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2 September 2002
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
i
CONTENTS
1 The study
2 Desalination today
3 Desalination technologies
4 Cost comparisons
26
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
ii
38
6 Dryland salinity
52
57
8 Conclusions
61
8.1 Recommendations................................................................................. 61
TABLES
Table 1: Unit conversions for soil and water salinity............................................. 2
Table 2: Quality categories for water salinity........................................................ 3
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
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FIGURES
Figure 1: National Action Plan priority regions...................................................... 1
Figure 2: Installed worldwide desalination capacity.............................................. 5
Figure 3: Installed Australian desalination capacity.............................................. 6
Figure 4: Basic illustration of membrane processes........................................... 10
Figure 5: Basic illustration of MSF process ........................................................ 16
Figure 6: Basic illustration of the MED process .................................................. 18
Figure 7: Basic illustration of the solar humidification process ........................... 24
Figure 8: Cost comparison of desalinated and piped fresh water ...................... 49
Figure 9: Basic Groundwater Flow Systems (GFS) of Australia ......................... 54
Figure 10: Desalination decision tree ................................................................. 59
ANNEXES
1
References
Glossary of terms
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Executive summary
Introduction
Studies undertaken as part of the Murray-Darling Basin Salinity Audit and the National
Land and Water Resources Audit have highlighted a likely decline in the quality of water
supplies over the next fifty years arising from the impacts of salinity on groundwater and
surface water resources. Some 2.5 million hectares of land in Australia have become
affected by dryland salinity processes over the past four decades and the trend is for this to
worsen before it improves.
The National Action Plan (NAP) for Salinity and Water Quality to address water quality
and salinity related problems has identified 21 priority regions within which salinity and
its management is a particular priority. This study assesses the technical and financial
aspects of desalination in the NAP regions as a source of fresh water for human use and as
a salinity management tool.
Status of desalination
Since WWII, desalination of saline water has become a reliable and cost effective means
of providing fresh water for human use, particularly in the arid and isolated regions of the
world. Middle East counties such as Saudi Arabia possess the greatest number and largest
capacity desalination plants in the world. Despite its seemingly suitable criteria of isolated
communities and aridity, Australia has comparatively limited operational expertise in
desalination. Isolated mining towns and small communities as well as industrial processes
such as power stations that require exceedingly high qualities of water are the main users
of desalination technologies in Australia.
Alternative desalination processes
The techniques for desalination may be classified into three categories according to the
process principle used:
process based on a physical change in state of the water i.e. distillation or freezing;
Variations in the design of each approach, such as the use of different energy sources, and
a vast range of operational parameters, mean there are many ways in which saline water
can be desalinated. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages the choice of
which approach to use is highly dependent on the requirements at hand and the
restrictions faced at the site being considered. It is apparent that there is no one right
desalination technology.
However, throughout the world, more Reverse Osmosis (RO) plants are being constructed
that the previously popular distillation techniques. Small scale and capacity renewable
energy powered desalination plants are also receiving interest for particular applications
where mains electricity is not available and solar insulation is high.
Choice of technology, costs and cost influencing factors
In general, the costs for membrane plants tend to be lower than for distillation plants of a
similar capacity, but particularly for plants generating fresh water of less than 300 to 400
kL/day where distillation is not financially feasible. Distillation is typically only viable for
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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plants of higher capacity than this, and particularly where a low cost, high quality waste
heat source (i.e. latent heat from an industrial process, such as an electricity or
manufacturing plant) is readily available.
If the feedwater TDS is greater than 10,000 mg/L and a low cost, high quality waste heat
source is available, distillation processes are generally selected. Other than this scenario,
distillation processes are only really considered where very high feedwater TDS values
greater than 50,000 mg/L occur, and for high capacity plants greater than 300 to 400
kL/day.
The technical operational boundaries and some cost comparisons for the three
desalination technologies that were considered in detail in this report are summarised
below.
Parameter
Feed Water Salinity
(mg/L TDS)
Product Water Salinity
(mg/L TDS)
Minimum Product
Water Volume
% Recovery
Energy Required
Capital Cost
[A$/(L/day of product
water)]
Operating Cost
(A$/kL)
Seawater RO
Brackish RO
Multi Effect
Distillation
Electrodialysis
Reversal
> 32,000
< 32,000
> 35,000
3,000 12,000
< 500
<200
<10
<10
500 L/day
500 L/day
120kL/day
90 kL/day
30
80
40 65
> 90
Electrical
Energy
Electrical
Energy
Electrical Energy
or Waste Heat
Energy
Electrical Energy
or Waste Heat
Energy
1,600 2,500
600 1,800
2,500 3,900
570 3,250
1.89 2.20
0.65 1.50
1.00 2.80
Without Waste
Heat: 1.8 2.80
There are a great number of variables that influence the choice of technology and the
capital and operating costs for those technologies. This study was not able to incorporate
all of these into a fully specified economic analysis, however, decisions concerning:
the method of disposing of the saline waste water that is a product of all desalination
processes,
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
1 The study
1.1 Background
In an arid continent like Australia, supplies of potable water are a very limited resource.
Recent studies undertaken as part of the Murray-Darling Basin Salinity Audit and the
National Land and Water Resources Audit have highlighted the potential decline in the
quality of water supplies over the next fifty years arising from the impacts of salinity on
groundwater and surface water resources. Rising saline groundwater also threatens to
severely damage or destroy infrastructure, urban environments and key environmental
assets as well as reducing the productive potential of the land.
The National Action Plan (NAP) for Salinity and Water Quality to address salinity related
problems has identified 21 priority regions within which salinity and its management is a
particular priority. Figure 1 illustrates these areas.
Figure 1: National Action Plan priority regions
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
to
by multiplying with
uS/cm
mS/cm
0.001
mS/cm
dS/m
0.01
ppm (mg/L)
mS/cm
1.4*
ML
0.001
kL
1000
ppm (mg/L)
g/L
0.001
Bar
kPa
100
Atm
kPa
101
m
m
For the purposes of this study, quality categories of water salinity are provided in Table 2.
The Australian drinking water guidelines (ARMCANZ, 1996) state that water of less than
100 mg/L TDS (total dissolved solids, ie, not just sodium) is considered an excellent
quality source of everyday drinking water. For limited periods of time, water of up to
1,200 mg/L TDS may also be acceptable depending on taste. Maximum advisable
irrigation water salinities for healthy growth range from 0 to greater than 3,500 mg/L TDS
depending on the type of plant being irrigated, the soil type, and irrigation frequency.
Water for consumption by stock also varies depending on the animal, ranging up to
approximately 7,000mg/L TDS in the case of sheep.
Most desalination techniques are able to reduce sea water level salinity down to 500 mg/L
TDS levels and less.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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Rating
Human consumption
Excellent
< 100
Human consumption
Good to fair
100 1,000
Human consumption
Poor
1,000 1,200
Human consumption
Unacceptable
> 1,200
Irrigation
3,500
4,800
7,150
Soil salinity categories used by the Victoria Department of Natural Resources and
Environment were developed through plant productivity studies and are listed in Table 3.
Table 3: Quality categories for soil salinity
Soil class
Soil salinity
range (dS/m)
Comments
0 - 3.8
3.8 - 6.5
6.5 - 8.6
> 8.6
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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2 Desalination today
2.1 Desalination as a source of fresh water
Of all the Earths water, 94 percent is salt water from the oceans and 6 percent is fresh. Of
the latter, 27 percent is in glaciers and 72 percent is underground (Buros, 2000). While the
Earths salt water resources support commercially important activities such as fishing and
transport, it is typically beyond the limits to support human life or farming. Desalting
techniques have therefore captured attention as an option to increase the range of water
resources available for use by a community.
2.1.1 Worldwide
The application of desalting technologies over the last half of the 19th century has changed
the way people live their lives and where they choose to live. Villages, cities and
industries have now developed in many of the arid and water short areas of the world
where sea or brackish waters (a salt level between fresh and sea water) are available and
have been treated with desalting techniques.
The change is most apparent in parts of the arid Middle East, North Africa, and some of
the islands of the Caribbean, where the lack of fresh water previously limited
development (Buros, 2000).
The requirement to provide fresh water to people in areas with little or no infrastructure
was highlighted during WWII. The potential of desalination was realised during this time
and the technology underwent its first intensive period of development following the war.
The American government, through the creation and funding of the Office of Saline
Water in the early 1960s, and its successor organisations, led the worldwide research
effort. The work of these organisations underpins much of the knowledge and
understanding that exists today.
By the late 1960s, commercial thermal approaches to desalting water were common
place, with capacities up to 8,000 kL/day (Buros, 2000) being achievable. In the 1970s,
commercial scale membrane processes such as Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Electrodialysis
(ED) were introduced and used more extensively. As the technology progressed and
operational experience increased through the 80s and 90s, the cost of construction and
operation reduced significantly. This was particularly the case for the membrane
technologies which are a considerably cheaper prospect now for certain applications than
the tried and trusted thermal/distillation approach (Buros, 2000).
The International Desalination Associations (IDA, 1998) most recent audit of worldwide
desalting capacity states a total installed figure of approximately 22,700 ML/day of which
about 85 percent is still in operation. Water Corporation (2000) provides a more up to
date, but unreferenced, figure of 25,600 ML/day from 13,885 desalting units as of 31st
December 1999.
Almost half of the worlds capacity is used to desalt seawater in the Middle East and
North Africa for municipal water supplies. Saudi Arabia ranks first in total capacity
installed (approximately 24 percent of total world capacity), with the United States second
(16 percent). The IDA inventory (IDA, 1998) indicates that the worlds installed capacity
consists mainly of multi-stage flash distillation and RO processes as indicated in Figure 2.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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4%
4%
Multi-Stage Flash
44%
Reverse Osmosis
Electrodialysis
Multi-Effect Distillation
42%
Vapour Compression
2.1.2 Australia
As of September 2000, the total installed capacity in Australia of desalination plants
greater than 100kL/day was 90ML/day (Water Corporation, 2000). The largest of these is
a 35ML/day RO plant at Bayswater, NSW supplying process water for a zero-discharge
power station (the largest of its kind in the world). A substantial number of mines and
power stations in Australia use desalination for production of process and boiler
feedwater, or to process effluent to comply with zero discharge commitments. The
average capacity of desalination plants in Australia is 2.6ML/day (Water Corporation,
2000).
A limited number (less than 10) of small desalination plants are used for public water
supplies in Australia. The low number is primarily due to the cost of providing water via
desalination being higher than the costs of conventional water supplies. Some examples
include:
since 1995, Rottnest Island in WA has operated an RO plant for a variety of fresh
water uses;
a desalination facility to supplement municipal water supplies for Port Lincoln and
lower Eyre Peninsula, SA is currently being investigated (pers. comm., Glenn
Walker); and
Most desalination plants in Australia were installed in the 1980s and 1990s. The
majority of these use the RO process as indicated by Figure 3.
