a series of symbols denoting certain mathematical operations

that are performed in a definite sequence on number and letters which designate constant or
variable quantities. By mathematical operations, we mean not only the mathematical operations
familiar so far but also those that will be defined. Certain examples of analytical expressions are

ln x sin x
x4 2,
, 2x 3 5 + 3x
2
5x + 1
If the functional relation f : A B or equivalently y = f (x), where x A and y B is
such that f denotes an analytical expression, we say that the function y of x is represented or

x1
defined analytically. Examples of functions defined analytically are y =
, y = 1 x4 ,
x+1
y = x2 + 2x + 3 and so on. If the function is represented analytically, it may be shown in the xy
plane. Thus the graph of the function y = x sin x is as shown in Fig. 3.
Now consider the above mentioned examples of analytically defined functions. The functions
are defined by means of a single formula (a formula is understood to be an equality of two
analytical expressions). In such cases, the set of the values of x for which the right hand side
has a definite value, forms the domain of the function. Thus the natural domain of the function
y = x4 2 is the infinite intervals < x < , because the function will have a definite value
x1
is defined for
for each x in this interval. On the other hand, the function given by y =
x+1
all xwith the exception of x = 1 because at x = 1, the denominator vanishes. For the function
y = 1 x2 , the domain is the closed interval 1 x 1, and so on.

3.3

Classification of functions

1. On the basis of their associating characteristics. On this basis, we can classify functions
into three groups:
(i) Onetoone (injective) functions: A function f : A B is said to be onetoone
if it does not associate an element of B to more than one element of A. That means that
if x1 and x2 are in the set A and we find that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then this necessarily means
that x1 = x2 . For example, the function defined analytically by y = x2 is not onetoone
because it assigns the same value x20 to x = x0 as well as x = x0 .
(ii) Onto (surjective) functions: A function f : A B is said to be onto if each element
in B is the f image of at least one element in A. That is, given an element y B we are
able to find at least one element x A so that f (x) = y.
(iii) OneOne and Onto (bijective) functions: As the name suggests, a function is bijective
if it is onetoone and onto.
Remark 6. If A and B are finite sets and f : A B is a bijective function, then the number
of elements in A = number of elements in B. Further if both sets have m elements each, then
the total number of bijective functions from A to B is the total number of arrangements of m
items taken all at a time which is m!.
2. On the basis of their structure. On the basis of their structure, we have the following
classification.
(i) Polynomial functions: A function of the form axn , where a is a constant and n is a
nonnegative integer, is called a monomial in x. A function which is expressible as the sum
of finitely many monomials in x is called a polynomial in x or a rational integral function
of x. Its general form is:
y = f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + + an1 x + an
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where a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants called the coecients and n is a nonnegative integer

called the degree of the polynomial. This function is defined for all x R.
(ii) Fractional Rational functions: A fractional rational function is defined as the ratio of
two polynomial functions. Its general form can be given as:
y = f (x) =

