PRINCIPLES OF FIRE-DETECTION SYSTEMS

For a fire to occur, three conditions must be met. There must be fuel, oxygen, and enough heat
to raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition or kindling point. If any of these elements is
missing or removed, fire will not be sustained.

A fire triangle illustrates that a fire requires fuel, oxygen, and enough
heat to cause the fuel and oxygen to ignite. If any of these elements is
missing, a fire will not ignite or continue to burn.

Chemically, fire is a reaction between oxygen and fuel. This reaction reduces fuel to its basic
chemical elements and in the process produces tremendous amounts of heat. Paper, for
example, is an organic material composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen. When the paper is
heated to its kindling temperature in the presence of air, the carbon and hydrogen will unite with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Other elements in the paper, and the
products of incomplete combustion, show up as ash and black carbon to form smoke.
In the case of smoke and fire hazards aboard aircraft, the emission of smoke or the presence of
flames and heat makes it reasonably easy for a person to physically detect a fire or overheat
condition. The smoke produced by combustion produces strong odors and is readily visible in
most circumstances, so the crew of an aircraft can physically detect a fire hazard in its early
stages, provided they are in the same compartment or area of the aircraft where the fire
occurs. However, many aircraft areas are inaccessible to the crew and, because of the design of
the aircraft, airflow around and through various compartments may prevent the hazard from
being detected until it is too late to remedy the problem.
To provide a more thorough means of monitoring remote locations of an aircraft for smoke or fire,
detection systems are mounted in areas the crew does not have access to in flight. Some
examples of areas where these systems may be installed include engine nacelles, baggage
compartments, electrical or electronic equipment bays and passenger lavatories. Depending on
the types of combustible materials that may smolder or ignite, the systems are designed to
activate by various means to provide the most accurate indication of an actual hazard.

CLASSES OF FIRES

To understand how and why different types of fire-detection systems are better suited for certain
applications, you need to be familiar with the classifications of fire as identified by the National
Fire Protection Association. These fires are identified in conjunction with the types of materials
consumed by a fire and are assigned different letter classifications as follows:
Class A fire is one in which solid combustible material burns, such as wood, paper, or cloth.
Control cabins or passenger compartments are examples of locations where Class A fires are
likely to occur. Since the interiors of the passenger compartment and of the cockpit are readily
accessible to the crew, fire detection in these areas is generally accomplished by visual
surveillance. On the other hand, such fires can also occur in baggage compartments, where crew
access is limited or even impossible during flight. In these areas, monitoring is primarily
accomplished with electrically powered smoke- or flame-detector systems.

Class B fires are composed of combustible liquids such as gasoline, oil, jet fuel, and many of the
paint thinners and solvents used in aviation maintenance. On an aircraft, these classes of fires
typically occur in engine compartments or nacelles and in compartments that house an
auxiliary power unit (APU). Since operating temperatures within these areas can be extreme,
overheat detection systems, which sense the rate of temperature rise, are often used to monitor
the zone for the presence of fire or overheat conditions. With these types of monitoring devices,
false alarms are less likely than with other types of detection systems.
Class C fires are those that involve energized electrical equipment. These fires require special
care because of the dangers from the electricity, in addition to those from the fire itself. Such fires
are generally confined to electrical and electronic equipment bays and to areas behind
electrical control panels. Since the initial stages of electrical equipment fires are usually preceded
by large amounts of smoke, these areas of an aircraft are generally monitored by smokedetection systems.
Class D fires involve burning metals such as magnesium, and are difficult to extinguish. Using
the wrong type of extinguishing agent with these fires may not only be ineffective, but may even
cause the fire to spread. Although these types of fires are not common in aircraft during flight, they
can occur in maintenance shops, where metal shavings may ignite when exposed to intense
heat such as from a welding torch or high-voltage source.

FIRE ZONES

Various compartments in an aircraft are classified into fire zones based on the amount and
characteristics of airflow through them. The airflow through a compartment determines the
effectiveness of fire-detection systems, as well as the effectiveness of suppressant materials used
to extinguish a fire. Fire zones are primarily classified by the amount of oxygen that is available for
combustion and are identified as A, B, C, D, or X zones.
Class A zones have large quantities of air flowing past regular arrangements of similarly shaped
obstructions. The power section of a reciprocating engine is a common example of this zone. For
these areas, a fire-extinguishing system is usually installed, but may not prove adequate since
the suppressant may be carried out into the air-stream before extinguishing the fire.
Class B zones have large quantities of air flowing past aerodynamically clean obstructions.
Heat-exchanger ducts and exhaust manifold shrouds are usually of this type, as are zones where
the inside of the cowling or other enclosure is smooth, free of pockets, and adequately drained so
that leaking flammables cannot puddle. For example, turbine engine compartments are in this
zone class, if the engine surfaces are aerodynamically clean and a fireproof liner is installed to
produce a smooth enclosure surface over any adjacent airframe structure. Class B zones are
usually protected by temperature sensing elements or flame and smoke detection systems as
well as extinguishing equipment, to provide a means of controlling a fire if one should occur.
Class C zones have relatively low airflow through them. An auxiliary power unit (APU)
compartment is a common example of this type of zone. These may be protected by a firedetection and extinguishing system, or the compartment may have provisions for isolating
flammable materials such as fuel, oil, and hydraulic fluids.
Class D zones have very little or no airflow. These include wing compartments and wheel
wells, where little ventilation is provided. Due to the lack of airflow, fire-extinguishing systems
are usually not necessary since the fire will self-extinguish as it consumes the atmosphere.
However, fire-detection systems are often installed in Class D zones to warn the crew that
damage may have occurred to airframe components, so that corrective actions may be taken.
For example, a fire in a wheel well should self-extinguish due to lack of air, but the wheels and

tires may be damaged. A fire-detection system will warn the flight crew, so that special
precautions may be taken during the landing to preclude further hazards.
Class X zones have large quantities of air flowing through them and are of unusual construction,
making fire detection and uniform distribution of an extinguishing agent very difficult. Zones
containing deeply recessed spaces and pockets between large structural formers are of this type.
Fires in Class X zones will need twice the amount of extinguishing agent normally used in a
Class A zone.
REQUIREMENTS FOR OVERHEAT AND FIRE-DETECTION SYSTEMS
Modern detection systems have been proven to be highly reliable when properly maintained.
These systems consist of electrical or electronic sensors that are installed in remote locations.
The sensors warn the operator of impending hazards by sounding an audible alarm and
illuminating a warning light that indicates the location of the hazard. Before these systems are
approved by the FAA for installation in an aircraft, the manufacturer must prove that the firedetection system design meets the following criteria:
1. The system must be constructed and installed in a manner that prevents false warnings
under all flight and ground operating conditions.
2. There must be a rapid indication of a fire and an accurate indication of the fire's location.
3. The system must have an accurate indication that a fire has been extinguished.
4. The system must automatically reset once a fire is extinguished, to provide an immediate
indication if the fire re-ignites.
5. When there is a fire, there must be a continuous indication for its duration.
6. The detection system must have a means for electrically testing the integrity of the
detection-system circuitry from the cockpit.
7. The detector or sensing units must be able to resist exposure to oil, water, vibration,
extreme temperatures, and maintenance handling. The units should also be lightweight and
easily adaptable to any mounting position and must also operate directly from the aircraft
power system, without inverters. In addition, when the detectors are not sensing a hazard,
there should be minimal requirements for electricity to power the system.
8. Each detection system must actuate a cockpit light indicating the location of the fire, as
well as an audible alarm.
9. In the case of multi-engine aircraft, the detection system must consist of a separate
sensing circuit for each engine.