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1992
Executive Research Project
S46

Thinking -You Can Learn To Do

Better What You Think
You Already Do Well
Lieutenant Colonel

Richard P. Hobbs, Jr.

U. S. Marine Corps

FacultyResearch Advisor
Commander Annette M. Wiechert, USN
SDTIC

"TwitAPRO

1:1993

The Industrial College of the Armed Forces .

National Defense University
Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. 20319-6000

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Abstract of
THINKING--YOU CAN LEARN TO DO BETTER
WHAT YOU THINK YOU ALREADY DO WELL
Thinking is

a skill that can be learned and should be learned.

Our traditional education system does not deliberately teach

people how to think.
measuring fixed ideas,

It

focuses on providing knowledge and

not on providing students with an

understanding of logic (vertical thinking) or creativity (lateral

thinking).

This paper explores these stages of thinking,

as well

as, the nature of thought and the various thirking styles

exhibited by most people.

The thrust of the paper is to show

that we need to improve our thinking ability and that thinking is

a skill we need to "exercise" in order to better cope with the
complex problems we face in a our rapidly changing world.

therefore hope that by the end of this paper you will accept the
idea that thinking is
teach to others.

a skill you can learn to do better and

1992
Executive Research Project
S46

Thinking -You Can Learn To Do

Better What You Think
You Already Do Well
Lieutenant Colonel

Richard P. Hobbs, Jr.

U. S. Marine Corps

Faculty ResearchAdvisor
Commander Annette M. Wiechert, USN

The Industrial College of the Armed Forces

National Defense University
Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. 20319-6000

DISCLAIMER

This research report represents the views of the author and does not necessarily
reflect the official opinion of the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, the National
Defense University, or the Department of Defense.
This document is the pi-operty of the United States Government and is not to be
reproduced in whole or in part for distribution outside the federal executive branch
without permission of the Director of Research and Publications, Industrial College
of the Armed Forces, Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C. 20319-6000.

THINKING--YOU CAN LEARN TO DO BETTER

WHAT YOU THINK YOU ALREADY DO WELL
INDEX
Section
INTRODUCTION ..................................................

AN OVERVIEW ON THINKING .......................................

THE NATURE OF THOUGHT .........................................

THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF WESTERN EDUCATION ON OUR ABILITY

TO THINK .................................................

10

LOGICAL/VERTICAL THINKING AND CREATIVE/VERTICAL

THINKING--THE NEED FOR SKILLS IN BOTH .....................

14

STYLES OF THINKING AND THEIR IMPORTANCE ......................

21

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ..........................................

27

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THINKING--YOU CAN LEARN TO DO BETTER

WHAT YOU THINK YOU ALREADY DO WEL
INTRODUCTION
The students of the Industrial College have been told
repeatedly that,

"We want you to think [while you're here]."

We

have taken several instruments to identify our learning style,

adaptability,

and behavioral characteristics--among

others.

Providing us with these self-assessment instruments is

commendable and displays an appreciation for the importance of
self-learning and self-development.

But, knowing more about

ourselves and the way we prefer to think does not help us to

change the way we think.
Our ability to think is taken for granted.
states,

in his book de Bono's Thinking Course,

of thinking is

As Edward de Bono
"The biggest enemy

the feeling 'that our thinking is

pretty good

anyway and we do not have to do anything about it."'

This

assumption/belief lulls us into a false sense of security and

gives us a bogus confidence in our thinking ability that we do
not deserve.

This confidence is

parochialism,

and conflicts that plague the military, the

government,
rivalries,

at the root of the rivalries,

and societies in general.

parochialism,

and conflicts that occur in our

interpersonal relationships is
how they can be overcome.

The only way to reduce the

to understand why they exist and

The key to this understanding is

in

developing an appreciation of how and why we think the way we do;

whereas,

the key to overcoming these problems is

to improve our

ability to think--so that viable solutions can be implemented.

We need to come to the realization that we see reality

through a mirror that partially transmits and partially reflects.
We see things that are outside of us, but we see them bathed in
"reflections" from our own minds.
are but as we are." 3

It

is

"We see things not as they

an appreciation of this fact that

should provide the motivation we need to improve our ability to

think, because At is

only by improving our understanding of

thinking, and of how we can learn to control our thought,

that we

can develop effective solutions for dealing with the future

without unconsciously and erroneously believing that tomorrow
will be a reflection of today and yesterday.
I believe that H. Mumford Jones is
states,

"Ours is

the age that is

suspicious of men who try to."'4

quite correct when he

proud of machines that think and

Ours is

also the age of action,

and the ancestor of every action is thought. 5

said, "To make headway,

improve your head.'

As B.C.

Forbes

This requires

learning how to think better.

The ways to improve your thinking are not difficult to learn,
but they are difficult to explain and to use.

It

is

beyond the

scope of this paper to explain in detail the methods you can use
to improve your thinking.

Instead, my goal is

limited to trying

to convince you that you can learn to improve your thinking

ability and that you need to do so.

While I hope to wet your

appetite for learning about how to improve your thinking ability,

the real effort to actually learn the methods available is
you.
2

up to

This paper will require that you think about thinking, not as
something difficult but as something different.
something difficult is

a matter of effort.

Understanding

But understanding

something different requires not effort but a willingness to

accept new ideas.

To help in developing this understanding.

have divided this paper into the following sections:

Overview on Thinking;

(2)

The Nature of Thought;

(3)

Impact of Western Education On Our Ability To Think;

(1) An
The Negative
(4)

Logical/Vertical Thinking and Creative/Lateral Thinking--The Need

For Skills In
and (6)

Both; (5)

Styles of Thinking and Their Importance;

Concluding Thoughts.

I hope that by the end of this

paper you will accept the idea that thinking is

a skill you can

learn and develop on your own--and teach to others.

AN OVERVIEW ON THINKING
"In

human events,

things happen,

nothing just happens.

Human beings make

either by what we do or what we fail to do."' 8

You and I are the causes of our consequences.

product of action and action is

Consequences are a

a product of thought.

