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For a fire to occur, three conditions must be met. There must be fuel, oxygen, and enough
heat to raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition or kindling point. If any of these
elements is missing or removed, fire will not be sustained.
A fire triangle illustrates that a fire requires fuel, oxygen, and enough
heat to cause the fuel and oxygen to ignite. If any of these elements is
missing, a fire will not ignite or continue to burn.
Chemically, fire is a reaction between oxygen and fuel. This reaction reduces fuel to its basic
chemical elements and in the process produces tremendous amounts of heat. Paper, for
example, is an organic material composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen. When the paper
is heated to its kindling temperature in the presence of air, the carbon and hydrogen will unite
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Other elements in the paper, and the
products of incomplete combustion, show up as ash and black carbon to form smoke.
In the case of smoke and fire hazards aboard aircraft, the emission of smoke or the presence of
flames and heat makes it reasonably easy for a person to physically detect a fire or overheat
condition. The smoke produced by combustion produces strong odors and is readily visible in
most circumstances, so the crew of an aircraft can physically detect a fire hazard in its early
stages, provided they are in the same compartment or area of the aircraft where the fire
occurs. However, many aircraft areas are inaccessible to the crew and, because of the design
of the aircraft, airflow around and through various compartments may prevent the hazard from
being detected until it is too late to remedy the problem.
To provide a more thorough means of monitoring remote locations of an aircraft for smoke or
fire, detection systems are mounted in areas the crew does not have access to in flight.
Some examples of areas where these systems may be installed include engine nacelles,
baggage compartments, electrical or electronic equipment bays and passenger lavatories.
Depending on the types of combustible materials that may smolder or ignite, the systems are
designed to activate by various means to provide the most accurate indication of an actual
hazard.
CLASSES OF FIRES
To understand how and why different types of fire-detection systems are better suited for
certain applications, you need to be familiar with the classifications of fire as identified by the
National Fire Protection Association. These fires are identified in conjunction with the types
of materials consumed by a fire and are assigned different letter classifications as follows:
Class A fire is one in which solid combustible material burns, such as wood, paper, or
cloth. Control cabins or passenger compartments are examples of locations where Class A
fires are likely to occur. Since the interiors of the passenger compartment and of the cockpit
are readily accessible to the crew, fire detection in these areas is generally accomplished by
visual surveillance. On the other hand, such fires can also occur in baggage compartments,
where crew access is limited or even impossible during flight. In these areas, monitoring is primarily accomplished with electrically powered smoke- or flame-detector systems.
Class B fires are composed of combustible liquids such as gasoline, oil, jet fuel, and many of
the paint thinners and solvents used in aviation maintenance. On an aircraft, these classes of
fires typically occur in engine compartments or nacelles and in compartments that house an
auxiliary power unit (APU). Since operating temperatures within these areas can be
extreme, overheat detection systems, which sense the rate of temperature rise, are often
used to monitor the zone for the presence of fire or overheat conditions. With these types of
monitoring devices, false alarms are less likely than with other types of detection systems.
Class C fires are those that involve energized electrical equipment. These fires require
special care because of the dangers from the electricity, in addition to those from the fire itself.
Such fires are generally confined to electrical and electronic equipment bays and to areas
behind electrical control panels. Since the initial stages of electrical equipment fires are
usually preceded by large amounts of smoke, these areas of an aircraft are generally monitored by smoke-detection systems.
Class D fires involve burning metals such as magnesium, and are difficult to extinguish.
Using the wrong type of extinguishing agent with these fires may not only be ineffective, but
may even cause the fire to spread. Although these types of fires are not common in aircraft
during flight, they can occur in maintenance shops, where metal shavings may ignite when
exposed to intense heat such as from a welding torch or high-voltage source.
FIRE ZONES
Various compartments in an aircraft are classified into fire zones based on the amount and
characteristics of airflow through them. The airflow through a compartment determines the
effectiveness of fire-detection systems, as well as the effectiveness of suppressant materials
used to extinguish a fire. Fire zones are primarily classified by the amount of oxygen that is
available for combustion and are identified as A, B, C, D, or X zones.
Class A zones have large quantities of air flowing past regular arrangements of similarly
shaped obstructions. The power section of a reciprocating engine is a common example of
this zone. For these areas, a fire-extinguishing system is usually installed, but may not
prove adequate since the suppressant may be carried out into the air-stream before
extinguishing the fire.
Class B zones have large quantities of air flowing past aerodynamically clean obstructions.
Heat-exchanger ducts and exhaust manifold shrouds are usually of this type, as are zones
where the inside of the cowling or other enclosure is smooth, free of pockets, and adequately
drained so that leaking flammables cannot puddle. For example, turbine engine
compartments are in this zone class, if the engine surfaces are aerodynamically clean and a
fireproof liner is installed to produce a smooth enclosure surface over any adjacent airframe
structure. Class B zones are usually protected by temperature sensing elements or flame and
smoke detection systems as well as extinguishing equipment, to provide a means of
controlling a fire if one should occur.