As the scarcity and price of conventional sources of fresh water rise over time, and as full
cost recovery as a principle for water charging becomes more widespread, desalination as
an option for supplying fresh water for human consumption and irrigation is expected to
become more popular in Australia.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
12%
Multi-Stage Flash
18%
Reverse Osmosis
Vapour Compression
Other
64%
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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3 Desalination technologies
Desalination is a process that removes dissolved minerals (including but not limited to
salt) from feedwater sources such as seawater, brackish water or treated wastewater.
The techniques for desalination may be classified into three categories according to the
process principle used:
Process based on a physical change in state of the water i.e. distillation or freezing;
Of the above processes, those based on chemical bonds such as ion exchange are mainly
used to produce extremely high quality water for industrial purposes and are not suited to
treating seawater or brackish water. Consequently, this process is not discussed further in
this study.
The other two processes, based on physical change of the water and filtering via
membranes, are regularly used to treat seawater and brackish water and have been
developed over many years in large scale commercial applications. There are also some
variations on the design and application of these processes that have not yet reached
commercial or widespread acceptance but which in certain circumstances are considered
potentially useful. The desalination processes investigated in this study are as detailed
below.
Major Processes:
Membrane
Reverse Osmosis
Electrodialysis
Distillation
Alternative Processes:
Solar Humidification
Freezing
Membrane Distillation
Electrodialysis (ED).
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Each process uses the ability of the membranes to differentiate and selectively separate
salts and water. However, the membranes are used differently for each of these two
processes.
Reverse Osmosis is a pressure driven process, with the pressure applied used for
separation, allowing the water to pass through the membrane while the salts remain.
Electrodialysis is a voltage driven process, and uses the electrical potential to selectively
move salts through the membrane, leaving the product water behind. Figure 4 provides a
basic illustration of the process and is discussed in more detail in the following sections.
Figure 4: Basic illustration of membrane processes
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The amount of water discharged to waste in the brine stream varies from approximately
20% to 70% of the feed flow, depending on the salt content of the feedwater, the pressure,
and type of membrane.
Product water with a salinity of less than 500 mg/L TDS can usually be obtained using a
single stage RO operation.
Pretreatment of the feedwater is an essential component of the RO plant in order to
prevent scaling of the membranes by scale-forming foulants such as salt precipitation and
microbial growth. Usually the pretreatment consists of fine filtration and the addition of
antiscalants and/or dispersants to inhibit precipitation and the growth of micro-organisms.
The use of micro, ultra and nanofiltration is becoming increasingly important as a
potential pretreatment alternative to the conventional pretreatment processes. This aids in
effectively softening the feedwater, aiding in the removal of the calcium and magnesium
within the feed prior to RO.
The high pressure pump within the RO system supplies the pressure needed to enable the
water to pass through the membrane, while rejecting the salts. This pressure ranges from
approx 17 to 27 bar for brackish water RO systems, and from 54 to 80 bar for seawater
RO systems.
The processes of brackish water and seawater reverse osmosis are essentially identical.
There are however, substantial differences in the two processes pressure requirements, as
stated above, with brackish water systems requiring substantially lower operating
pressures, and the rate of conversion of feedwater to desalinated product water, with
brackish water systems able to achieve higher system recoveries. In addition to the
differing energy requirements of the two processes, the types of pretreatment required can
also vary considerably.
3.1.1.2 Application of technology
Most operational problems occur in RO plants because materials have deposited on the
membrane surfaces or in the membrane elements, preventing the membranes from
functioning efficiently. Other problems occur due to mechanical failures, and poor
operation.
Hence the main problems associated with reverse osmosis plants are associated with
membrane fouling issues and the working life of the semi-permeable membranes. Correct
pretreatment of the raw feedwater is essential to avoid fouling and maintain desalted
water output over the membrane lifetime, significant fouling can reduce the product water
flux considerably. Furthermore, membranes are also subject to a degree of compaction
under the applied pressure such that their performance characteristics deteriorate with
time.
Mechanical failures can occur due to the high pressures needed for the transport of water
across the membranes, the piping, supports, machinery etc., which can therefore be
subjected to water mechanical stresses such as high pressures and vibration.
The rate of recovery of drinking water quality water from an RO plant is largely limited
by the concentration in the feedwater of membrane scale producing compounds, mainly
CaCO3, CaSO4, BaSO4, SrSO4 and SiO2. If any of these components are present in
concentrations of less than 20% of their solubility limit, then they do not usually present
limitations, and for a brackish water RO system, at least 80% recovery of the feedwater as
drinking quality product water is achievable. A seawater RO system is able to achieve at
most 30% recovery of the feedwater. However, there are many instances in Australia
where scale producing compounds are present in groundwater aquifers and for
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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desalination plants processing this water, their efficiencies are normally lower (pers.
comm., N. Wende).
As the feedwater TDS level decreases higher recoveries and higher salt rejections can be
achieved with RO membrane plants, provided scaling constituents are in acceptably low
concentrations. For example, for brackish feedwater TDS levels in the range of 2500 to
3000 mg/L TDS, typical brackish water RO plants can achieve up to 98% salt separation
from the feedwater, at typical operating pressures in the range of 1400 to 1700 Kpa.
The salinity of the product water is therefore dependent on the salinity and chemical
characteristics of the feedwater, and would usually be of the order of 2 to 10 percent of the
feed salinity (as mentioned above for low feedwater TDS systems). Hence less than 500
mg/L product water TDS for seawater feed systems is typically achievable, and less than
200mg/L product water TDS is achievable for brackish water feed systems.
RO systems are found to be most suitable for use in regions where seawater or brackish
groundwater is readily available, such as throughout the NAP regions of Australia. RO is
by far the most widely used process for desalination in Australia. An example of a
desalination plant using RO technology is at Penneshaw on Kangaroo Island, South
Australia (see case study below). Other examples include Ravensthorpe in southern WA,
Denham north of Perth, Rottnest Island off the coast of Fremantle WA, and some of the
remote roadhouses along the highway between Adelaide and Perth in the Great Australian
Bight. The RO plant at Bayswater, NSW, is the largest zero-emissions plant in the world
(35ML/day) and provides highly pure water for boiler processes in an adjacent power
station.
Penneshaw Case Study
The reverse osmosis desalination plant at Penneshaw is run by the South Australian water
authority, SA Water. It provides potable water to the township of Penneshaw (population
395) on Kangaroo Island a few hours south of Adelaide. Historically, farm dams were
used for water supply in the area. Today these would be too unreliable to sustain present
day populations as well as too polluted (due to agricultural activities in the surrounding
areas).
The desalination plant is of South African design and uses RO technology to supplement
the towns existing dam water supplies. Given that most tourism in the region is based
around the local environment, the plant was designed to minimise environmental impacts
and avoid the use of chemical cleaners.
As the plant is located along the coastline, brine concentrate is disposed of into the ocean
via pipes. It is believed that alternative uses and value-adding to the brine water would be
too expensive to establish.
Seawater is used as the feedwater source for the plant with a salinity level of
approximately 38,000-39,000 mg/L TDS. Between 35% and 40% of the 250KL of sea
water treated daily is recovered (ie, converted to potable water) and desalinated to a level
of no more than 1,000 mg/L.
The plant operates continuously and is powered from mains electricity which is available
to all residents of the island via an underwater power cable from the mainland.
The plant cost AUS$3.5 million to construct (including associated civil works) this is
significantly less than the cost of building infrastructure to link the township of
Penneshaw to the mains water supply 60km away. However, the operating costs of the
plant are such that it is more expensive than the unit costs of water provided via mains.
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They are quick and cheap to build and simple to operate. There are few components,
durable plastics and non-metal materials are mainly used - pre-treatment of the
feedwater to prevent fouling of the membrane is the only potential problem.
It can handle a large range of flow rates, from a few litres per day to 750,000 L/day for
brackish water and 400,000 L/day for seawater. The capacity of the system can be
increased at a later date if required by adding on extra modules.
It has a high space/production capacity ratio, ranging from 25,000 to 60,000 L/day/m2.
There is no need to shut down the entire plant for scheduled maintenance due to the
modular design of the plant. The startup and shutdown of the plant does not take long.
If the plant uses seawater there can be interruptions to the service during stormy
weather. This can cause resuspension of particles, which increases the amount of
suspended solids in the water.
There is a requirement for a high quality standard of materials and equipment for the
operation of the plant.
Most failures in RO systems are caused by the feedwater not being pre-treated
satisfactorily. Pre-treatment of the feedwater is required in order to remove
particulates so that the membranes last longer. Careful pre-treatment of feedwater is
necessary, especially if feedwater quality changes.
The plant operates at high pressures and sometimes there are problems with
mechanical failure of equipment due to the high pressures used.
3.1.2 Electrodialysis
3.1.2.1 Technical description
Using a similar approach to that of RO, Electrodialysis (ED) involves the movement of
water through a filtering membrane. However, instead of using pressure to overcome the
membranes resistance, pretreated water is pumped between electrodialysis cells under the
influence of a low voltage direct current (DC) electrical field.
An electrodialysis cell consists of a large number of narrow compartments through which
the feedwater for desalination is pumped. These compartments are separated by
membranes that are permeable to either positive ions (cations) or negative ions (anions).
Under the influence of the DC electrical field, cations and anions migrate through the
appropriate membranes, forming compartments of electrolyte-enriched wastewater and
electrolyte depleted product water.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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The partially deionised water is removed from the ED cell with the electrolyte
concentrations reduced by a factor of at least two. If further desalination is required then
treatment via one or more additional stages of cells may be necessary. Non-ionic
particulates, bacteria and residual turbidity may also pass through the cells with the
product water, and therefore this may require further treatment to achieve the desired
product water standards.
The basic electrodialysis unit consists of several hundred cell-pairs bound together with
electrodes on the outside and is referred to as a membrane stack. Feedwater passes
simultaneously in parallel paths through all of the cells to provide a continuous flow of
desalinated water and brine to emerge from the stack. Depending on the design of the
system, chemicals may be added to the streams in the stack to reduce the potential for
scaling.
The raw feedwater must be pre-treated to prevent materials that could harm the
membranes or clog the narrow channels in the cells from entering the stack. The
feedwater is circulated through the stack with a low pressure pump with enough power to
overcome the resistance of the water as it passes through the narrow passages.
Recently, advancements to the ED technology in the form of Electrodialysis Reversal
(EDR) have occurred. The EDR process involves a reversal of the water flow in order to
break up and flush out scales, slimes and other foulants deposited in the cells before they
can build up and create major fouling problems. This flushing also allows the
electrodialysis unit to operate with fewer pretreatment chemicals, hence minimising costs.
An EDR unit operates on the same general principle as a standard electrodialysis unit,
except that both the product and the brine channels are identical in construction. Several
times per hour, the polarities of the electrodes are reversed and the flows simultaneously
switched so that the brine channel becomes the product water channel, and vice versa. The
result of this is that the ions are attracted in the opposite direction across the membrane
stack. During this interval the product water is dumped until the stack and lines are
flushed out and the desired water quality is restored. This flush normally takes 1 to 2
minutes, with the unit returning to normal operation on completion of the flushing
process.