Improving

our thinking will help to ensure that our actions are appropriate
to the situation and that the consequences of our actions will be
those we expected.

Improving our thinking first

requires that we

think differently than we have probably done in the past.

To appreciate why we think the way we do and why that method
of thinking by itself

is

inadequate,

logical or "vertical thinking,"

(2)

we need to:

(1) understand

be aware that it

predominate method of thinking in Western society,

understand how it

is

Because it

is

not, in and of itself,

and (3)

conducive to

a "yes" or "no" system (i.e.,

either absolutely right or absolutely wrong),

reject new ideas.

the

is perpetuated by our educational system.

Logical/vertical thinking is
creativity.

is

it

an idea

tends to

Most of our so called "reason," therefore,

consists of finding reasons to go on believing as we already

do.

To change our view of a problem--to arrive at a better

solution--requires creativity and a change in our perspective on

the problem being considered.
nature is

Vertical thinking, by its

inhibitive in these areas.

thinking is

very

Creative or "lateral"

required.

Lateral thinking and vertical thinking are complementary.

is

lateral thinking which enables us to generate new ideas and

4

It

new alternatives;

it

is vertical thinking which enables us to act

on these new ideas and alternatives.

Action generally requires the cooperation of others.
appreciation of our style(s) of thinking,
needed if

An

and those of others,

is

we are to improve our ability to influence others to

adopt our ideas.

The various styles of thinking and why it

is

so

important to appreciate how others think--if we are to ensure

that our ideas are not rejected--is covered in separate section
of this paper.

If

you are one of the fortunate few who have

never presented a good idea only to have it

rejected, you

probably will not appreciate the importance of the need to sell

your idea in a manner acceptable to the person who will judge it
good or bad.

However,

if

you have ever had a good idea rejected

because you couldn't sell it,

you will benefit from an

understanding of how others think.

With this understanding,

you

can present your ideas in a manner that will facilitate

acceptance.
There is

a saying that,

functions when its

open."''

"Like a parachute,
If

you already believe you know how

to think, this paper will do you no good,

Henry David Thoreau,

"It

your mind only

for,

in the words of

takes two to speak the truth--one to

speak and another to hear." 1 1

THE NATURE OF THOUGHT

"...the brain is a tool of the mind, and
behavior is
12
effect of the mind."--Stuart B. Litvik

an

The brain can be considered a special channel through which

information flows--where the information comes in
evidence,
choice,
brain is

as data,

or appreciation of a situation, and goes out as action,

decision,

reaction, problem solving, and so on.'

The

a device for changing the nature of information and the

process of change is
Thinking is
intelligence is

called thinking. 1'

the operating skill through which innate

put into action.

15

It

is

also the operating

skill through which intelligence acts upon experience for a

purpose.

16

Experience shapes perception.

Perception is
mind is

the way we look at things.

what we do with that perception. 17

perceptions,

Processing in the

In processing

mental patterns are formed.

A mental pattern is:

followed by another state,"

(1) "Where any state is

and (2)

".

preferentially

.. where items of

information hang together and so give an expectancy."'

defining a pattern is
at the drawing below.

difficult, illustrating one is

If

you were a carpenter,

construct it?19

While

not.

Look

how would you

Give up?

Appendix A shows how it

figure it

out,

it

can be done.

If

you didn't

was probably because you were trapped in a

pattern that expected something different.

Take a moment to

glance at the triangle below before reading any further in this

paragraph.

20

PARIS
IN THE
THE SPRING

Look carefully.

Did you overlook the repeated word?

If

you did,

you were again trapped by a pattern.

Your brain, in many cases, converts incoming data into what
it

"should" be, sometimes at the expense of the actual meaning.

These examples illustrate two characteristics of patterns:

expectation and continuity.
Continuity is
mind.

21

the basic feature of a pattern system like the

Once a pattern is

formed,

analyze or sort information.22

the mind no longer has to

All that is

information to trigger the pattern.

the pattern automatically,
a familiar road.
to expectations,

required is

enough

The mind then follows along

in much the same way a driver follows

In addition to being repeatable and giving rise

patterns are also recognizable.

Patterns have many advantages.

Perhaps chief among these is

that they enable us to react quickly to fragments of information

without having to establish complete cause and effect
7

relationships.

It

this anticipation,

allows us to anticipate what will follow.

however,

In

also lies the danger of patterns.

Once a pattern emerges, the tendency is

for that pattern to

continue and to become even more firmly established.

23

patterning system functions on the assumption that things in the

future will continue to be as they have been in the past! 24
addition, anything (data,

information, perceptions,

In

etc.)

remotely similar to an established pattern will be treated just

as if

it

were that pattern, unless there are competing

patterns.

25

Patterns,

sometimes called maps,

cause a dilemma.

the dilemma is that a person poorly equipped with a repertoire of

patterns will be unable to look at data in a meaningful way,
whereas a person well equipped with patterns tends to be unable
to look at data in a new way.
Was it

26

our belief in our technical superiority and the former

Soviet Union's technical inferiority--based upon established

mental patterns--that lead us to smirk at the apparent
backwardness of their use of vacuum tubes rather than integrated
or printed circuits for many avionics systems in the construction
of the MiG-25 "Foxbat," when,

in fa.,, these tubes were in

systems on the periphery of the aircraft to enable it

withstand the electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
explosion.

27

As Edward Teller said,

to better

effect of a nuclear

"...the 'Foxbat'

was...designed by someone as crazy as a fox.''

28

We failed to

recognize the actual sophistication of the use of vacuum tubes

because we were caught up in a pattern of belief that vacuum
8

tubes were inferior and a belief in our own technical

superiority.

Similar failures to properly interpret data and to

change our thinking patterns accordingly could be fatal.

been said that,

It

has

"You prepare your own way by the nature of your

own thought patterns.''2

It

would behoove us to develop the thinking skills necessary

to recognize and update our thinking patterns,

actual reflection of reality.
a thought pattern is

It

is

so they remain an

essential to recognize that

only one of several alternative arrangements

that could have formed a mental pattern and,

therefore,

mental patterns can be restructured or changed.