Class C zones have relatively low airflow through them. An auxiliary power unit (APU)
compartment is a common example of this type of zone. These may be protected by a firedetection and extinguishing system, or the compartment may have provisions for isolating
flammable materials such as fuel, oil, and hydraulic fluids.
Class D zones have very little or no airflow. These include wing compartments and wheel
wells, where little ventilation is provided. Due to the lack of airflow, fire-extinguishing
systems are usually not necessary since the fire will self-extinguish as it consumes the
atmosphere. However, fire-detection systems are often installed in Class D zones to warn the
crew that damage may have occurred to airframe components, so that corrective actions
may be taken. For example, a fire in a wheel well should self-extinguish due to lack of air, but
the wheels and tires may be damaged. A fire-detection system will warn the flight crew, so
that special precautions may be taken during the landing to preclude further hazards.
Class X zones have large quantities of air flowing through them and are of unusual
construction, making fire detection and uniform distribution of an extinguishing agent very
difficult. Zones containing deeply recessed spaces and pockets between large structural
formers are of this type. Fires in Class X zones will need twice the amount of extinguishing
agent normally used in a Class A zone.
1. The system must be constructed and installed in a manner that prevents false warnings
under all flight and ground operating conditions.
2. There must be a rapid indication of a fire and an accurate indication of the fire's location.
3. The system must have an accurate indication that a fire has been extinguished.
4. The system must automatically reset once a fire is extinguished, to provide an immediate
indication if the fire re-ignites.
5. When there is a fire, there must be a continuous indication for its duration.
6. The detection system must have a means for electrically testing the integrity of the
detection-system circuitry from the cockpit.
7. The detector or sensing units must be able to resist exposure to oil, water, vibration,
extreme temperatures, and maintenance handling. The units should also be lightweight
and easily adaptable to any mounting position and must also operate directly from the
aircraft power system, without inverters. In addition, when the detectors are not
sensing a hazard, there should be minimal requirements for electricity to power the
system.
8. Each detection system must actuate a cockpit light indicating the location of the fire, as
well as an audible alarm.
9. In the case of multi-engine aircraft, the detection system must consist of a separate
sensing circuit for each engine.
FIRE-DETECTION SYSTEMS
Engine fire-detection systems generally fall into two categories: spot-detection type systems
and continuous-loop type systems. With a spot-detection type system, individual fire
detectors, or switches, are used to detect a fire. Such detectors must be placed in locations
where a fire is likely to occur, because with this type of system a fire warning sounds only
when a fire exists in the same location as the detector. The continuous-loop type system
works on the same basic principle as the spot-type fire detectors, except that a single switch
in the form of a long inconel tube is used instead of several individual switches. The smalldiameter inconel tube is run completely around an engine nacelle or an area that surrounds
an auxiliary power unit, thus allowing more complete coverage than spot-type detection
systems.
FENWAL SYSTEMS
Fenwal produces a thermoswitch fire-detection system, a thermocouple fire-detection system,
and a continuous-loop fire-detection system.
THERMOSWITCH DETECTOR
A thermoswitch fire detection system is a spot-type detection system that uses a number of
thermally activated switches. Each switch, or sensor, consists of a bimetallic thermoswitch that
closes when heated to a predetermined temperature.
Single-Loop System
With a Fenwal single-loop system, all of the thermoswitches are wired in parallel with each
other, and the entire group of switches is connected in series with an indicator light. In this
arrangement, once a thermoswitch closes, the circuit is completed and power flows to the
warning light.
Double-Loop System
In a double-loop system, all of the detectors are connected in parallel between two complete
loops of wiring. The system is wired so that one leg of the circuit supplies current to the
detectors while the other leg serves as a path to ground. With this double-loop arrangement
the detection circuit can withstand one fault, either an open or short circuit, without causing a
false fire warning.
THERMOCOUPLE DETECTOR
A thermocouple-type, Edison fire-detector system is similar to a thermoswitch system in that
they are both spot-type detection systems. However, a thermocouple detector initiates a fire
warning when the temperature of the surrounding air rises too rapidly (warms too fast), rather
than responding to a preset temperature as does the thermoswitch detector.
CONTINUOUS-LOOP DETECTOR
In addition to a thermoswitch detection system, Fenwal also produces a continuous-loop
type system that consists of a single fire or overheat-sensing element that varies in length,
depending on the size of the fire zone. A typical sensing element can be anywhere from 1 foot
to 15 feet long. As mentioned earlier, the sensing element used in a continuous-loop fire
detection system consists of a flexible, small-diameter inconel tube.