3.1.2.2 Application of technology
The ED process is usually only suitable for brackish feedwaters with a salinity of up to
12,000 mg/L TDS. With higher salinities the process rapidly becomes more costly than
other desalination processes. This is because the consumption of power is directly
proportional to the salinity of the water to be treated. As a rule of thumb, approximately 1
kWh is required to extract 1kg additional salt using ED. The major energy requirement of
the process is the direct current used to separate the ionic substances in the membrane
stack.
A variety of operational problems can be experienced with electrodialysis facilities. The
major ones being scaling and leaks.
Scaling scale formation will foul the membrane surfaces and block the passages in the
stack. The result of this is that the slowly moving water then becomes highly desalted due
to the longer period of exposure to the electromotive force. This highly desalted water has
a low conductivity and offers a high resistance to current flow, thus decreasing the
efficiency of the process. Some scale can be removed by introducing chemicals into the
stacks in an attempt to dissolve or loosen the scaling so that it can be washed out,
however in more severe cases the stack will need to be disassembled.
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Leaks operating and/or maintenance problems can result from leaks in two parts of the
electrodialysis stacks, either between the stacked membranes and spacers, or through the
membranes.
3.1.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages
The advantages of using electrodialysis plants for desalination are:
They can produce a high recovery ratio (85-94% for one stage).
Pre-treatment has a low chemical usage and does not need to be as precise.
The energy usage is proportional to the salts removed, instead of the volume of water
being treated.
The membranes for EDR have a life expectancy of 7-10 years, which is longer than
for RO.
Scaling can be controlled whilst the process is on-line, the membranes can also be
manually cleaned.
Bacteria, non-ionic substances and residual turbidity are not affected by the system
and can therefore remain in the product water and require further treatment before
certain water quality standards are met.
Flash-type distillation;
Distillation processes mimic the natural water cycle in that saline water is heated,
producing water vapour, which is in turn condensed to form fresh water. Approximately
half of the worlds desalination capacity is based on the Multistage Flash distillation
principle (MSF) (Buros, 2000). However, this is reflecting a continuing decline in the
market, with other water distillation technologies such as Multi-Effect (MED) and Vapour
Compression (VC) distillation, rapidly expanding and anticipated to have a more
important role in the future as they become more accepted and understood.
MSF and MED are generally used in most of the larger scale seawater desalination plants.
These processes generally require high amounts of energy to desalinate water regardless
of the level of salt concentration, hence brackish water desalination (which requires less
energy) is usually not a viable option for this technology.
The evaporative processes require thermal or mechanical energy to cause evaporation
from a brackish or saline feedwater, and as a result tend to have operating cost advantages
when low cost thermal energy is available.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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The principles of MSF involve seawater feed being pressurised and heated to the plants
maximum allowable temperature. When the heated liquid is discharged into a chamber
maintained slightly below the saturation vapour pressure of the water, a fraction of its
water content flashes into steam. The flashed steam is stripped of suspended brine
droplets as it passes through a mist eliminator and condenses on the exterior surface of the
heat transfer tubing. The condensed liquid drips into trays as hot product (fresh) water.
The recirculating stream, flowing through the interior of the tubes that condense the
vapour in each stage, serves to remove the latent heat of condensation. In doing so, the
circulating brine is preheated to almost the maximum operating temperature of the
process, simultaneously recovering the energy of the condensing vapour. This portion of
the MSF plant is called the heat recovery section. The preheated brine is finally brought
up to maximum operating temperature in a brine heater supplied with steam from an
external source.
A once through MSF plant will generally recover no more than 10% of the feed as product
water, however higher recoveries of between 25 to 50% of the feed flow can be achieved
as product water in a modern well-designed and high temperature recyclable MSF plant.
The salinity of water desalinated by the MSF process is typically less than 50 mg/L TDS,
and as a result may require blending with a small amount of brine to increase the salinity
and buffering salts to acceptable levels. Blending is often used with product waters of less
than 50 mg/L TDS for the following reasons:
Water with TDS <50 mg/L, tends to be slightly acidic in nature due to the absence of
calcium carbonate in the water. This will result in the water being corrosive in nature,
causing potential problems with pipework and end use equipment.
Typically water with TDS levels up to 500 mg/L TDS is acceptable, thus as the
product quality from the MSF process is considerably lower, by blending a portion of
the feedwater this can result in the possibility of a smaller MSF plant, hence potential
plant capital cost savings.
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There is a general consensus that water for drinking purposes should contain certain
quantities of minerals. Blending will ensure the addition of these minerals back into
the water. It should be noted however that this point is of debatable merit.
The salinity of the feedwater does not have much impact on the process or costs.
It produces very high quality product water (less than 10 mg/L TDS).
The strict operational and maintenance procedures for other processes are not as
rigorous for MSF.
It can be combined with other processes, eg using the heat energy from an electricity
generation plant.
They are expensive to build and operate and require a high level of technical
knowledge.
Highly energy intensive due to the requirement to boil the feedwater, although energy
efficiency is substantially enhanced via the heat recovery process.
The recovery ratio is low, therefore more feed water is required to produce the same
amount of product water.
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The plant can not be operated below 70-80% of the design capacity.
Blending is often required when there is less than 50mg/l TDS in the product water.
In MED units, steam and/or vapour from a boiler or some other available heat source is
fed in to a series of tubes where it condenses and heats the surface of the tube and acts as
a heat transfer surface to evaporate saline water on the other side. The energy used for
evaporation of the saline water is the heat of condensation of the steam in the tube.
The evaporated saline water, now free of a percentage its salinity and slightly cooler, is
fed in to the next, lower-pressure stage where it condenses to fresh water product, while
giving up its heat to evaporate a portion of the remaining seawater feed.
There is typically a series of these condensation-evaporation stages taking place, each one
being termed an effect. The process of evaporation-plus-condensation is repeated from
effect to effect, each at successively lower pressures and temperatures. The combined
condensed vapour constitutes the final product water.
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MED plants are very reliable even without a strict adherence to maintenance.
The plant can be combined with other processes, eg, using the heat energy from a
power plant.
They are expensive to build and operate - energy consumption is particularly high.
The plant can be susceptible to corrosion. This can usually be controlled by the choice
of material.
The product water is at an elevated temperature and can require cooling before it can
be used as potable water.
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The capital cost of the plant is reasonable and operation is simple and reliable.
The energy requirements are relatively low, although not as low as RO.
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Starting up the plant is difficult. An auxiliary heater is normally required to get the
temperature of the feed water up to a point where some vapour is formed. After this
the compressor can take over.
It requires large, expensive steam compressors, which are not readily available.
The capital cost for membrane plants is lower than distillation plants.
Membrane plants generally have higher recovery ratios than distillation plants.
Membrane plants operate at ambient temperature. This minimises the scaling and
corrosion potential, which increases with higher temperatures.
Membrane plants can easily be downgraded simply by taking sections out of the plant.
Membranes that are of the polyamide type can not be used if there is chlorine in the
water. The chlorine must be chemically removed.
The performance of membrane plants tends to decline progressively with time due to
fouling of the membrane.
Distillation plants have been established for a long time and have proven to be a
reliable means of desalination.
Distillation plants produce higher quality product water than membrane plants.
Distillation plants require more feedwater for the same amount of product water due
to their lower recovery ratio.
Distillation plants are more vulnerable to corrosion than membrane plants. This is
controlled by the selection of materials.
Distillation plants require more room for a given capacity than membrane plants.
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The temperature of the product water is higher for distillation plants, than for
membrane plants. This means that the product water needs to be cooled to be used as
potable water.
Multiple
Effect
Distillation
Pilot plants
(Spain, 1988;
UAE, 1984)
Solar thermal
electric or
mechanical
PV-battery
inverter
PV, no
inverter
N/a
Multistage
Flash
Distillation
Pilot plants
(Kuwait, 1984;
Mexico, 1978)
Pilot plant
(thermal)
(USA, 1987)
N/a
N/a
N/a
Wind-battery
N/a
N/a
Solar thermal
Wind-diesel
Desalination technology
Vapour
Reverse Osmosis
Compression
N/a
N/a
Pilot plants
(mechanical direct
drive, France, 1978)
Commercial
Pilot Plant
(Spain, 2001)
Commercial (direct
drive, Australia,
1996)
Pilot plants (France,
1990; Spain, 2001)
Pilot plants (Spain,
Greece, 2001)
Electrodialysis
N/a
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Renewable
energy source
Windmechanical
Wind-electric
direct drive
Multiple
Effect
Distillation
N/a
Multistage
Flash
Distillation
N/a
N/a
N/a
Desalination technology
Vapour
Reverse Osmosis
Compression
Pressurised water
storage pilot plant
(Australia, 1990)
Cut in/cut out
control pilot plants
(Germany, 1979;
France, 1987)
Electrodialysis
N/a
Today, in remote locations and/or where energy costs are high, desalination plants exist
that either fully or partly rely on renewable sources for their energy. Most have capacities
of less than 20 kL/d (Buros, 2000). The economic viability of operating these plants is
highly correlated to the cost of producing the solar or wind energy, hence they are best
located where average yearly solar insolation is high or where prevailing winds are strong.
A large example of solar power desalination is the Abhu Dhabi solar distillation plant in
the United Arab Emirates. This plant was commissioned in 1984 and has an output of 85
kL/day of fresh water. The solar collectors take up an area of 1,862 m2. The recovery ratio
of such plants range from 43%-55% (unknown, 2001).
Solar powered RO desalination units have been developed and are in operation in rural
areas of Australia. An example of this is the solar powered reverse osmosis unit
Solarflow developed by The Remote Area Developments Group at Murdoch University.
This unit has a capacity to desalinate 400L/day from brackish salinity water of up to 5,000
mg/L TDS using a 120 watt photovoltaic array. This is enough to provide 2 people with
their complete water requirements (washing, cooking, bathing, and drinking) for a day.
Alternatively, it can be used to augment existing water supplies or used for one or two
purposes only in which case it can service many more people.
Costs for a fully operational 400L/day unit amount to approximately $22,000 for purchase
and installation (Mathews, 2001). Annual operating costs are comprised mainly of capital
depreciation and also minor costs for repairs and maintenance as needed.
Solarflow has recently been commercialised by the manufacturer in regions where mains
electricity is not available and currently more than 20 are in operation throughout
Australia and south-east Asia. A 1,500 L/day model is also currently undergoing testing.
Another Australian example is Solar-Sustain which uses solar power as part of a solar
humidification process and is described below in section 3.4.2.
Currently, the use of conventional energy such as mains electricity, to drive desalination
devices is still generally more cost effective than using wind and solar power (Buros,
2000). However, as technology improves and the cost of traditional sources of fresh water
and energy rise, then renewable energy powered desalination units are likely to become
more widespread. This is particularly the case in remote areas without access to reliable
and affordable sources of energy where solar powered desalination plants such as
Solarflow have already been shown to be the optimal choice (Winter, 2001).