30

It

is

that
also

essential to recognize that the current arrangement of

information in a mental pattern can never make the best use of
available information and, therefore,

that it

is

necessary to

restructure the patterns in order to bring the arrangement up-todate.

31

Our progress,

as well as our military proficiency,

depends upon being able to do this.

Progress is

not a matter of changing wrong or inadequate

ideas but of changing ideas which have been perfectly right but
are now obsolete.
changing.

If

Any idea, no matter how right, may need

this is

so,

then any idea,

should be re-examined from time to time.

no matter how right,

Unfortunately,

education system does not equip us well for this task.

our

THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF WESTERN

EDUCATION ON OUR ABILITY TO THINK
Orthodox Western education usually does nothing to encourage
lateral thinking habits and actually inhibits lateral
thinking/creativity.
negatives:

clash,

32

Western thinking habits are dominated by

criticism, and dialectics.

usually works on the matching system.

matches what is

expected,

is marked wrong.
in and of itself

it

There is

is

If

33

a student's output

marked right; if

merely different.

trained to believe that the absence of logic is

but it

is

it

does not,

no way of distinguishing what is

from what is

and even madness,

Education

not.Y

it

wrong

We have been
chaos,

confusion,

We have been brainwashed

over the ages to believe that logic is

the only way of handling

ideas in order to obtain a useful result. 35

Unfortunately,

in

perfecting our ability to handle ideas, we have inhibited the

creativity which is
therefore,

need to develop the ideas to be handled and,

lost opportunities to obtain the results we might have

achieved.
Modern Western education, which stresses logic, seems to
squelch creativity.

Tests show that a child's creativity

plummets 90 per cent between the ages of 5 and 7.3

By the age

of 40, most adults are about 2 per cent as creative as they were
at 5.37

Some experts even believe that graduate school may be

detrimental in some fields because it

thinking.A

It

is

perpetuates entrenched

staggering to contemplate the potential gains

that could have been made were this not the case.
10

The need to

make such gains,

and their importance to our competitiveness and

to our ability to improve the quality of the American work force,

lead to the following recommendation from a staff report to a
Congressional Subcommittee on Health and Education:
Achievement in education needs to be redefined to extend
beyond basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills to
include problem solving and abstract
reasoning, the so39
called "higher order skills.0
Unfortunately,

our whole thinking system has been designed to

establish and prove the truth of already existing ideas.

never developed tools for smoothly changing ideas,

We have

because it

has

always seemed inconceivable that the ideas we hold at the moment

should ever be changed.4 0

The ideas we hold at the moment must

be right--if they weren't why would we hold them?

ideas cannot need changing--right?
logical thinking.

It

And right

This is one of the traps of

is also one of the major reasons for

conflict and resistance to change.

In effect, what passes for education in our institutions
amounts to the transference of various abstract maps (patterns)
of world processes from a book to the teacher's notes to the
student's notes without passing through the minds of either.41
While this may at first

sound ludicrous,

you need only to reflect

on your own civilian and military educational experiences to

recognize the validity of this statement.

Were you expected to

think about what you were being taught or just expected to

memorize it

for later rote recall?

How many classes in

creative thinking did you take in high school?

logic or

In college?

We

seldom teach students how to think; we primarily teach them what

11

to think.

With the emphasis of our education system on objective

measures of performance (e.g.,

Scholastic Aptitude Tests),

we

seem to be more concerned with the answers students give than on

how they produce them.

Scholarship is too often the triumph of

form over content.

The trouble with present day education is

that is

covers the

ground (facts and figures) without cultivating the soil

(reasoning and thinking).
themselves,
education.

Thinking skills will not improve by

or in the course of a general improvement in

42

You have only to consider the thinking skills of

some of the "best" educated people you know to know that

education does not yet pay enough direct attention to thinking
skills.

In

other words,

facts and figures is

being "smart" and being "filled" with

not enough; you must be able evaluate those

facts and figures and relate them in a constructive manner to

anticipate and solve problems.
Another concern with our present education system, with its
emphasis on logic,

is

the smugness that follows perfect logic and

excludes the search for new ideas and better approaches.

danger is

that it

Another

leads us to only tackle that part of a

situation that can be tackled with precision and to ignore the

rest as if

it

did not exist.

When we are primarily using logic

in a pattern oriented system such as that in the brain,

reality is

not uncommon.

Could this be one of the reasons so

many Program Managers--and others in

fail to meet their cost,

ignoring

schedule,
12

situations of uncertainty--

and performance objectives?

Do they fail because of their innate incompetence or because our

education system failed to provide them with the tools they need
to think about reality holistically and creatively?
experience suggests that the latter is

My

true--that perfectly

capable people fail because they are limited by their thinking

skills.

They don't lack the capability to think effectively;

they lack the training that would enable them to do so.

Our Western education system does not provide them with
training in creative/lateral thinking.
ability to think effectively is,

Consequently,

their

by training, limited.

very nature, our educational system, with its

By its

emphasis on logic,

is designed to look backwards and preserve the past, not to look

forward and create the future.43
concerned with progress; its

Education is not really

purpose is

knowledge that seems to be useful."

has value, but it
If

is

to make widely available

This,

in and of itself,

only a small part of thinking.

we are to succeed in a severely declining budget

environment,

we will have to develop solutions to the problems of

weapons development,

force structure, strategy, tactics,

that are both creative and logically sound.

etc.,

Consequently,

improving our ability to think creatively and logically is

not a

nicety but a necessity--the development of which should not be

left to chance or to our traditional educational system.

13

LOGICAL/VERTICAL THINKING AND CREATIVE/VERTICAL

THINKING--THE NEED FOR SKILLS IN BOTH
There are two stages of thinking.
perceptual patterning stage,

which is

The first

stage is

concerned with the way of

looking at things and the choosing of concepts.45

stage is
first

the

The second

concerned with the processing of these concepts.

stage of thinking is

creativity/lateral
thinking.

The

primarily concerned with

thinking; the second with logical/vertical

With lateral

thinking you change concepts and ideas;

with vertical thinking you refine and elaborate established

concepts. 46
Vertical/logical/traditional
our being able to act on ideas.