a0 xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + + an1 x + an

b0 xm + b1 xm1 + b2 xm2 + + bm1 x + bm

This function is defined for all values of x except those at which the polynomial in the
denominator vanishes. That is to say that
dom (f ) = R {x | b0 xm + b1 xm1 + b2 xm2 + + bm1 x + bm = 0}
(iii) Irrational functions: : If in the formula y = f (x), operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and raising to a power with rational nonintegral exponents are
performed on the
right-hand side, the function y = f (x) is called an irrational function.
For example, y = 3 1 x2 is an irrational function.
(iv) Algebraic functions: An algebraic function is any function y = f (x) which satisfies an
equation of the form
P0 (x)y n + P1 (x)y n1 + + Pn (x) = 0
where P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) are certain polynomials in x. It is obvious that the polynomials together with rational and irrational functions are algebraic functions.
(v) Transcendental functions: A function that is not algebraic is called transcendental.
Examples are trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions.
(vi) Explicit and implicit functions: If the dependent variable y is expressible explicitly in
terms of the independent variable x, the function is called an explicit function, otherwise
it is implicit. In case of an implicit function y = f (x), y will satisfy an equation of the
form F (x, y) = 0. Observe that the terms explicit and implicit do not characterizes
the nature of the function, but merely the way it has been defined. The explicit function
y = f (x) may also be represented implicitly as y f (x) = 0.
3. On the basis of their traits. On the basis of their symmetric and periodic properties we
have the following classification.
(i) Even functions: A function y = f (x) is called an even function if f (x) = f (x) for all
values of x belonging to dom (f ). For example y = x2 is an even function. Graphically, an
even function is symmetric about the y axis.
(ii) Odd functions: A function y = f (x) is called an odd function if f (x) = f (x) for all
values of x belonging to dom (f ). For example y = x3 is an even function. Graphically, an
even function is symmetric about the origin of the coordinates.
(iii) Periodic functions: A function y = f (x) is said to be periodic if there exists a constant
T > 0 which when added to (or subtracted from) the argument x, does not change the
value of the function as that at x. That is f (x + T ) = f (x) for all x dom (f ). The least
value of such a T is known as the period of the function y = f (x).
Further, if y = f (x) is a periodic function with period T , then the function y = f (ax + b),
T
where a and b are constant, is also periodic with period
.
|a|

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Algebraic Operations on Functions

(iv) Bounded and unbounded functions: A function y = f (x) defined on an interval is said
to be bounded if there exists constants m and M such that the inequalities m f (x) M
is satisfied for all x in the given interval. In this case, m is called the lower and M the
upper bound. For example, y = sin x defined on the infinite interval (, ) is a bounded
function because for all values of x, 1 sin x 1.
Remark 7. A few comments: (i) A function need not be necessarily even or odd. (ii) If y = f (x)
be an arbitrary function, it can be easily verified that the function y = f (x) + f (x) is always
even and similarly, the function y = f (x) f (x) is always odd. As a result any given function
y = f (x) can always be expressed as the sum of an even and an odd function:
f (x) =

} 1{
}
1{
f (x) + f (x) + f (x) f (x)
|2
{z
} |2
{z
}
even part

odd part

Algebraic Operations on Functions

Let f and g be two functions with domains dom (f ) and dom (g), respectively. Then we define
the following standard operations for the algebra of functions.
(i) Sum of functions: The sum of f and g is defined over the common domain as
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

dom (f + g) = dom (f ) dom (g)

This can be extended to any finite number of functions.

(ii) Scalar product: The multiplication of a function by a real number k is defined as
(kf )(x) = kf (x)

dom (kf ) = dom (f )

(iii) Point wise product of functions: It is defined as

(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

dom (f g) = dom (f ) dom (g)

(iv) Quotient of functions: : We define the quotient of two functions as

( )
( )
f
f (x)
f
(x) =
dom
= dom (f ) dom (g) {x | g(x) = 0}
g
g(x)
g
(v) Composition of functions: Let f : A B and g : B C be functions, then the
composition of g and f (read g of f ) is a function from A to C defined as:
(g f ) (x) = g(f (x))
The function y = g(f (x)) is also called the function of a function. For example, if f (x) =
sin x and g(x) = x2 , then the function (g f )(x) = g(f (x)) = sin2 x.
The domain of the function g f is either the entire domain of the function f , or that
part of it in which those values of f (x) are defined that donot lie outside the domain of
the function g(x). For example, consider the function y = 1 x2 . This function can be

treated as the composition of the function f (x) = 1 x2 and g(x) = x, so that

g(f (x)) = f (x) = 1 x2

The domain of the function y = f (x) is the infinite interval (, ), but the domain of the
composition y = g(f (x)) is only that part of (, ) in which the values of the function
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Elementary functions

f (x) are such that g(x) is defined, i.e. those values of x for which
f (x) 0 (otherwise g(x)
is not defined). And hence the domain of the function y = 1 x2 is the closed interval
[1, 1].
The operation function of a function may be performed any number of times. For instance, the function y = ln[sin(x2 + 1)] is obtained as a result of the following operations
(defining the following functions):
v(x) = x2 + 1,