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As a general rule of thumb, well-managed and maintained solar stills require a solar
collection area of about one square metre to produce up to six litres of fresh water per day,
but on average usually return nearer 3L/m2/day (Kunze, 2001). Thus, for an 800L/d
facility (representing total daily water requirements for four people), a land area ranging
from 130-260m2 would be required depending on efficiency. New breakthroughs in solar
still technology such as heat recovery and air mass circulation can reputedly improve the
production ratio up to 20L/m2/day and thus reduce the area required to provide a given
amount of water (ibid.).
In Australia, a new adaptation of the humidification process has been developed by
Solar-Sustain. Instead of large basins and overhead collectors, the Solar-Sustain
technique uses pipes. Solar power is used to heat saline water which is pumped through
pipes at 1/3 of its capacity. The trapped air in the pipes rises to 100% relative humidity, is
ducted out of the pipes where it is cooled and condenses in to fresh water. The technology
is effective and reliable but in its current form is prohibitively expensive and is
undergoing further development (pers. comm., A. Huffer). In its current (and now
outdated) level of development, unit costs for provision of water range from $3.50$4.50/kL (this is mainly depreciation of capital costs of at least $50,000 over 5 years).
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The advantages of the solar humidification process is its relative simplicity to operate and
service and obviously its ability to use solar or other renewable power as its source of
energy, hence operating costs are very low. However there are restrictions in the use of
this technique for large scale production such as:
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4 Cost comparisons
4.1 Summary
Conventional desalination processes have been developed to commercial capacity for
approximately thirty years. MSF is commercially the oldest and our knowledge of it is
such that its best applications are well understood. The other distillation techniques such
as MED and VC are also well understood. The commercial development of membrane
processes such as RO and ED is relatively recent and their best applications are not as
well understood, but are nowadays also considered to be mainstream desalination
processes.
Three desalination technologies were selected for cost comparison purposes in this report,
as these technologies are most likely to be financially viable for the low-capacity
production regimes outlined for this study. These technologies are:
In general, the costs for RO plants tend to be lower than for distillation plants of a similar
capacity, but particularly for plants smaller than 300 to 400 kL/day where distillation is
not financially feasible. Distillation is typically only viable for plants of higher capacity
than this, and particularly where a low cost, high quality waste heat source is readily
available.
If the feedwater TDS is greater than 10,000 mg/L TDS and a low cost, high quality waste
heat source is available, than the MED process is generally selected. Other than for the
waste heat scenario, distillation processes such as MED are only really considered where
very high feedwater TDS values greater than 50,000 mg/L TDS occur, and for high
capacity plants greater than 300 to 400 kL/day.
EDR systems tend to always be more costly than RO systems, however this becomes less
of an issue as the plant capacity increases - EDR systems are typically only 10% higher in
costs than RO systems for plants greater than 100 kL/day. EDR systems have a feedwater
TDS limit of 12,000 mg/L TDS, and are generally only considered when high scaling
feedwaters are present. EDR systems are therefore only economically viable over an RO
system when the feedwater TDS is between 3,000 mg/L to 12,000 mg/L, and the plant
capacity required is greater than 100 kL/d, and the feedwater is high scaling.
The technical operational boundaries of the three chosen desalination technologies are
summarised in Table 5 along with a summary of their capital and operating costs. The
cost information presented in Table 5 is investigated in detail in the following sections.
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Seawater RO
> 32,000
Brackish RO
< 32,000
MED
> 35,000
EDR
3,000 - 12,000
< 500
<200
<10
<10
500 L/day
500 L/day
120kL/day
90 kL/day
30
Electrical
Energy
80
Electrical
Energy
Capital Cost
[A$/(kL/day of product
water)]
Operating Cost
[A$/(kL/day of product
water)]
1,600 2,500
600 1,800
40 - 65
Electrical Energy
or Waste Heat
Energy
2,500 3,900
> 90
Electrical Energy
or Waste Heat
Energy
570 3,250
1.89 2.20
0.65 1.50
1.00 2.80
For guidance on the product water flow rate and salinity levels that correspond to the stated range of capital and operating costs for
each desalination technology, please refer to Tables 6 & 7 for RO, Table 8 & 9 for MED, and Tables 10 & 11 for EDR
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
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Since all desalination processes can use any type and combination of energy sources and
the design varied in any number of ways for the specific conditions faced on site, non-case
specific comparisons are difficult to make and are generally not undertaken (Buros, 2000,
Water Corporation, 2000; Winter, T. 2002). The users of the desalinated water and any
potential environmental benefits are also highly site specific, hence quantitative estimates
of benefits cannot be generalised nor extrapolated to other studies such as this one. For
these reasons, the cost analysis in this report more accurately resembles a financial cost
comparison between three of the most applicable technologies rather than a fully specified
economic analysis of all desalination options. A fully specified economic analysis based
on the operational experience of an actual desalination plant is one of the
recommendations of this report (see section 8.1).
The following sections utilise construction and operation costs as the basis of the
comparison and calculates the impact on these for changes in only two of the most
important variables - salinity of feedwater and product water flow rate. All other factors
are assumed to be equal and are ignored, although a detailed qualitative discussion on
how these factors could influence actual costs is provided throughout this chapter and in
Chapter 5.
For comparing construction costs between the three main desalination technologies, only
direct capital costs associated with process works, including pre-treatment and process
treatment equipment, pumps, pipes and control systems, are incorporated.
For comparing operating costs, only the costs associated with desalinating the water are
incorporated, and not the costs for delivery of the water to and from the plant, or
associated post treatment costs. The operating costs that are considered in this analysis
therefore include those associated with power, annual equipment replacement, chemicals,
maintenance and all labour. Uncertainties surrounding the timing of certain operating
costs meant that the average annual operating cost for each technology is obtained by
averaging the total expected operating costs over the typical expected life of the plant.
In general, it is clear that without highly defined site-specific desalination scenarios,
definitive economic analysis using the preferred methodology is not possible.
Compounding this is the lack of hard data for some of the newer desalination processes
that are yet to underdgo the process of trial, error and development that comes from
commercial scale use. The technical and financial aspects of these processes still have a
high degree of commercial confidentiality.
5 kL/day
15 kL/day
50 kL/day
$5,000
$13,000
$35,000
$7,000
$17,500
$44,000
$12,000
$27,000
$85,000
Assumptions:
Electrical power supply available
Basic Pre-filtration included
Costs quoted are for plant only i.e. no civil works, external tanks, pipe work
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adds approximately 20-35% to the capital cost of the RO system with cartridge filters
only, described above.
Finally, if the suspended material is of a fine nature and varying in quantity so that it
cannot be chemically settled and will pass through conventional filters, a membrane
microfiltration (MF) or ultrafiltration (UF) plant may be required. This adds
approximately 60-80% to the capital cost of the RO system with cartridge filters only,
described above.
The rule here is: All other things being equal, decreasing feedwater TSS equals
decreasing capital cost
Product water specification
Reverse Osmosis plants remove a proportion (usually 97-99%) of the feedwater dissolved
solids and so some dissolved solids remain in the product water. The actual removal rate
(rejection) is a function of the feedwater composition, the RO membrane element type, the
RO membrane configuration and the system operating conditions. Very high rejections
(99.5%+) can only be achieved by using more costly high rejection membrane elements or
by re-treating the product water in a further desalination step which also adds to the cost.
Conversely, if lower rejections (say 65%-75%) are acceptable, some of the feedwater can
be diverted around the RO system and mixed with the RO permeate. This effectively
reduces the size of the RO system and reduces cost.
The rule here is: The ability to accept lower quality permeate will reduce capital cost
4.2.2 Operating cost analysis
Table 7: RO operating costs by feedwater salinity and product flow rate
(A$/kL)
Product water flow rate
5 kL/day
15 kL/day
50 kL/day
$1.0
$0.9
$0.65
$1.5
$1.3
$0.93
$2.2
$2.00
$1.89
Assumptions:
Electrical power cost = A$0.14/kW.hr
Cost to desalinate water only does not include cost to deliver water to and from desalination plant
Operating cost assumes basic pre-filtration sufficient for purpose
Operating costs were calculated and averaged over the typical RO expected plant life
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Membrane selection Some membrane elements, particularly those designed for low
salinity applications, operate at lower pressures and therefore require less pumping
energy.
Optimise membrane type = Lower power consumption
Elevation Strategic location of pre-treatment components and/or the RO system itself, at
various points on a gradient, making use of a naturally available head, can reduce
pumping requirements and therefore power consumption.
In the design, take advantage of naturally available pressure, eg, gravity, elevation
Energy recovery systems could be used to reduce the overall power consumption of RO
systems. This is achieved by using the RO let-down energy to supplement the RO system
pump drive. Typically this is most effective on plants that operate at higher pressure and
lower recovery ratios as these conditions make the most energy available for recovery.
Reverse Osmosis systems require pressure to operate. The pressure is developed by
pumping the water that is to be desalinated through a pressure control valve which
constricts the flow. The RO membrane system is hydraulically located between the RO
system pump and the pressure control valve and is therefore subjected to the developed
pressure.
An energy recovery system substitutes a nozzle for the pressure control valve. The nozzle
is designed to provide the same pressure drop as the pressure control valve. The high
velocity stream at the discharge of the nozzle is directed to a turbine which is located on a
common shaft with the RO system pump. The turbine, which is driven by high velocity
water, thus inputs energy to the pump which in turn reduces the pumps electrical energy
demand. The Nozzle-Turbine package is referred to as an Energy Recovery System.
Typically, installation of an energy recovery system on a seawater desalination plant can
add 30% to the capital cost but can reduce power consumption by up to 50%.
Membrane element replacement
Although RO membrane elements generally should not be considered a consumable item,
they do have a finite life span. This life span has a significant impact on operating cost.
The expected operating life of RO membrane elements is 2-5 years, hence the annual
operating cost, associated with membrane element replacement could be in the thousands
to tens of thousands of dollars, depending on plant capacity. Clearly, maximising
membrane element life is essential to the overall management of operating cost.
Furthermore, a feedwater with a high fouling or scaling potential, and where inappropriate
pre-treatment is employed will result in reduced membrane element life. Most commonly
found scalants and foulants are, to some degree removable by cleaning, however there is
always a proportion that remains on the element and accumulates over time.
Accumulation of foulants/scalants reduces the permeability of the membrane elements
and reduces the overall system product water flow rate.
Low fouling/scaling feedwater = Low membrane replacement cost
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Chemical usage
Most reverse osmosis systems make use of chemicals in order to:
- Pre-treat the feedwater;
- Clean the membrane elements; and
- Sanitise the membrane elements.
Antiscalants/dispersants are dosed in the RO system to pretreat the feedwater in order to:
- inhibit the formation of scale on the RO membrane elements; and
- inhibit the build up of NOM (natural organic matter) on the RO membrane elements.
These chemicals have significant impact on operating cost.
Optimise chemical usage for a specific application, in order to reduce operating costs
Cartridge pre-filters
Cartridge filter replacement influences not only its own cost but membrane element life
and therefore membrane replacement cost. Their primary purpose is to polish the
feedwater prior to the RO membranes. Usually, the optimal cartridge type is one that
provides the lowest particle size cut-off whilst maintaining good dirt holding capacity.