Western thinking is
Its

purpose is

to choose from

the alternatives available--to reach conclusions.

important to our ability
decisions,

logic is

important to

Because it

is

to reach conclusions and to make sound

a subject which should be taught/learned as

part of any endeavor to improve our thinking skills.

To be effective as a logical thinker requires an
understanding of the five major concepts of logic:
propositions
arguments,

(deductive and inductive processes),

inferences,

and conclusions.

concepts will increase your skill

effectively,

in

logical
premises,

Understanding these

using logical reasoning more

improve your problem solving ability,

and prevent

you from being confused or mislead by the reasoning processes

other people try to use with you and on you.
concepts is

beyond the scope of this

14

paper;

Explaining these
however,

the diagram

obvious that logical errors come in

in Appendix B should make it

Even more dangerous than the logical errors that can

many forms.

occur in vertical thinking is

the nature of the logical thinking

system itself.
"Yes"

and "No"

are the basic tools of logical thinking. 47

They works in a simple and direct manner.

if

does not fit

it

idea.

"No"

We look at an idea and

our experiences we use "no" to throw out that

indicates a mismatch between the idea and our

experience and, therefore, serves to preserve ideas that have

The YES/NO system amplifies

been established by experience.'

small differences,

works only with extremes.4 9

because it

The

manifestation of this in our society and in our interpersonal,

interservice,

intraservice,

and intraagency relationships leads

to frustration, inefficiency and conflict.

democracy,

voting is

For example,

in our

on the YES/NO basis; therefore, people in

opposing parties have to take opposite attitudes in order to

polarize the voters'

choices.

politics--are absolute,

Since few truths--particularly in

such polarization hampers rather than

facilitates the development and implementation of effective

solutions.
The YES/NO system cannot deal with vagueness,

uncertainty,

and insecurity, because you cannot make a definite judgement

about something that is
people,

not itself definite.",50

who work within the YES/NO system,

much of modern life is

so fast it

This is

why

feel so lost, since so

uncertain and since the rate of change is

prevents tomorrow from being a repetition of today.

15

In

the YES/NO system,

if

you are right, the person who holds

a view opposite of yours must be wrong.

It,

therefore,

becomes a

duty to point out how right you are and how wrong the other
person is.

Likewise,

same to you.

he sees his duty as requiring him to do the

There is nothing in the YES/NO system to indicate

that both of you may be right but simply starting from different
basic ideas or different ways of looking at things.
With the YES/NO system,
current idea is

rejected.

52

51

change can come about only if

An idea must definitely be shown to

be wrong before there can be any question of changing it

considering the need to change it.

53

take the form of an attack on an old idea. 5 4

change.

In

the military,

or even

Change can be achieved

only by rejecting the current idea; therefore,

conflict that results is

the

any new idea must

The clash and

not conducive to smooth and evolutionary

it

can result in interservice rivalries

and failures such as the tragedy at Desert One during the Iranian
hostage rescue attempt.
equipped and trained itself
joint effort,

In the latter case, each service had

for independent operations.

When a

such as the Iran hostage rescue mission, required

the integration of operational capabilities; the services were

forced to put together an adhoc organization that was not
equipped or trained to operate as a cohesive unit capable of
responding effectively to the unexpected.
Another fault with the YES/NO system is

that it

certainty that we are right before we can act. 5 5

requires

When we make a

decision, we have to know that the alternative we choose is

16

absolutely right or we will have doubts.

retard us and hold us back.

56

These doubts tend to

What usually happens is

that to

overcome this doubt we create a false certainty, which gives rise

to a lot of trouble later when we do realize how false it
It

may very well be that it

was.

57

was false certainty such as this--the

certainty that somehow we would generate lift

when we needed it--

that has led us to ignore our requirement for strategic sealift

for so long.

Desert Shield/Desert Storm clearly demonstrated

that there is

an imbalance between the ability to apply forces in

a conflict and the sealift required to sustain them.

We need to

learn better ways to overcome YES/NO thinking, prior to a Desert

One tragedy or some sort of interpersonal or international
conflict requiring us to change.
Creative/lateral

(stage 1) thinking can help to facilitate

change without the need to reject a previously held idea to do

so.

Lateral thinking encourages restructuring,

rejection,

of old ideas.

This restructuring is

where vertical thinking predominates.

rather than
unlikely to occur

The trouble with "natural"

restructuring in a vertical thinking system is threefold:

1.

The new information which should cause restructuring

can often be distorted and fit

2.

If

into the old pattern of thinking.

the new information can be viewed only through the

old pattern, only those parts of it

which fit

the old pattern

will be accepted.
3.
it

Unless the new information is

will simply be ignored. 5 8

17

abundant or powerful,

What this amounts to is

pattern to bring it

that the "natural" restructuring of a

up-to-date always lags behind the possible

restructuring that could occur based upon the information

available.

59

long after it

An idea, therefore,

will change of its

own accord

could have been changed.

Lateral thinking is

a way of using information to escape from

old ideas and to generate new ones.

Lateral thinking is

the

"neutral label" used to describe the process of changing from one

way of looking at things to another.W
techniques encourage creativity.

Lateral thinking

Creativity is

a matter of

trying to get at what has been left out of the original way of
looking at a situation. 61

Creativity and lateral thinking bring

about a change in

direction; the purpose of change is

a new direction.

There are three basic principles of

to provide

creativity:
1.

Overcoming the NO barrier so that ideas can be used

as stepping stones to other ideas.

2.

Opening yourself up to influences which have no

connection with what you are doing.

3.

Developing the willingness to look again at ideas

which seem perfectly right and absolute.

Lateral thinking,

62

and the techniques used to encourage it,

enable us to look at a situation in new and different ways.

ability is

This

vital to being able to solve small problems before

they become big ones and to being able to make decisions with
confidence.

The tools of lateral thinking allow us to break the

18

self-imposed bonds which imprison our creativity and stifle

thinking.