u(v) = sin v,

y(u) = ln u

Inverse of a function

Take a strictly increasing or strictly decreasing function

y = f (x)
defined on some interval (a, b) (a < b). Let f (a) = and f (b) = . For definiteness, we shall
henceforth consider a strictly increasing function.
Let us consider two dierent values x1 and x2 in the interval (a, b). From the definition of a
strictly increasing function, it follows that if x1 < x2 and y1 = f (x1 ), y2 = f (x2 ), then y1 < y2 .
Hence, to two dierent values x1 and x2 there correspond two dierent values of the function
y1 and y2 . The converse is also true: if y1 < y2 , y1 = f (x1 ), and y2 = f (x2 ), then it follows
that x1 < x2 . Thus a one to one correspondence is established between the values of x and the
corresponding values of y.
Regarding these values of y as the values of the argument and the values of x as values of the
function, we get x as a function of y:
x = (y)

or

x = f 1 (y)

defined over the interval (, ). This function is called the inverse function 3 of y = f (x). It is
obvious too that the function y = f (x) is the inverse of x = (y). With similar reasoning, it
follows that a strictly decreasing function also has an inverse.
It will be noted that the inverse function is found by solving the equation y = f (x) for x.
Remark 8. The necessary and sucient condition, that the inverse of a function y = f (x)
exists, is that the given function y = f (x) is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing. If a
function is neither increasing nor decreasing, it can have several inverse functions.
Remark 9. If the functions y = f (x) and x = (y) are inverses of each other, their graphs are
represented by a single curve. But if we again denote the argument of the inverse function by
x, and the function values by y, and then construct them in a single coordinate system, we shall
obtain two dierent curves. It should be noted that the two curves representing the function and
its inverse will be symmetric about the bisector of the first and the third quadrant. That means
that the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f 1 (x) are reflections of each other on the line y = x and
as such they can intersect only on the line y = x.

Elementary functions

6.1

Basic elementary functions

The basic elementary functions are the following analytically defined functions.
3

Note that the notation x = f 1 (y) does not mean that x = 1/f (y).

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I. Power function: y = x , where is a real number4 .

II. General exponential function: y = ax , where a > 0 and a = 1.
III. Logarithmic function: y = loga x, where a > 0 and a = 1.
IV. Trigonometric functions: y = sin x, y = cos x, y = tan x, y = cot x, y = sec x, y = csc x.
V. Inverse trigonometric functions: y = sin1 x, y = cos1 x, y = tan1 x, y = cot1 x,
y = sec1 x, y = csc1 x.
Let us consider the domains and the graphs of the basic elementary functions.
6.1.1

Power function y = x

Case 1. is a positive integer. The function is defined in the infinite interval < x < +.
Further, if is an even integer, the graph is symmetric about the y axis (the function is even) and
if is odd, the graph is symmetric about the origin (the function is odd). Graphs for particular
values of have been shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5.
y

y = x4

y = x3

x
O
x
O

Fig. 4: Graph of the function y = x4 .

Fig. 5: Graph of the function y = x3 .

Case 2. is a negative integer. In this case, the function is defined for all real values of x with
the exception of x = 0. Again, if is even, the graph is symmetric about the y axis (the function
is even) and if is odd, the graph is symmetric about the origin (the function is odd). Graphs
for particular values of have been shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.
x
y=

y
y=

1
x2
O

1
x3

Fig. 6: Graph of the function y = 1/x2 .

Fig. 7: Graph of the function y = 1/x3 .

Fig. 8, 9 and 10 show the graphs for power functions with fractional rational values of .
6.1.2

General exponential function y = ax , a > 0 and a = 1

This function is defined for all values of x. Its graph is shown in Fig. 11. As can be seen from
the figure, this function is always strictly positive.
4
If is irrational, this function is evaluated by taking logarithms and antilogarithms: log y = log x. Here it
is assumed that x > 0.