Here again, it is essential to try different types of filters as each has advantages in different
applications. The most appropriate selection method is to take TSS measurements before
and after the filters and to measure the rate of pressure differential increase. Weighing
filters when new and when at maximum differential pressure can indicate maximum dirt
holding capacity.
Maintenance
Correct and timely maintenance of RO systems is essential. A good maintenance regime
assists the management of the cost associated with insufficient water production.
Maintenance involves the chemical cleaning of membrane elements mentioned above,
recalibration of dosing pumps, recalibrating of instruments, checking vibration or wear in
rotating equipment and making adjustments to compensate for feedwater variability.
This ultimately reduces membrane replacement cost, optimises chemical usage and
ensures consistent water production.
Cost of feedwater
Due consideration must also be given to the cost to deliver the feedwater to the RO plant.
Costs may include:
- Establishment of bores;
- Installation, operation and control of transfer pumps;
- Civil works such as pipelines, transfer stations; and
- Maintenance of equipment.
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300 kL/day
1000 kL/day
$960,000
$2,500,000
$1,080,000
$2,800,000
$1,155,000
$3,000,000
Assumptions:
Electrical power supply available
Basic Pre-filtration included
Costs quoted are for plant only ie no civil works, external tanks, pipe work
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300 kL/day
1000 kL/day
With waste
heat
No waste
heat
With waste
heat
No waste
heat
$0.85
$2.60
$0.55
$1.80
$0.90
$2.70
$0.60
$2.00
$0.95
$2.80
$0.65
$2.20
Assumptions:
Electrical power cost = A$0.14/kW.hr
Cost to desalinate water only does not include cost to deliver water to and from desalination plant
Operating cost assumes basic pre-filtration sufficient for purpose
Operating costs were calculated and averaged over the typical RO expected plant life
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Here again, it is essential to try different types of filters as each has advantages in different
applications. The most appropriate selection method is to take TSS measurements before
and after the filters and to measure the rate of pressure differential increase.
Maintenance
Correct and timely maintenance of MED is essential. A good maintenance regime assists
the management of the cost associated with insufficient water production. Maintenance
recalibration of dosing pumps, recalibrating of instruments, checking vibration or wear in
rotating equipment and making adjustments to compensate for any feedwater variability
or scaling of the heat exchanger surfaces. This ultimately optimises chemical usage and
ensures consistent water production.
Cost of feedwater
Due consideration must also be given to the cost to deliver the feedwater to the MED
plant. Costs may include:
- Establishment of bores or seawater inlet;
- Installation, operation and control of transfer pumps;
- Civil works such as pipelines, transfer stations; and
- Maintenance of equipment.
250 kL/day
1750 kL/day
$210,000
$1,000,000
$450,000
$2,000,000
$800,000
$3,500,000
Assumptions:
Electrical power supply available
Basic Pre-filtration included
Costs quoted are for plant only i.e. no civil works, external tanks, pipe work
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feedwater specific engineering. The ability of the feedwater to form scale has an affect on
the recovery ratio but due to the EDR mode of operation, it is less significant than for RO.
The rule here is: Ability to accept 40-50% recovery will minimise capital cost
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) & turbidity in the EDR feed In a similar fashion to RO, the
feedwater to EDR must be filtered to a high degree in order to inhibit fouling of the EDR
membrane. The higher the TSS or turbidity in the feed, the more pre treatment equipment
is required. Each additional pre treatment stage increases capital cost.
The rule here is: All other things being equal, decreasing feedwater TSS equals
decreasing capital cost
Product water specification
EDR capital cost is extremely sensitive to product water salinity specification, as the
higher the permeate water quality required, the greater the number of membrane stacks
required in order to ensure the quality requirements are met.
The rule here is: The ability to accept lower quality permeate will reduce capital cost
4.4.2 Operating cost analysis
Table 11: EDR operating costs by feedwater salinity and product flow rate
(A$/kL)
Product water flow rate
250 kL/day
1750 kL/day
$1.30
$1.00
$1.50
$1.10
$2.80
$2.15
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Antiscalants/dispersants are dosed in the EDR system to pretreat the feedwater in order to:
- inhibit the formation of scale in the membrane elements; and
- inhibit the build up of NOM (natural organic matter) in membrane elements.
These chemicals have significant impact on operating cost and their use needs to be
optimised, for a specific application, in order to reduce operating costs.
Cartridge pre-filters
Cartridge filter replacement influences not only its own cost but membrane element life
and therefore membrane replacement cost. Their primary purpose is to polish the
feedwater prior to the EDR. Usually, the optimal cartridge type is one that provides the
lowest particle size cut-off whilst maintaining good dirt holding capacity.
Here again, it is essential to try different types of filters as each has advantages in different
applications. The most appropriate selection method is to take TSS measurements before
and after the filters and to measure the rate of pressure differential increase. Weighing
filters when new and when at maximum differential pressure can indicate maximum dirt
holding capacity.
Maintenance
Correct and timely maintenance of EDR systems is essential. A good maintenance regime
assists the management of the cost associated with insufficient water production.
Maintenance involves the chemical cleaning of membrane elements mentioned above,
recalibration of dosing pumps, recalibrating of instruments, checking vibration or wear in
rotating equipment and making adjustments to compensate for feedwater variability.
This ultimately reduces membrane replacement cost, optimises chemical usage and
ensures consistent water production.
Cost of feedwater
Due consideration must also be given to the cost to deliver the feedwater to the EDR
plant. Costs may include:
- establishment of bores;
- installation, operation and control of transfer pumps;
- civil works such as pipelines, transfer stations; and
- maintenance of equipment.
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Performance ratio - this is the ratio of freshwater to the amount of energy consumed,
either steam or heat. In countries with low fuel costs, a low performance ratio is
relatively acceptable, whereas in countries with higher fuel costs, a high performance
ratio is required.
Plant life - the amortisation period, determined by the plant life, affects the capital
costs and also the selection of the performance ratio.
Plant costs - the actual cost of desalting equipment may vary significantly between
different processes and manufacturers. The technical specifications of the plant and
capacity of equipment supply can increase the costs of freshwater production.
Interest rates - this affects the capital costs, performance ratio, total investment and
the selection of the preferred plant.
Site costs - land costs are a major determinant of the location preference. The cost of
transporting water to its demand point is essential to consider. If the produced water
must be transported over long distances to its consumption point this effectively
increases the unit cost of desalted water.
Seawater intake and outflow - larger distances between the feedwater source and
plant, or brine disposal point and plant can increase capital costs.
Feedwater quality - the composition and salinity of the feedwater can affect the type
of distillation process, extent of pretreatment required, and ultimately the final
freshwater cost.
Freshwater quality required - this has a small effect, but it can alter the number of
stages in desalination processes. The required quality will vary from location to
location, due to customer preferences and industry uses.
Pretreatment - this differs between processes and can influence the relative
economics. Pretreatment increases the cost of desalted water, particularly with RO.
Chemical costs - the availability and price of locally manufactured chemicals can
affect the maintenance costs, for example pretreatment or post-treatment.
Plant load factor - this is the total production for the year as a percentage of the rated
capacity. It provides a measure of the overall utilisation of the plant. Increasing the
load factor decreases the cost of water per unit output.
Availability of skilled labour - the availability of local labour affects the cost of the
plant. If local labour is unavailable it may need to be imported and thus, the cost of
plant operations and freshwater will increase.
Disposal of reject brine - brine disposal adds to the freshwater cost, as it must be
treated in many cases. For coastal plants, the brine is commonly discharged into the
sea and for inland brine, disposal may be in the form of a stream, salt ponds or
impounding underground.
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Storage and distribution of final freshwater - these add to the capital costs, as
pumping is required for delivering the freshwater to storage or consumers.
Plant capacity - for all types of processes the cost of desalting water generally
decreases with increasing plant capacity, due to capital, labour and maintenance
charges being distributed over a larger capacity. This is referred to as economies of
size.
Location - if the plant is to be remotely located, the technology should be robust and
as maintenance free as possible. In this case, the lowest energy requirement may not
necessarily be the most significant factor.
Some of the more important factors are discussed in the following section. When several
alternative desalination technologies are appropriate for a specific case, the following
criteria should be considered:
Availability and cost of local support. These include Service Technicians, Operators,
etc.
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In Australia the cost of steam and gas varies from state to state. Listed below is the
indicative average range throughout Australia which should be corrected according to the
state in which the plant will be installed.
Gas:
Steam:
seawater;
brackish water;
saline bores; or
effluent.
In almost all instances where a distillation desalination process is chosen, seawater is the
feed source. Whilst RO can also be used for seawater applications, and is often the
application of choice for seawater feeds when waste heat sources are not available, it
generally is more commonly used for desalinating brackish feed sources, and also for
effluent reuse.
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Effluent (or waste) water reuse plants, with RO as part of the treatment process, have been
used worldwide for more than 20 years. For effluent water to be a suitable source for
desalination, there must be little variation in its chemical and physical composition, flow
rate, temperature, etc. However, with the advent of improved filtration methods such as
Microfiltration and Nanofiltration technologies, the range of variation within with
desalination is possible has increased and desalination has now become a financially
viable means to treat and reuse wastewater.
For the purposes of this study, given the focus on the NAP regions of Australia,
groundwater aquifers will be the likely source of feedwater for desalination.
5.1.2.1 Location
The location of the feed water source dictates the viability of a desalination plant with
reference to the following:
Remoteness the cost of transporting water to and from, the cost of power
transmission and infrastructure may detract from viability; and
Environmental constraints the location of the source may dictate that certain
environmental constraints would be imposed, for example: noise, brine disposal,
groundwater flow system and aquifer yield, disturbance to marine life, seafloor
ecology etc which could detract from viability of the project.
The further away the feedwater is from the desalination plant, the higher the construction
and operating costs associated with the plant.
5.1.2.2 Feedwater quantity
The quantity yield of the source, total delivery capacity of the source, and the capability to
extract an economically justified quantity of feedwater are all important factors in
assessing the viability of a desalination plant and the particular technology to be applied.
This issue is especially relevant given the NAP context of this report and the underlying
groundwater flow systems. Those regions with intermediate or regional groundwater flow
systems are most likely to contain aquifers with suitably large flow rates to support
desalination plant requirements (NDSP, 2001; pers. comm., G. Walker).
5.1.2.3 Feedwater quality
The quality of the feedwater will heavily dictate the desalination technology selected. In
general, distillation technologies tend to be more flexible than membrane based
technologies with feedwaters that have high quality fluctuations. Furthermore, feedwater
quality which requires extensive pretreatment will have a significant impact on the
viability of a desalination plant. Generally speaking distillation processes require less
rigorous pretreatment requirements than membrane based processes.