It

is

our

important to realize that when we look at a

situation only from within our established way of looking at it,

no amount of will power is
looking at it.63

We draw a boundary and work within that

boundary; therefore,
boundary.

going to take us to a new way of

our answer will also lie within that

We simply cannot look at something in a new way by

looking at it

harder the old way.6

The number of methods/tools that have been described to

encourage lateral thinking are numerous and varied.
PMI (plus, minus,

interesting),

called

requires that you find positive,

negative, and interesting points about an idea. 65

as, FOW (find other ways),

One,

Other,

CAF (consider all factors),

such

and C&S

(consequences and sequel)--to name but a few--are easy and

effective.6

Experiments have shown that both children and

adults are more receptive to change,

more creative,

and more

tolerant of the ideas of others after learning how to use lateral

thinking techniques.

67

Lateral thinking may seem like a luxury to be added to our

other thinking tools, if
thinking is

we have the time.

Actually,

lateral

not something that should be added to our ordinary

thinking procedures but something that should come before them.

Lateral thinking, when used,

operates primarily in the first

stage of thinking--in the perceptual patterning stage, which is

concerned with the way of looking at things and the choosing of
concepts.

Logic, or vertical thinking, is

19

concerned with the

processing of these concepts.

Lateral thinking develops new

ideas and new approaches to problems.

Once these ideas or approaches have been developed,
be judged in the usual way.

they can

Vertical thinking is used to

evaluate the approaches developed so that action can be taken.

It

stands to reason that the broader the conceptual base and

breadth of understanding developed in the first

stage of thinking

the better will be the decisions arrived at in the second stage.

Lateral thinking facilitates the recognition of the need to
change prior to a crisis or conflict developing that requires
change.
Lateral thinking techniques are easy to learn and they are
effective; however,

the appreciation of their importance as a

part of your thinking and the effort to learn them is

20

up to liu.

STYLES OF THINKING AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Once you have begun to deliberately practice and integrate
logical/vertical and creative/lateral thinking, you will be able
arrive at conclusions and solutions that, at least to you,
intuitively obvious.

appear

Because they are based on sound thinking

and are intuitively obvious to you, does not mean they will be
intuitively obvious to others.
We have all, at some time in our careers,

experienced the

frustration of knowing that we had "the solution" to a problem

but found that we were unable to get our peers or superiors to
accept it.

It

could be that by failing to recognize the thinking

style, or styles, of those we were trying to influence we failed

to "sell" our solution in a manner which would facilitate its
acceptance.
enough.

Consequently,

effective thinking alone is

not

We must also be able to recognize how others think, so

we can present our thoughts in a manner that they can accept and
use within their frame of reference.
Identifying these "frames of reference" or thinking style(s)
in yourself and others is

not difficult, and there are a number

of benefits to be derived from learning them:

1.

Once you know your own style, or styles, of thinking

and those of others--and can recognize the differences--you will

have a springboard toward becoming a more adaptable and versatile
problem solver.
2.

You will be able to identify your own blind spots.

You will be able to recognize the errors into which your

21

preferred style of thinking is

likely to lead you,

of situations in which they occur.

and the kinds

Knowing this, you can learn

to compensate for your blind spots and to avoid errors more

frequently than you probably do now.
4.

You will learn a number of practical and accessible

methods of augmenting and expanding your style of thinking.

5.

You will learn specific methods of influencing and

communicating with others in a more effective way.68

Allen F.

Harrison and Robert M. Bramson,

Art of Thinking,

in their book The

identify five styles of thinking.

The five

styles are labeled to characterize the primary trait

with a particular thinking style or inquiry mode.
Realist, Analyst,
following is

associated
They are:

Idealist, Synthesist, and Pragmatist.

The

a brief description of the influencing techniques

most commonly used by each:6"

Realist:
no-nonsense way.

Realists approach others in a straightforward,

They make statements such as: "Here are the

facts." and "This is

my opinion."

factual agreement and consensus,

With their strong desire for

Realists are likely to be

relatively assertive about seeking these by saying such things

as,

"We can all agree about the realities of the situation."

of their most powerful techniques for influencing is

their incisiveness and immediacy.
here is

"Here is

what we ought to do about it."

technique is

One

based on

what's happening,

and

The Realist's favorite

to try to mobilize people around objective agreement

in order to move toward concrete corrective action.

22

Analysts:

Analysts influence others through logic,

and the use of data that support their

careful explanation,
arguments.
and "It

They make statements such as:

stands to reason."

"It

is

only logical."

Rather than being aggressive or

emotionally persuasive, Analysts assume that others are--or

should be--swayed by the convincing logic and rationality of what
they have to say.

They present themselves as eminently sensible,

reasonable people,

and have expectations that others will be more

or less the same.

Pragmatists exert influence simply by being

Pragmatists:

They will try to motivate others with

enthusiastic and eager.

their relative quickness and playfulness.

along the lines of:

"Say,

of this bright idea?"

I'll

They make statement

buy that." and "What do you think

Being adaptable and given to tactical

thinking, Pragmatist influencing behavior is

flexible than that of other styles.

likely to be more

Pragmatists will look for

ways to tap into the motivations of others by experimenting with

approaches that are likely to work,
situation of the other person.

considering the immediate

Tom Sawyer's influencing of his

friends to paint his aunt's board fence comes to mind as an

example.
Idealists:

Idealists influence others by appealing to

such things as broad goals and high standards.

They are given to

a search for aids to agreement by making statements such as:

"Don't you think?" and "It
this?"

They are listeners,

seems to me."

and "Can we all agree on

and head nodders,

23

and they rely on

receptivity as a means of bringing people to agreement on the

proper view of things.
Synthesists:

Synthesists do less than anyone else to

influence others, partly because they understand how hard it

is

for true agreement to be reached and partly because they accept

the "reality" that, in fact,

several realities may exist.

Synthesists often attempt to overwhelm the other person with

their profundity.