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Elementary functions
y
y = x3/2
y = x1/3
y=

x2/3
x
O

Fig. 8: Graph of the function y =

Fig. 9: Graph of the function y =

Fig. 10: Graph of the function

x2/3 .

x3/2 .

y = x1/3 .

y
( )x ( )x( )x
1
1
1
3
10
2

10x

3x

y = loga x

2x

a>1
x

1
1

0<a<1
x

Fig. 11: Graph of the function y = ax for some

Fig. 12: Graph of the function y = loga x.

values of a.

6.1.3

Logarithmic function y = loga x, a > 0 and a = 1

This function is defined for x > 0. Its graph is as shown in Fig. 12 which shows that it can attain
any real values. The function is increasing for a > 1 and decreasing for 0 < a < 1.
6.1.4

Trigonometric functions

In the formula y = sin x, etc. the independent variable x is expressed in radians. All the
enumerated are periodic functions. From the definition of periodicity, it follows directly that
y = sin x and y = cos x have periods 2, while the functions y = tan x and y = cot x have period
.
The functions y = sin x and y = cos x are defined for all values of x; the function y = tan x

and y = sec x are defined everywhere except the points x = (2k + 1) (k = 0, 1, 2, . . .); the
2
functions y = cot x and y = csc x are defined for all values of x except at the points x = k
(k = 0, 1, 2, . . .). Graphs of the trigonometric functions are shown from Fig. 13 to 17.
y
1

y = sin x

Fig. 13: Graph of the function y = sin x.

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y = cos x

Fig. 14: Graph of the function y = cos x.

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Elementary functions
y
y

y = tan x

2
O

y = csc x

y = csc x

y = cot x

O
1

3
2

x
2

Fig. 15: Graph of the function

Fig. 16: Graph of the function

Fig. 17: Graph of the functions

y = tan x.

y = cot x.

y = csc x (the solid line, and y =

sec x (the dasheddot line).

6.1.5

Inverse trigonometric functions

The inverse trigonometric functions will be discussed in detail later on. For the moment, Table 2
displays the domain and the range of various inverse trigonometric functions.
Table 2: The inverse trigonometric functions.

6.2

Sl. No.

Function

Domain

Range

1.

sin1 x

[1, 1]

[ ]
,
2 2

2.

cos1 x

[1, 1]

[0, ]

3.

tan1 x

( )
,
2 2

4.

cot1 x

(0, )

5.

sec1 x

(, 1] [1, )

(0, ) {/2}

6.

csc1 x

(, 1] [1, )

( )
,
{0}
2 2

Elementary functions

Let us now define an elementary function.

 Definition 11. An elementary function is a function which may be represented by a single
formula of the type y = f (x), where the expression on the righthand side is made up of basic elementary functions and constants by means of finite number of operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and the compositions of functions.
From this definition, it follows that elementary functions are functions that are represented
analytically. Examples of elementary functions are:

ln x + 4 3 x + 2 tan x
y = |x| = x2 , y = 1 + 4 sin2 x, y =
10x x + 10
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and so on. An example of nonelementary function is the function y = 123. . .n (y = f (n)). It

is not elementary because the number of operations that must be performed to obtain y increases
with n, that is to say, it is not bounded.
What about the function defined by the following expressions?
{
x
if 0 x 1
y = f (x) =
2x 1 if 1 x 2
It is elementary even though it is represented by means of two formulae. In fact this function
can be defined by means of a single formula as:
(
)
(
)
1
1
1
1
3
3
x
+ |x 1| =
x
+
(x 1)2
y = f (x) =
2
3
2
2
3
2
for 0 x 2.
In conclusion, try to follow the sequence mentioned below while analysing a function (practice
will take you closer to perfection):
(i) determine the domain of the given function;
(ii) determine whether the function is even, odd or periodic;
(iii) try to figure out the points at which the function becomes zero;
(iv) determine the sign (+ve or ve) of the function in the intervals between the above found
points;
(v) determine whether the function is bounded and what are its minimum and maximum values;
(vi) make a rough sketch of the graph of the function.

Anant Kumar

Mob. No. 9002833857, 9932347531