The key water quality parameters in the design of the pretreatment and main process
systems of a desalination plant are:
salinity (TDS);
turbidity;
organic content;
pH; and
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The salinity of the feedwater is a major factor in the selection of the appropriate
desalination technology. There is generally a direct relationship between salinity and
capital/operating costs for membrane based processes, as discussed in detail in Section 4.2
& 4.4. However for distillation processes this relationship isnt as evident.
The turbidity and organic content are generally a key concern with surface water and
seawater feed sources, and can cause significant problems in membrane processes with
membrane clogging without adequate pretreatment being put in place.
The pH of the feedwater is important in distillation processes in terms of potential
pipework and pump corrosion, and is of concern with membrane based processes when
sub-optimum pH feed conditions exist as this may potentially reduce membrane life.
The main scale-forming species of concern in desalination plants are calcium (Ca2+),
manganese (Mn2+), bicarbonate (HCO3-), sulphate (SO42-), ferrous ion (Fe2=), and silica
(SiO2). The concentrations of barium (Ba2+) and strontium (Sr2+) are also potentially of
concern, however they are typically not present in sufficiently high concentrations in
Australian feed sources to cause significant problems with the precipitation of Ba or Sr
sulphate salts.
Only minor variations in the feedwater chemical constituents mentioned above are
necessary to create significant fouling and operational problems that can increase
pretreatment costs and potentially cause major problems in concentrate disposal
requirements. It is therefore important to ensure that feedwater sources are carefully
assessed.
The issues of fouling and scaling of RO membranes are dependant on the complex
interrelationships between feedwater pH, level and type of organic present, level and type
of inorganics present, RO system recovery ratio and RO membrane element configuration.
As all of these parameters are variable and interrelated, there can be no one rule for
constituting what is a "high" or "low" or "acceptable" limit for each parameter. When
predicting the potential for RO systems to foul or scale all of these parameters must be
considered both individually and in combination with the other parameters.
5.1.2.4 Pre-treatment & post-treatment needs
Pretreatment design is crucial to the successful operation of desalination systems.
Pretreatment requirements for large seawater desalination plants, be it either distillation or
RO, will typically comprise of trash-racks, band-screens and filtration units.
For RO systems, the filtration requirements tend to be media type filters with a filtration
down to 10-50 micron, followed by cartridge filters with a filtration typically down to 1-5
microns. Filtration systems for distillation plants tend not to be as rigorous, with filtration
systems down to 80 micron being normally acceptable.
Chemical conditioning of the feedwater for scale prevention is also required for both RO
and distillation processes, but the requirements tend to be much more extensive for RO
systems.
The two important considerations therefore for pretreatment of desalination plants are
filtration requirements and ensuring scale prevention.
Post treatment chlorination, UV disinfection and pH adjustment processes may also need
to be considered, depending on the final product water end use requirements.
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The first three of these impacts could result in some of the following more specific
environmental disturbances occurring:
erosion;
ensure the minimisation of the numbers and lengths of pipelines and power
transmission lines;
ensure site pipeline routes are such that minimum impact to sensitive areas occurs;
ensure plants are located where existing intake or outfall structures may be used, or
ensure the size of any new seawater intake and outfall structures are minimised; and
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Salt harvesting
The salts and other minerals that can be extracted via mechanical means or via
crystalisation in evaporation basins are increasingly being harvested as a high value
product for agricultural, industrial and domestic uses. Australia is the sixth largest
producer of salt from solar evaporation (Dept. of Resource Development, 1999). For
example, the Pyramid Salt Company in northern Victoria harvests salt evaporated from
saline ground water. The product is sold for purposes including stock feed, medical, and
chemical uses. Ultra pure salt, a product currently imported into Australia, is also
produced on site.
SAL-PROCTM is an integrated solar and mechanical example of value adding to waste
streams via the sequential extraction of dissolved elements from inorganic saline waters.
The process involves multiple evaporation and/or cooling, supplemented by mineral and
chemical processing.
Valuable minerals such as magnesium hydroxide, gypsum, and calcium chloride can be
extracted from ground water reserves as well as traditional salt (sodium chloride). These
substances can be used in products including wallboard, soil conditioners, waste water
treatments and chemical applications. Epsomite (epsom salts) a product used medicinally
as a purgative, in leather tanning, and as a filler in cotton goods.
There are significant capital costs associated with setting up salt harvesting schemes
including the cost of constructing appropriately lined evaporation ponds. At the Pyramid
Salt operation in Victoria, each one hectare pond cost in the order of $20,000 to construct
(pers. comm., G. Privett). Ongoing operational and maintenance costs including labour
and equipment used for salt harvesting, cleaning and packaging etc are also required.
It is also generally necessary for the salt harvesting operation to be medium to large scale
to be profitable (ibid.). However, smaller-scale ventures may successfully cater to smaller,
niche markets. As ground water varies in composition from site to site, the salts that can
be extracted from it will also vary. The demand for each of these will also differ. In some
cases it may be necessary to adjust the chemical composition of water in evaporation
ponds or mechanical processes to produce the desired mineral extract.
Currently, good quality salt can be sold for between $25 and $250/tonne depending on
purity and composition (pers. comm., C. Fisher).
Irrigation
With some modifications to irrigation practices and/or with dilution, saline water has been
shown to be effective for irrigating particular horticultural crops. Near Quorn in South
Australia, crops such as olives, almonds, and pistachios have been produced for over
twenty years whilst under irrigation with saline (4,500 mg/L TDS) bore water (ABC
Landline, n.d.).
Aquaculture
Prior to evaporation or other means of disposal, adding value to the waste stream via
saline aquaculture is possible. By doing this, the proceeds from aquaculture can
potentially off-set the cost of running a desalination plant. Markets exist for a variety of
aquaculture products that can be grown in saline water.
For example, in addition to harvesting salt, the Pyramid Salt company produces brine
shrimp. The shrimp are grown in saline water within the evaporation ponds. Whilst there,
they act as a biological filter, thus enhancing the quality of salt retrieved from the site
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(pers. comm., G. Privett). Markets for brine shrimp exist in the fish food industry and can
also be fed to fish that may be grown simultaneously in other ponds on site. Currently the
potential Australian and overseas demand for this product is 260 tonne/year (pers. comm.,
C. Fisher).
At an experimental project site in Tailem Bend South Australia, different species of
marine fish are being trialed for their suitability to the production techniques using saline
ground water. Initial results have proved successful (pers. comm., G. Gates).
In conjunction with a private company, the Tailem Bend experimental project is also
growing algae from which natural beta carotene can be obtained. Beta carotene is
becoming increasingly popular as a dietary supplement. It also has other uses such as
giving colour to food products. Until this method of using algae to extract beta carotene
was developed, commercial quantities of beta carotene were made using synthetic
chemicals. Australia is one of few countries in the world where these algae can be
successfully cultivated.
Markets for many other varieties of fish grown via inland saline aquaculture exist such as
Snapper, Trout, Salmon, and Barramundi, and research is taking place to develop these.
At the Tailem Bend experimental project, oysters and seaweed will soon be trialed. With
further research, it may also be possible to use saline water algae as an energy source.
Associated costs with these types of schemes vary according to the size of the enterprise.
At the Tailem Bend site, tanks harbouring fish and brine shrimp are kept inside
polytunnels measuring 20m x 10m x 3.6m. Six tanks are stored within each tunnel, and
the initial cost of setting up the tanks is $6000 each. Some costs such as power use may
vary according to season. Power usage at the Tailem Bend experimental site is three times
more in winter than during summer, due to the requirement for heating water in ponds
where fish are growing.
Solar ponds
A solar pond is a body of saline water that collects and stores solar energy via a salinity
gradient in the depth of the water. Typically, a solar pond consists of three layers an
upper less saline, low density layer, a middle layer of increasing salinity, and a lower layer
of uniform high salinity and high density.
The high salt content of the lowest level makes it denser than the others, trapping the
water and preventing the heat it has gained from the suns solar radiation from rising and
dissipating via convection to the atmosphere. Although all layers store some heat from the
sun, the bottom layer stores the most, warming to temperatures of up to 100oC (NDSP,
2001). The hot saline water can then be used to provide consumers with heat (ie, hot
water, steam) or electricity for a wide variety of uses.
Israel is the leading country in the field of solar pond technology having reportedly
invested nearly US$20 million in the industry between 1975 and 1985 alone (NDSP,
2001). In Australia there are a number of small-scale experimental solar ponds, but none
that are operating on a commercial basis. The most recent example is at the Pyramid Hill
commercial salt harvesting facility in Victoria where it forms part of the salt
harvesting/desalination plant brine disposal strategy and aquaculture value-adding
enterprise (pers. comm., G. Privett).
Solar ponds are constructed using large earth moving equipment, are clay lined to prevent
groundwater accessions, and/or lined with specialised plastic membrane and the bottom
insulated to prevent heat loss. Federal government funding of up to $550,000 underpins
the Pyramid Hill pilot project.
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provides income from the salt left behind in the second evaporation basin.
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Economic analysis performed as part of an award dissertation suggests that the SBC
system as a whole is profitable over a thirty year analysis period (De Vincentiis, 1999).
5.2.2 Production on reclaimed land
The production that occurs on land that was previously saline and non-productive can
offset the costs associated with pumping groundwater to reclaim that land. Indications are
that the integrated Pyramid Salt complex in Victoria (groundwater pumping, desalination,
salt harvesting, solar ponds, aquaculture) is at least breaking even financially and has
managed to drop the water table by six metres in a 5 km radius around the bore field (pers.
comm., G. Privett). This has led to the reclamation of previously saline land where now
salt sensitive vegetables can and have been grown successfully.
5.2.3 Salt credits
Reduced emissions in effluent water due to desalination prior to discharge could
conceivably generate benefits in the form of salt credits for those bodies responsible for
salt release. The market for salt credits and their value is currently undeveloped in
Australia but is likely to grow in the future, especially in the Murray-Darling Basin states.
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WA all users
SA railw ay tow n users
SA rural & urban users
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Price ($/kL)
SA railway towns include Terowie, Yunta, Mana Hill, Olary, Oodlawirra, Cockburn. Users must pay for connection pipe to system
Figure 8 illustrates that the least expensive forms of RO desalination are the most cost
competitive with traditional mains water supplies, but only in those instances where users
are already paying a yearly average of approximately $0.60/kL for their mains water. The
least expensive RO plants are those that are desalinating low salinity feedwaters at
reasonably large quantities (50kL/day or enough for all daily uses of 250 people). In a
more realistic NAP setting, groups of approximately 25 or more people (communities or a
collection of houses in a small town) would typically require a quantity of water (5kL and
up) able to be supplied by RO or EDR at a minimum of $1.00 making it an unattractive
option in comparison to mains water for all but the most remote rural water users.
Note that the comparison in Figure 8 contains elements of bias. Firstly, The costs for
desalination are potentially significantly undervalued as they purely relate to desalination
plant operation and do not include allowance for the costs of water delivery, brine
disposal, capital amortisation and all other non-operational costs. Even with this bias,
Figure 8 shows that traditional mains sources of fresh water are more affordable for the
great majority of water users.