"May I suggest that we distinguish between..."

they will say, or "But there's yet another side of the picture."
Provided they can find others who are willing to let them,
Synthesists will try to influence through debate,

pointed

or the kind of structured exchange of wit--leaping

arguments,

back and forth between logic and absurdity--that befits their

dialectical approach.
It

is

important for us to recognize that our influencing

techniques are styled largely for gaining agreement with, and

rewards from, people who are much like ourselves.7 0

We base our

understanding of others and their motivations on what we think we

know of ourselves and our motivations.
way is

We then decide that our

both the "right" way and the "normal" way.

All of us, to

one extent or another, tend to fall into the trap of assuming

that "everyone is

like me."

The hard reality is that people

really are different, and what influences one may not influence
another.

The following are two rules of thumb to keep in mind

when you are trying to influence someone else:

1.

The methods and techniques that you customarily use

24

to influence others work best (or work only) with people like
yourself--people who share similar values, motivations,
styles of thinking.

If

and

you want to be effective in influencing

people who are different from yourself,

you must learn to apply

the techniques that are appropriate for them.

2.

If

you want to be truly effective in influencing

people who are different from yourself,

about their motivations,

you must learn something

and styles of thinking.12

values,

You

can do that by observing them and matching their behavior to the

descriptions given above.

To make that easier, Appendix C

contains a chart which shows how the various thinking styles are
characterized and the strengths and liabilities
categorizations,
if

ever, pure.

of each.

as they are demonstrated in humans,

In

These

are seldom,

addition, Appendix D contains a chart of

behavioral clues to styles of thinking in others.

C and D, in combination,

Using Appendix

will enable you to develop strategies

for winning acceptance of your ideas.

In

working toward winning acceptance,

it

is

important to

recognize that you, as well as those you deal with, can have more
than one highly developed thinking style.
Robert M. Bramson,

Allen F.

in their book The Art of Thinking,

Harrison and
provide

what they call the "iiQ" test, which can be used to identify your
relative preference for each style of thinking.

They also

describe the characteristics of the various combinations of

thinking styles and ways to improve your thinking skills for each
style.

Improving your thinking skill, combined with the ability

25

to recognize the preferred thinking styles of others, will enable

you to make better contact with others in order to get a better
hearing for your own views and to avoid rubbing people the wrong
way.

Once you learn the characteristics of the various styles of

thinking,

and combination of styles,

the charts contained in

Appendix C and D can be a "shorthand" reference that will aid you

in selling your ideas and in your interpersonal relationships
with others.

They will enabling you to express your ideas in

terms compatible with the manner in which the person you are
trying to influence would express your idea if
to begin with.

it

was his or hers

Thus, by presenting your idea in a manner in

which the person you are trying to influence can be immediately

comfortable reexpressing it

himself/herself,

you not only

facilitate his/her acceptance of the idea but also his/her

ability to act on it.

Consequently,

effectiveness and theirs.

26

you will increase both your

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
Thinking is

something we all do; therefore,

recognize that we can learn to do it

traditional education is
intelligence in action,

better.

we fail to

Implicit in

the notion that thinking is

just as traffic is

simply

cars in motion.

danger of this fallacy lies in believing that if

The

you have

intelligence nothing needs to be done about your thinking, or,

if

you are of more humble intelligence that nothing can be done.

Either way,

the result is that little

is done to directly develop

the skill of thinking.

The fact that thinking is
that it

a learnable skill--not a gift--and

has been neglected by traditional education has

undoubtedly resulted in a tragic waste of many brilliant minds.

Unless we take the time to improve our thinking skills and begin
to teach and develop thinking as a skill, we will continue to
perpetuate this waste.
The dogmas that may have served us well in the past are
inadequate in the stormy present.

Let the historians treasure

the out-of-date knowledge of the past--it's

It's

their business.

our business to have the most up-to-date mental patterns/maps

possible to guide us.

Since reality is

constantly washing its

face, we must learn to occasionally scrub our mental maps.

We

must build our military on factual perception and not on

historical faith by improving our ability to think.
We need to develop our lateral thinking ability if

we are to

increase our assurance that we have identified all available

27

alternatives and options before we use our logic to arrive at a

decision.

The thinking system that we have as a product of

traditional education is

inadequate by itself--with its

orientation for retaining old ideas and rejecting new ones--for

coping with the present day demands of a fast paced world.

We

are hung-up on inappropriate concepts of success and failure.

Because something was successful in the past, and is
today, doesn't mean that it

in existence

will be successful tomorrow.

to learn to use lateral thinking, because its

We need

focus on

restructuring old patterns of thought and creating new ideas and

concepts can more rapidly lead to progress and development than
can the more predominate vertical thinking system.
lateral thinking is

to relate what is

The thrust of

happening to what could be

happening--to maximize potential.

Logic is
thinking.

the commonly misunderstood foundation of vertical

By learning to understand it

better, we can use it

more effectively to select and act upon the ideas generated by

the lateral thinking process.
how to recognize when it

is

Learning how to use it,

being misused,

as well as

will help to ensure

that the actions we take and the manner in which we take them are
appropriate for the situation in which they are used.
We will be better able to ensure that the outcomes we desire
are achieved if
we think.

we understand how others think, as well as,

how

Learning our style(s) of thinking and the style(s) of

others will improve our ability to successfully communicate our

desires.

In an era of bureaucratic red tape,

28

funding shortfalls,

and increasing technical sophistication,

the ability to obtain

the cooperation of others is often the key to success.

Hopefully, this paper has convinced you that thinking is

learnable skill.

Among the many benefits of learning to think

more effectively,

perhaps the most important is

more effective.

All it

that you will be

a willingness to expend the

takes is

effort to learn and practice something that will be personally

and professionally beneficial to you and those you lead.

29

FQOTNOTES
British

1. Edward de Bono, de Bono's Thinking Course (London:

Broadcasting Corporation, 1982), pp. 152.

Kenneth S. Keyes, How to Develop Your Thinking Ability (New

2.
York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), p. 79.
Edward L. Kramer, The Negative Power of Positive Thinking (New
3.
York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), p. 85.
Learn to Improve Your Thinking
4.
Karl Albrecht, Brain Power:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980), p. 2.
Sil (Englewood Cliffs:
5.
George H. Bickerstaff, So Well Expressed (Salt Lake City:
Bookcraft, Inc., 1964), p. 64.
6.