KIDDE SYSTEM
The Kidde system is also a continuous-loop type system consisting of a single overheatsensing element that varies in length. The sensing element consists of a rigid, preshaped
inconel tube with two internal wire conductors. The conductors are embedded in a
thermistor, or thermal resistor material, to prevent the two electrodes from touching each
other and the exterior casing. Like the eutectic salt used in the Fenwal system, the thermistor
material has an electrical resistance that decreases as the temperature increases.
LINDBERG SYSTEM
The Lindberg fire detection system is a pneumatic continuous-loop type system consisting
of a stainless steel tube filled with an inert gas and a discrete material that is capable of
absorbing a portion of the gas. The amount of gas the material can absorb varies with
temperature. One end of the tube is connected to a pneumatic pressure switch called a
responder, which consists of a diaphragm and a set of contacts.
SYSTRON-DONNER SYSTEM
Like the Lindberg system, the Systron-Donner system's principle of operation is based on the
gas law: if the volume of a gas is held constant and the temperature increases, gas pressure
also increases. The helium gas surrounding the titanium wire provides the systems averaging
or overheat function. At normal temperatures, the helium pressure in the tube exerts an
insufficient amount of force to close the overheat switch. However, when the average
temperature along the length of the tube reaches an overheat level, the gas pressure
increases enough to close the diaphragm switch, which activates the alarm. Once the source
of the overheat condition is removed, the helium gas pressure drops and the diaphragm
switch opens.
The Systron-Donner fire detection and
overheat system consists of a heliumfilled sensor tube surrounding a hydrogen-charged core. With this system,
excessive temperatures increase the
gas
pressure
which
forces
a
diaphragm switch closed.
Once
closed, power flows to the warning
light and bell.
FLAME DETECTORS
Another type of fire detection system that is used on an aircraft is a flame detector system.
Most flame detectors consist of a photoelectric sensor that measures the amount of visible
light or infrared radiation in an enclosed area. The sensor is placed so it can see the
surrounding area, and anytime there is an increase in the amount of light that strikes the
cell, an electrical current is produced. Once enough current is produced and channeled
through an amplifier, a fire warning light and bell are activated.
FIRE-EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
As previously mentioned, the three elements that are needed to support combustion are a
combustible fuel, oxygen, and heat. If any one of these elements is removed, a fire will not
burn. The portable and fixed fire-extinguisher systems used in most aircraft are designed to
displace the oxygen with an inert agent that does not support combustion. The most common
types of aircraft extinguishing agents that are used include carbon dioxide and halogenated
hydrocarbons.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is about one and one-half times
heavier than air. To be used as an extinguishing agent, carbon dioxide must be
compressed and cooled until it becomes a liquid that can be stored in steel cylinders.
When released into the atmosphere, carbon dioxide expands and changes to a gas that
cools to a temperature of about 710. Because of the cooling effect, the water vapor in the
air immediately condenses to form "snow," which causes the CO 2 to appear to settle over
the flames and smother them. However, the fire is actually extinguished by the CO2
displacing the oxygen in the atmosphere, interrupting the chemical reaction between the
fuel and the oxygen. Once the "snow" warms, it evaporates, leaving almost no residue.
Carbon dioxide is effective on both Class B and Class C fires. A carbon dioxide hand held fire
extinguisher can be used on an electrical fire, provided the discharge horn is constructed of
a nonmetallic material. A metallic horn would tend to transfer an electrical charge back to the
fire extinguisher and to ground through the person holding the extinguisher. In addition,
since carbon dioxide leaves almost no residue, it is well suited for engine intake and
carburetor fires. Furthermore, carbon dioxide is nontoxic and does not promote corrosion.
However, if used improperly, carbon dioxide will dissipate oxygen uptake in the lungs, which
can cause physiological problems such as mental confusion and suffocation. Because of its
variation in vapor pressure with temperature, it is necessary to store CO 2 in stronger
containers than required for most other extinguishing agents.
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
A halogen element is one of the groups that consists of chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine.
Some hydrocarbons combine with halogens to produce very effective fire-extinguishing
agents that work by excluding oxygen from the fire source and by chemically interfering with
the combustion process. Halogenated hydrocarbon fire-extinguishing agents are most
effective on Class B and C fires but can be used on Class A and D fires as well. However, their
effectiveness on Class A and D fires is somewhat limited.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are numbered according to their chemical formulas with five-digit
Halon numbers, which identify the chemical makeup of the agent. The first digit represents
the number of carbon atoms in the compound molecule; the second digit, the number of
fluorine atoms; the third digit, the number of chlorine atoms; the fourth digit, the number of
bromine atoms; and the fifth digit, the number of iodine atoms, if any. If there is no iodine
present the fifth digit does not appear. For example, bromotrifluoromethane CF3Br is referred
to as Halon 1301, or sometimes by the trade name Freon 137.