However, the prices listed for mains water do not include supply charges and it is highly
likely that the true cost of providing mains water, particularly for remote and rural users,
is not being charged. The true unsubsidised cost of providing water via mains would vary
between regions, however, in some instances it has been shown that existing prices would
have to double to cover the costs of provision and a return on capital (AATSE, 1999).
5.3.1 Improving the competitiveness of desalination
Closing the cost gap that exists between desalinated water and traditional forms of water
supply can be achieved via:
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2. Increases in the cost of water from traditional sources and the use of full cost
recovery pricing systems:
The cost of desalination technology, particularly for membrane technology has fallen
considerably over the last few decades (Buros, 2000). In particular, the energy
requirements of seawater RO plants have dropped over the last 40 years from 26.5
kWh/kL to 4.5 kWh/kL (Winter, 2001). This is a prime reason for the recent popularity of
RO compared to other processes.
As traditional forms of water supply become scarce and water markets develop, the price
charged for water is likely to rise. Until such a time that the price of water reflects its true
value, desalination as a source of drinking water will remain cost effective for only a
limited number of scenarios. The empirical evidence suggests that these limited scenarios
are more likely to occur in regions where traditional supplies of water via mains is not
available or highly expensive.
In the United States, the cost of desalinating brackish water is below that of delivering
fresh water by long distance pipeline (Buros, 2000). In Australia too, desalination has
been used to supply fresh drinking water where remote communitys water needs surpass
that which is locally available or where the cost of providing it via long pipelines would
be too costly.
In Penneshaw, Kangaroo Island SA, a recently commissioned RO plant supplements local
surface water supplies The plant cost AUS$3.5 million to construct (including associated
civil works). The cost of construction of the plant was less than the cost of building
infrastructure to link the township of Penneshaw to the mains water supply 60km away.
Historically farm dams were used for water supply in the area. Today these would be too
unreliable to sustain present day populations as well as too polluted (due to agricultural
activities in the surrounding areas).
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Beneficiaries Pay those parties who benefit from the desalination plant (including all
benefiting users, plus those who do not use the resource but benefit anyway, eg, future
generations, those who benefit from simply knowing the environment is being well
managed, etc) pay for the plant in proportion to the extent that they benefit.
Polluters Pay those individuals or organisation responsible for the salty land or water
that needs desalinating pay for the desalination plant in proportion to the extent that they
contributed to the damage.
The final cost sharing agreement is arrived at via negotiation after taking in to account
issues such as practicality, historical and moral obligations, and ability to pay. Some
examples already exist where cost sharing has occurred to finance desalination plants, the
best example being the giant Yuma Desalination plant in Arizona, USA. Here the
American government paid for the construction and ongoing operation of the plant which
desalinates water flowing down the Colorado and in to Mexico, the quality and quantity
levels of which previously did not meet the two countrys treaty signed in 1944. In this
case, the Polluters Pay principle has effectively been used as the basis for financing the
desalination plant.
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6 Dryland salinity
Salt is a natural occurrence in the Australian landscape. Over millions of years, sea level
movements have combined with the salt contained in rainfall to store considerable
quantities of salt in sub-soil horizons.
The extensive landuse changes brought about by European settlement in the last century
resulted in increased groundwater recharge due to the replacement of deep-rooted
perennial native vegetation with shallow-rooted cropping systems which use much less
water. Salts once stored deep in the landscape are now being mobilised via rising
groundwater to the land surface (dryland salinity) and in to rivers and streams (stream
salinity).
Some 2.5 million hectares of land have succumbed to dryland salinity of the past four
decades, and the water resources of regions as large as the Murray-Darling Basin show
evidence of an accelerating decline in quality as a result of salinity. Refer to NLWRA
(2001) for a detailed description of the status and trends of dryland salinity in Australia.
Groundwater pumping (possibly to supply water for desalination facilities) has the
potential to help manage the dryland salinity problem in Australia. Appropriate
management responses to the salinity threat require an understanding of the driving forces
that govern the passage of water from the point where it first enters the land (as
infiltrating rainfall) to the point where it discharges. The following sections add to the
introduction of groundwater processes in Section 2.2 and identifies the implications this
knowledge has for salinity management, in particular engineering options such as
groundwater pumping for desalination.
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within a small catchment local to the affected area (say, three to five kilometres), then this
area is referred to as a local groundwater flow system. Local GFSs are characterised by:
These systems have the ability to respond quickly to salinity management and action can
be taken at a similarly localised scale, although every situation can exhibit different
characteristics and appropriate management responses.
In other systems, dryland salinity occurs through groundwater flow within aquifers that
transcend local catchment boundaries, and local land management activities within a
single catchment will be relatively ineffective at addressing the problem. Several subcatchments may share a groundwater system operating over 10-20 kilometres. Since these
systems do not comprise the entire region of a river basin, but operate at a scale larger
than subcatchments, they are referred to as intermediate groundwater flow systems.
Intermediate GFSs are characterised by:
Dryland salinity (and its management) in intermediate GFSs typically occur within 50 to
100 years of hydrologic imbalance occurring.
Where salinity issues are associated with large groundwater aquifers operating on a
regional scale comparable with that of large sectors of river basins, or indeed major
groundwater basins, then the processes are said to be regional groundwater flow systems.
Regional GFSs typically range from 50 to several hundred kilometres in scale and are
characterised by:
very slow response to changes in the hydrologic cycle (100 to 1000 years).
Figure 9 presents a map of Australia highlighting the three basic GFSs. When the
additional criteria of geological and geomorphological characteristics are included in the
classification process, a total of 12 GFSs can be identified. Appropriate salinity
management options for each GFS are best considered at this more detailed level of
definition.
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from Dryland Salinity in Australia, a summary of the National Land and Water Resources Audits Australian Dryland Salinity
Assessment 2000
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threat which can vary in magnitude from bare salt scalds to undetectable reductions in
vegetation growth rates.
Another important form of variation to be considered is whether or not valuable assets
such as water resources, built infrastructure, and ecologically important areas, are at risk
from salinisation processes. Where high values are at risk, strategies that are quicker to act
than biological control, such as groundwater pumping for desalination, may be
appropriate. The cost of financing any control strategy is another important factor to
consider.
With the knowledge gained from GFS about landscape responsiveness to change,
combined with information on the severity of the salinisation threat, the assets at risk and
the cost of potential management strategies, natural resource management decision
makers are able to prioritise the areas requiring most attention and the management
strategies most likely to succeed.
6.1.3 Engineering options
For the purposes of this study, a case for groundwater pumping (with or without
desalination) as a tool for dryland salinity management can be made in almost all 12 of
the detailed GFS classifications, particularly where the delay experienced in recharge
reduction methods is considered too great for the assets at risk of damage from salinity
(LWRRDC, 2001). The township of Merredin in the wheatbelt of Western Australia is
often quoted as an example of where groundwater pumping (partly used for desalination)
has been implemented as part of an overall strategy to lower groundwaters beneath the
town and prevent dryland salinity related problems.
Merredin Case Study
Merredin is a regional centre in Western Australia's eastern wheat belt. Rising watertables
and salinity have concerned the local community and authorities for at least 15 years.
Through the State's Rural Towns Program, the Merredin town site has become the subject
of detailed groundwater investigations. Recent test pumping results and computer
groundwater modelling suggest that lowering the watertable by pumping would be an
effective salinity control measure.
The rising saline watertable threatening the town site could be turned into a resource by
desalination for drinking water. This could then be used to supplement the town water
supplied from Mundaring Weir via the Kalgoorlie pipeline.
Modelling has shown that to protect the whole town, nine bores each producing 50kL/day
would be required to keep groundwater levels at a safe depth.
Watertables now 2.5 to 3.0m below ground would be lowered, effectively controlling
groundwater levels and salinity under about 15ha of the Merredin central business area.
Two recently installed production bores are being used to draw 100 kL/day of moderately
saline (20,000 mg/L TDS, or approximately half seawater quality) groundwater from
under the town. These have combined to reduce watertables levels to 7m up to 50m away
from the bores.
A twelve-month joint pilot project involving Agriculture Western Australia, the Water
Corporation and the Merredin Shire, and funded by the State Salinity Council's
Community Support Scheme 2000 has begun.
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Two hectares of evaporation ponds are to be located about 4 km west of the town centre
and will dispose of the water produced by the two bores. A desalination plant adjacent to
the evaporation ponds will produce potable water from 10% of the supply. This
desalinated water will supplement the town supply via a Water Corporation reservoir.
Discharge water from desalination will be returned to the evaporation basin. It should be
notes that the desalination plant is a trial and produces a quantity of water representing
only 0.4% of Merredins daily summer water demand.
Using some of the groundwater as it is pumped to the ponds reduces the volume for
disposal by evaporation. This provides considerable economic advantages in both
production of potable water and the reduction in size of the evaporation basin required.
The project is potentially a double winner - pumping groundwater will alleviate the
salinity risk, and will provide a source from which drinking quality water can be
produced. Supplementing the town water supply will enable residents to reduce their
dependency on water from the pipeline.
If successful, an expanded and longer-term scheme will be installed in Merredin to prove
its viability. Similar schemes may then be employed in other salt-affected towns in
Western Australia.
Most desalination technologies require a steady quantity of water supplied over a
reasonably long period of time for it to be technically and financially feasible. It is
generally the intermediate and regional GFS that have the high permeability and storage
characteristics necessary to generate this type of water supply. Surface water systems are
generally unsuitable as a water supply option for desalination plants given the seasonal
and yearly variability in flow rates and chemical and physical composition.
Even in cases where high value assets are at high risk of damage from salinity in a
regional or intermediate GFS, the high cost of constructing and operating engineering
options such as groundwater pumping for desalination often makes it a marginally
feasible strategy to implement. Options to reduce to net cost of desalination plants are
required and are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
57
the degree of the threat (i.e. imperceivable crop yield reductions to bare salt scalds);
cost of management.
In instances where the degree of the salinity threat is high, the values at risk are high, the
salinity problem is responsive to the type of management proposed, and the relative cost
of the chosen management is low, then these are the highest priority salinity problems for
funding.
This way of prioritising the management of salinity is incorporated in to the decision tree
and adapted for the management tool of desalination (groundwater pumping). Note that
the cost of management can only be known once the type of desalination technology has
been decided. This decision forms the second part of the decision tree and is discussed in
the following section.
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Action Plan Priority Regions
58
Where the technology chosen for a particular circumstance can be designed and
operated at its optimum level (eg, availability of waste heat for distillation processes,
energy recovery systems, energy availability, suitable feedwater quality, straight
forward brine disposal, etc); and
These and other factors are incorporated in to the decision tree to determine the type of
desalination technology that best suits a particular scenario.
However, for desalination to be a realistic option for the supply of fresh water, we must
consider more than just the technology. There must obviously also be a demand for water
in the particular location being considered for a desalination plant that is greater than the
amount of water available or a demand for cheaper water than what is available. Adequate
labour supplies for plant operation and maintenance is another pre-requisite. Crucially, the
totals costs of supplying water must be at least roughly equivalent to alternative forms (if
there are any) of supplying water. This last factor can only be contemplated on a case by
case basis after the technology has been decided and all information is available and is
usually the last consideration.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National Action Plan Priority Regions
59
Degree of salinity
threat?