Albrecht,

p.

212.

7.

Albrecht,

p.

254.

Vernon Howard, Secrets of Mental Magic: How to Use Your Full

8.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974), p.
Power of Mind (Englewood Cliffs:
75.
9.

J.

H. Robinson,

as quoted by Albrecht,

Vern McLellan, Ouips.

10.
House Publishers, 1982), p.

Ouotes.
85.

p. 107.
Harvest

and Ouests (Eugene:

11. Robert Byrne, The 637 Best Things Anybody Ever Said (New York:
Ballantine Books, 1982), #423.
12.
Stuart B. Litvik, Use Your Head (Englewood Cliffs:
Hall, Inc. 1982), p. 136.
Edward de Bono,
13.
Penquin Books, 1971),
14.

Lateral Thinking for Manaaement

p. 43.

Prentice(New York:

Ibid.

15. Edward de Bono,

1978), p. 46.

Teaching Thinking

(New York:

de Bono's Thinking Course, p.

Penguin Books,

50.

16.

de Bono,

17.

Ibid.,

18.

de Bono,

Lateral Thinking for Management,

19.

de Bono,

de Bono's Thinking Course,

p. 41.

30

p.

50.

pp.

17-19.

20.

Albrecht,

p.

137.
Beyond Yes & No (New

PO:

Edward de Bono,
21.
Books, 1972), p. 115.

p.

York:

46.

22.

de Bono,

de Bono's Thinking Course,

23.

de Bono,

Lateral Thinking for Management,

p.

27.

24.

de Bono,

Lateral Thinking for Management,

p.

27.

25.

de Bono,

de Bono's Thinkin'

26.

de Bono,

Lateral Thinking for Management,

Richard
27.
December 1985,
28.

A. Guida,
p. 120.

p.

Course,

46.
p. 24.

Survivability,"

"Nuclear

Penguin

Proceedings,

Ibid.
Feet

Kenneth Wydro, Thinking on Your

29.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1981), p. 23.

Lateral Thinking for Management,

30.

de Bono,

31.

Ibid.

32.
78.

Edward de Bono,

New Think (New York:

p.

33.

de Bono,

de Bono's Thinking Course,

34.

de Bono,

Po:

Beyond Yes & No,

p. 25.

35.

de Bono,

Po:

Beyond Yes & No,

p.

Emily T. Smith,
36.
September 1985, p. 81.
37.

Ibid.

38.

Ibid.

"Are

Your

(Englewood
p.

Cliffs:

39.

Avon Books,

1967),

p.

Week,

30

51.

25.

Creative?,"

Business

"The Education Deficit," A Staff Report Summarizing the

39.
Hearings on "Competitiveness and the Quality of the American Work
Force," prepared for the use of the Subcommittee on Education and
Health of the Joint Economic Committee Congress of the United
U.S. Government Printing
States, December 12, 1988 (Washington:
Office, 1989), p. 44.
40.

de Bono,

Po:

Beyond Yes & No,

31

p.

35.

41.

New Think,

de Bono,

p.

125.

42.

de Bono,

Teaching Thinking,

43.

de Bono,

Po:

44.

de Bono,

p.

Beyond Yes & No,

Nw ThinkI,

p.

259.
16.

p.

45.

Lateral Thinking for Mngaggement,

45.

de Bono,

46.

Litvik, p.

47.

de Bono,

48.

Ibid.,

pp.

29-30.

49.

Ibid.,

pp.

30-31.

50.

Ibid.,

p.

128.

51.

Ibid.,

p.

126.

52.

Ibid.,

p.

35.

53.

Ibid.

54.

Ibid.

55.

Ibid.,

p.

128.

56.

Ibid.

57.

Ibid.

58.

de Bono,

59.

Ibid.

60.

de Bono,

Teaching Thinking,

61.

de Bono,

Lateral Thinking for Management,

62.

de Bono,

Po:

63.

Ibid.,

p. 100.

64.

Ibid.,

p. 106.

157.

p.

41.

p.

184.

64.
Beyond Yes & No,

Po:

p.

29.

Lateral Thinking for Management,

65.

Edward de Bono,

66.

Ibid.,

pp.

p.

p.

Beyond Yes & No,

9.

pp.

98-114.

Teaching Thinking, pp. 124-125.

50 and 134.
32

67.

Edward de Bono,

Po:

Beyond Yes & No, pp.

235-257.

68. Allen Harrison and Robert M. Bramson, The Art of Thinking (New
Berkley Books, 1982), p. 3-4.
York:
69.

Ibid.,

pp.

102-103.

70.

Ibid.,

p.

103.

71.

Ibid.,

p.

106.

72.

Ibid.

33

APPENDIX A
CARPENTER'S SOLUTION'

'J

Karl Albrecht, Brain Power: Learn to Improve Your ThinkinQ

Skills (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980), p. 137.

APPENDIX B
LOGIC ERRORS DIAGRAM'

*Begging the Question

*Red Herring
*Personal Attackc
*Trick Question
False AnalogyR
*Absurdity
*Special Immunity

FCULMSEDN
S
"Facts"
*Weak "Facts"
*The Big Lie
*Irrelevant Data
*Suggestion

*Incorrect

Epithet
Euphemism
*Misleading
Metaphor
Word Magic
Personification
*Either/Or.
*Eguivocation
- Double Standard

Post Hoe, Ergo

Prooter Hoc
*False
Cause
*False
Dependence
False Correlation
Oversimplification
Rationalization

.Unwarranted

Gener-Aliualon
Misused Truism
Stereotyping
*Misuse
of Statistics
APPeal to Authority
*Appeal
to Consentus
Mob AppeaI
*Snob Appeal
Appeal to ignorance
F oAppeal to Emotion
Apil
to Ego

Karl Albrecht, Brain Power:

Learn to
mlsprove Your ThinkingT
Skills (Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980), p. 169.