Halon 1301 is extremely effective for extinguishing fires in engine compartments of both piston
and turbine powered aircraft and is also considered to be one of the best extinguishing agents
for aircraft interior fires. In engine compartment installations, the Halon 1301 container is
pressurized by compressed nitrogen and is discharged through spray nozzles. Halon 1301 is
also widely used as the agent for portable fire extinguishers.
agents
Another once-popular agent was methyl bromide (Halon 1001). However, methyl bromide is toxic
to personnel and corrosive to aluminum alloys, magnesium, and zinc. Of all the halogenated
hydrocarbon extinguishing agents, Halon 1301 is the safest to use from the standpoint of toxicity
and corrosion hazards. In small dosage amounts, the gas has a low toxicity, but has similar
effects of depriving oxygen from the lungs. Because of changing regulations and developing environmental impact data, you should keep abreast of current developments pertaining to the use
of halogenated hydrocarbons as fire-extinguishing agents. For example, several studies
suggest that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), such as Halon, damage the ozone layer in the
stratosphere, allowing higher levels of ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth. To reduce damage
to the ozone layer, the Environmental Protection Agency banned the production of CFCs
after December 31, 1995. However, existing stocks of CFCs are still allowed to be used after
this date. Several alternatives to CFCs have recently been developed and will most likely find
applications as aviation fire-extinguishing agents. For example, DuPont FE-258 has proven to
be an acceptable substitute for Halon 1301 as an extinguishing agent and has no harmful affect
on the earth's ozone layer. Other replacement extinguishing agents being researched include
water mist sprays, which have been proven to be effective in combating many A, B, and C class
fires.
As an aviation maintenance technician, it is important to be aware of EPA and FAA regulations
governing the use and disposal of CFCs. Improper handling or disposal of halogenated
hydrocarbons can lead to civil and criminal penalties.
The type of siphon tube installed in the cylinder is determined by the cylinder's mounting
position.
HIGH-RATE DISCHARGE SYSTEMS
High-rate-of-discharge (HRD) is the term applied to the fire-extinguishing systems found in
most modern turbine engine aircraft. A typical HRD system consists of a container to hold the
extinguishing agent, at least one bonnet assembly, and a series of high-pressure feed lines.
The containers used in an HRD system are typically made of steel and spherically shaped.
There are four sizes commonly in use today, ranging from 224 cubic inches to 945 cubic
inches. The smaller containers generally have two openings, one for the bonnet assembly
or operating head, and the other for a fusible safety plug. The larger containers are usually
equipped with two bonnet assemblies.
Each container is partially filled with an extinguishing agent, such as Halon 1301, and sealed
with a frangible disk. Once sealed, the container is pressurized with dry nitrogen. A container
pressure gauge is provided so you can quickly reference the container pressure. The bonnet
assembly contains an electrically ignited discharge cartridge, or squib, which fires a
projectile into the frangible disk. Once the disk breaks, the pressurized nitrogen forces the
extinguishing agent out of the sphere. A strainer is installed in the bonnet assembly to
prevent the broken disk fragments from getting into the distribution lines.
As a safety feature, each extinguishing container is equipped with a thermal fuse that melts
and releases the extinguishing agent if the bottle is subjected to high temperatures. If a
bottle is emptied in this way, the extinguishing agent will blow out a red indicator disk as it
vents to the atmosphere. On the other hand, if the bottle is discharged normally, a yellow
indicator disk blows out. Like a conventional system, the indicator disks are visible from the
outside of the fuselage for easy reference.
Two colored indicator disks are visible on the exterior of an
aircraft equipped with CO2 or HRD extinguisher system bottles.
If the red disk is missing, it indicates that the fire bottles have
discharged because the bottle pressure exceeded limits due
to thermal heating. If the yellow disk is missing, it indicates
that the bottles were discharged through activation of the
system from the cockpit controls.
When installed on a multi-engine aircraft, the fireextinguishing-agent containers are typically equipped
with two firing bonnets. The two discharge ports allow
one container to serve both engines.
ENGINE
Each engine is equipped with 2 fire
bottles. The discharge of the bottles
is controlled by an associated pb sw.
The pb switches are located on the
FIRE panel on the overhead panel.
APU
The engines and APU have
individual fire detection systems.
Each system consists of:
- Two identical detection loops (A
and B) mounted in parallel
- A fire detection unit (FDU)
CARGO COMPARTMENT
A total of six smoke detectors are installed in the cargo compartments. There are two
detectors in the forward compartment, four in the aft compartment. Each detector is linked
to one of the two detection loops.
The aft cargo compartment on the A320 only is ventilated and heated for live animal
carriage. Hot air is admitted through a trim air valve, and the air is exhausted through an
isolation valve. Activation of the smoke detection system causes these valves to close
automatically. When activated by the smoke system, they cannot be overridden by the crew.