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
LOW
Responsiveness to
desalination as a
management tool?
HIGH
Cost effectiveness of
desalination as a
management tool? HIGH
LOW
Is a higher quality/quantity
of fresh water required
than is currently
available?
LOW
NO
Rely on existing
supplies
YES
Not a priority
dryland salinity
issue
Is Synthetic Energy
Available?
Desalination not
the best mng.
tool
NO
Investigate
Renewable
Energy Sources
YES
Is Mains Energy
Available?
NO
Is Waste Heat
Available?
YES
Is Feed Water
TDS>10,000ppm?
NO
YES
NO
Is Feed Water
TDS<12,000ppm?
NO
Is Feed Water
TDS>44,000ppm?
BWRO
NO
Is there high
scalants in water?
YES
Is capacity
>300kL/d?
YES
Is Waste Heat
Available?
Is Feed Water
TDS>44,000ppm?
MED/VC
YES
No economic
option
YES
Product Water
Quality < 10 ppm
Recovery 40-65%
V HIGH COST
YES
NO
NO
Is capacity
>20kL/d?
YES
RO + Gen Set
or Renewable
Energy
VC
V HIGH COST
NO
MED/VC
BWRO
Product Water Quality
< 500 ppm
Recovery > 80%
Renewable Energy can
be used
NO
Is Feed Water
TDS>3,000ppm?
No economic
option
YES
Is capacity
>300kL/d?
NO
NO
YES
BWRO
Product Water Quality <
500 ppm
Recovery > 80%
Renewable Energy Can
Be Used
Is Feed Water
TDS>44,000ppm?
Is capacity
>20kL/d?
NO
NO
Is capacity
>100kL/d?
YES
EDR
Product Water Quality <
500 ppm
Recovery ??
Note: Asume that there is sufficient feedwater available to produce the required product water flow rate
YES
MED/VC
Product Water
Quality < 10 ppm
Recovery 40-65%
NO
Is Feed Water
TDS>44,000ppm?
NO
YES
YES
NO
Is capacity
>300kL/d?
NO
SWRO
Product Water Quality
< 500 ppm
Recovery < 30%
Renewable Energy can
be used
YES
No economic
option
YES
VC
Product Water
Quality < 10 ppm
Recovery 40-65%
SWRO + Gen
Set or
Renewable
Energy
YES
Is capacity
>20kL/d?
NO
No economic
option
YES
VC
Product Water
Quality < 10 ppm
Recovery 40-65%
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
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Feed water properties are approximately 20,000 mg/L TDS and 200kL/d supply
Procedure: Choose one of the two starting points and continue down through the
decision tree to the Is mains energy available? question, then follow the no path.
Solution: SWRO with a generating set or renewable energy.
What desalination technology can be used for the situation where:
Feed water properties are approximately 6,000 mg/L TDS and 300kL/d supply and it
is high scaling
Procedure: Choose one of the two starting points and continue down through the
decision tree to the Is mains energy available? question, then follow the yes path.
Solution: EDR with product quality less than 500 mg/L TDS.
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
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8 Conclusions
This study has examined the technical and financial aspects of desalination in Australia
and the world as a source of fresh water for a variety of uses and as a salinity management
tool. Being a non-case specific study, this report cannot present a detailed consideration of
all the economic aspects of desalination. But on the basis of a limited quantification and
comparison of costs for the major desalination technologies, it is apparent that there are
only limited scenarios in which desalination represents a cost effective option.
The instances where desalination is considered a cost effective option for water supply are
dependent on the absence and/or high cost of traditional forms of water supply. These are
mainly in the more remote rural areas, some of which are located in the NAP regions of
Australia. Desalination does not appear to stack up as purely a salinity management tool.
However, there are a number of ways to reduce the net cost of constructing and operating
a desalination plant which will increase its competitiveness against traditional forms of
water supply and its cost effectiveness as a salinity management tool. Likewise, as the
scarcity and cost of high quality mains water increases, so to does the attractiveness of
desalination. Regulatory, market and policy changes that enable the price of water to
reflect its true value will accelerate this process.
8.1 Recommendations
A number of recommendations have arisen through the course of assessing desalination
technologies in Australia. These include producing:
Fully specified BCA of an existing desalination plant or site specific desalination plant
proposal. This would enable a more accurate assessment of the cost effectiveness of
desalination.
URS Australia
Annex 1
References
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 1-1
Annex 1: References
References used in this study include:
AATSE (1999), Water and the Australian Economy. Australian Academy of
Technological Sciences and Engineering, April.
ABC Landline (n.d.), [Online]
http://www.altgreen.com.au/Water/Acid_Sulphate/salinity.html
Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (1996),
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines Summary. Federal Department of Primary
Industries and Energy.
Australian Development Assistance Bureau (1985), Appropriate Desalination Technology
for Countries of the Pacific. Bulletin One, Feb.
Awerbuch, L. (2002), Vision for Desalination Challenges and Opportunities, IDA
World Congress Paper, Bahrain.
Binnie & Partners Pty Ltd (1998), Water for the South-West in the 21st Century,
Desalination Sub Study. May.
Bouchekima, B. (2002), Brackish Water Desalination with Heat Recovery, IDA World
Congress Paper, Bahrain.
Buros, O.K. (1990), The ABCs of Desalting. First Edition. Produced by the Saline Water
Conversion Council for The International Desalination Association, Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia.
Buros, O.K. (2000), The ABCs of Desalting. Second Edition. Produced by the Saline
Water Conversion Council for The International Desalination Association, Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia.
Dames & Moore (1993), Desalination Costing Study, for Water Authority of Western
Australia. June.
De Vincentiis, B. (1999), Serial Biological Control. Award Dissertation, La Trobe
University.
Department of Resource Development (1999), Western Australian Industrial Minerals
Review. Government of Western Australia, Perth.
Ho, G. (2001), Solar-powered Reverse Osmosis Desalination. [Online]
http://www.murdoch.edu.au/radg/projects/desalini.html, Murdoch University.
IDA (1998), IDA Worldwide Desalting Plants Inventory Report No. 15. International
Desalination Association.
Khawaji, A.D. Wie J. Al-Mutairi, A.A. (n.d.), Technical and Economic Evaluation of
Seawater MSF and RO Desalination Processes for Madinat Yanbu Al-Sinaiyah Saudi
Arabia.
URS Australia
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 1-3
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Annex 2
Glossary of terms
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 2-1
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 2-2
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 2-3
Multistage Flash (MSF) a form of distillation desalination. Feed water is heated and
sent to a vessel that is slightly below saturation vapour pressure so that some of the water
flashes and forms vapour. This vapour condenses and becomes product water. The salt
water is sent to another vessel at a lower pressure where the flashing process is repeated.
Nanofiltration a membrane filtration process that uses loose RO membranes. These
have a lower rejection capability than RO membranes and therefore leak more soluble
ions, but can obtain higher recoveries.
Osmosis the natural movement of water from a diluted solution to a more concentrated
solution.
Osmotic Pressure the pressure required for the osmotic process to equalise.
Permeate the purified water that membrane desalination processes produce.
Photovoltaic a type of solar panel used for collecting solar energy.
Polishing this is an end process, where product water undergoes some more processing
to refine it to meet high quality product requirements.
Potable Water water that is considered suitable for human consumption.
Product Water the fresh water that is discharged from the desalination process.
Recovery the percentage of the feed water that is recovered in the desalination process
as fresh product water.
Rejection the percentage of solids that the desalination process removes from the feed
water.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) a membrane desalination processes where pressure is applied to
feed water so that it moves through a semi-permeable membrane.
Salinity the measure of soluble salt (sodium chloride) in the water.
Saturation Vapour Pressure the pressure at which no more vapour can evaporate into
the air.
Scale the substance that precipitates onto the equipment walls during the desalination
process. Most relevant for the distillation processes.
URS Australia
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 2-4
Solar Humidifcation a desalination process where solar power is used to heat saline
water so that some of it evaporates, and the vapour is then condensed and collected as
product water.
Suspended Solids colloidal material that is suspended in water.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) the amount of solids that are dissolved in the water,
usually measured in milligrams per litre (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm).
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) the amount of solids that are suspended in a solution.
Turbidity the clouding of the solution because suspended materials in the solution
reduce the transmission of light.
Ultra-filtration this process uses membranes to selectively filter molecules of a
particular size and weight.
Vacuum Freezing a desalination process that involves the temperature and pressure of
the feed water being lowered until the water freezes. This is then washed and then melted
to produce the product water.
Vapour Compression (VC) a desalination process where some of the feed water is
evaporated and then compressed with mechanical or thermal energy where it condenses
and is collected as product water. The latent heat released in the condensation process is
used to evaporate more feed water.
URS Australia
Annex 3
Consultancy terms
of reference
Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 3-1
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Economic and Technical Assessment of Desalination Technologies in Australia: With Particular Reference to National
Action Plan Priority Regions
Annex 3-2
Objectives
1. To report on the available technology and those factors which are key to ensuring that
desalination using those technologies can be cost effectively implemented to:
-
contribute to reducing the impacts of salinity on water quality for households and
communities.
While all available technologies should be considered, the report should focus on those
techniques which have the greatest potential to be most cost effective in the NAP regions.
Examples of where different techniques are effectively applied in Australian are to be
included in the report and significant overseas operations should also be included (for
example, the Yuma desalination operation in the USA which is providing 270 ML per day
of desalinated drainage water to the Colorado River for environmental outcomes).
2. Determine the key thresholds for the costs that potential users (urban, irrigation,
domestic) of desalinated water are currently willing to pay and the cost they would
need to pay for desalination to be a realistic option for water supply.
-
the study should look at the current barriers to adoption (eg cost, other) and
identify any ways of reducing these ie opportunistic use of off-peak power,
combine with other technologies that have excess power production at certain
times eg solar, wind power; and
can the technology be turned on/off quickly to make use of opportunistic power
etc.
3. Using the information derived in 1 & 2, identify those general locations within the 21
NAP priority regions where desalination has the potential to be cost effectively
employed as part of a local or regional strategy to reduce the impact of rising
groundwater and saline water resources and provide a fresh water resource.
4. Provide indicative costs for each desalination technology (including cost per unit of
water, capital and operating costs). The relationship between cost and the salinity of
water being desalinated should be identified (ie is it more cost effective to treat
moderate or high salinity water per unit of water, or per unit of salt in the case where
downstream impacts are the driver eg salt interception). What flow rates can the
technology produce and does the cost of production vary with the flow rate?
5. What issues are associated with waste production ie high salinity brine, bitterns etc how could these wastes be managed/disposed of, what costs involved, any
opportunities for productive use eg salt harvesting, mineral extraction, etc.
Methodology
This project is primarily envisaged as a desktop exercise, including a literature review and
telephone liaison with managers of existing and planned operations and authorities and
technical people in this field.
URS Australia