APPENDIX C
1
THINKING STYLES CHART

*Oqleklatlok

I
SYNTHESIST
integrative view

Characterized by.

Strengths:

Usbilli~es:

Sees likeness in
apparent unllkos
Seek& conflict &
synthesis
interested in change

H
IDEALIST
Assimilative or
holistic view
Broad range of views
welcomed
Seeks Ideal
solutions
Interested in valJus

Ill
PRAGMATIST
Eclectic view

IV
ANALYST

"Whatever works"

Formal logic-&
deduction
Seeks "one best way"

Seeks shortest route

to payoff
Interested In
innovation
Adaptive Any data or theory
that gete us there

Seeks models &

formulas
Intstreated in "scion.
tfflc" solutions
Prescriptive
Theory and method
over data

Focus on payoff

y
REALIST
Empirical view &
induction
Relies on "|K'IS"
4 experl opinion
64ei.e
solutions
that meet
currnlt needs
interested in
Concrete results
Corrective
Date over theory

Speculative
Data meaningless
wlo Interpretation

Receptive
Data & theory of
equal value

Focus on underlying
assumptions
Points Out abstract
conceptual aspects
Good at preventing
over.agriement
Best in controversial,
conflict-laden
situations
Provides debate &
creativity

Focus on proc. %,
relationships
Points out values &
aspirations
Good at articulating
goals
Beat In unstructured,
valuelaeden
Vituations
Provides broad view,
goals & standards

Points out tactics

& strategies
Good at identifying
Impacts
Best In complex.
Incremental
situations
Provides experiment
& innovation

Focus on method &

Focus on facts 4
plan
results
Points out data &
Points out
details
raolities &
Good &t modelresources
building & planning Good aRt
Best In structured,
simplifying,
caculsatable
"cutting through"
situations
Best in well.
Provides stability
Oefined, objectlve
& structure
situations
Provides drive &
momentum

May screen Out

agreement
May seek conflict
unnecessarily
May try too hard for
change &newness

May ecreen out

"hard" data
May delay from too
many choices
May try too hard for
"Perfect" solutions

May screen out long.

"t* aspects
May rush too quickly
tO payoff
May try too hsrd for
exPedlency

May screen Oue values

&sublectives
May over-plan,
overf-nalyzo
May try too hard for
Predictability

May theorize
excessively
Can appear
uncommitted

May overlook details

May rely too much

on what "sells"
Can appear over.
compromising

May be inflexible.
overly cautious
Can appear
tunnel.visioned

Can appear overly

sentimental

Mayscreen out
disagreement
May rush to over.
simplified
solutions
May try too hard
for consensus &
Immediate response
May over-Omphasize
perceived "facts"
Can appear too
results-onented

Allen Harrison and Robert M. Bramson, The Art of Thinking

(New York:
Berkley Books, 1982), pp. 196-197.

APPENDIX

BEHAVIORAL CLUES TO STYLES OF THINKING'

WHAT TO

LOOK AND
LISTEN FOR

SYNTHESIST

Apt to
appear:

Challenging. skeptical.
amused: or may appear
tuned out. but alert
when disagrees,

Api to say:

-On the other

handn....."

IDEALIST
Attentive. receptive;
often supportive smile,
head nodding, much
verbal feedback.
Itseems to me..

PRAGMATIST

ANALYST

REALIST

Open, sociable: often a

good deal of humor, interpiay. quick to agree.

Cool. Kudiou,. often

hard to read; may be a
lack of feedback. as if
hearling you out.

Direct. forceful; agree.

ment and diszareement
often quickly expressed
nonverbally.

"I'll buy tha..

"It stands torea.

"It's obvious to
me. .

"That's sure one way

to go...'

"If you look at it

"Everybody knows

logically.. ."

that..

.'

"No. that's not necestarily so ...

"Don't you think

Apt to
express:

Concepts. opposite
points of view: speculates, may identify
absurdities.

Feelings, ideas about

values, what's good for
peopic, concerns about
golas.

Non-comples ideAS:
may tell brief personal
anecdotes to explain
idet.

General rules: describes

things systematically.
offers substantiating
data.

Opinions: describes factually. may offer short.

pointed aiccistes.

Tone:

Sardonic, probing.
skeptical; may sound
argumentative,

Inquiring, hopeful;
may sound tentative
or disappointed and
resentful.

Enthusiastic. agreeablc:
may sound insince-re.

Dry, disciplined. care.

ful; may sound set.
"stubborn.

Forthright. positive':
may sound dogmatic or
domineering.

Enjoys:

Speculative. philosophical, intellectual

argument.

Fclins~evel discus.
sions about people and
ther problems.

Brainstorming around
tactica issues: lively
give.and-take.

Structured. rations)
eaaMination of substantive issues.

Short. direct, factual

discgssions of immedi.
atemallers.

Apt to use:

Parenthetical cxpres-'
sions, qualifying
adjectives and phrases.

Indirect questions. aids

to gain agreement.

Casi ewmoes, illustrations. popular opinions,

Long. discursivc. well.

formulated sentences.

Direct. pithy, dcscriptivc statements.

Dislikes:

Talk that seems sireplistic. superficially

polite, fact-centcred.
repetitive, "mundane."

Talk that seans too

data-bound, factual,
"delhunmanizng"; and
openly conflictual argument unless about
issues of caring or
intelrity.

Talk that scans dry,

dull, humorless: or too
conceptual. philosophical. analytical. "nit.
picking."

Talk that seams irrational. aimless, or too

speculative. "far-out":
and irrelevant humor.

Talk that semns too

theoretical, sentimen.
tal. subjective, impractical. "long-winded,"

Under stress:

Pokes fun.

Looks hurt.

Looks bored.

Withdraws.

Gets agitated.

Stereotype:

*'Troublemaker"

"'Bleeding Heart"

"Politician

" Great Stone Face"

"Blockhead"

that ..
.

"

Allen Harrison and Robert M. Bramson, The Art of Thinkinq

(New York:
Berkley Books, 1982), pp. 104-105.

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New York:

de Bono, Edward.
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How to Develop Your Thinking Ability.
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New

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