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AncientGreece

Definition
byJoshuaJ.Mark
publishedon13November2013

GreeceisacountryinsoutheasternEurope,knowninGreekasHellasorEllada,and
consistingofamainlandandanarchipelagoofislands.GreeceisthebirthplaceofWestern
philosophy(Socrates,Plato,andAristotle),literature(HomerandHesiod),mathematics
(PythagorasandEuclid),history(Herodotus),drama(Sophocles,Euripedes,and
Aristophanes),theOlympicGames,anddemocracy.Theconceptofanatomicuniverse
wasfirstpositedinGreecethroughtheworkofDemocritusandLeucippus.Theprocessof
today'sscientificmethodwasfirstintroducedthroughtheworkofThalesofMiletusand
thosewhofollowedhim.TheLatinalphabetalsocomesfromGreece,havingbeen
introducedtotheregionbythePhoeniciansinthe8thcenturyBCE,andearlyworkinphysics

andengineeringwaspioneeredbyArchimedes,oftheGreekcolonyofSyracuse,among
others.
MainlandGreeceisalargepeninsulasurroundedonthreesidesbytheMediterraneanSea
(branchingintotheIonianSeainthewestandtheAegeanSeaintheeast)whichalso
comprisestheislandsknownastheCycladesandtheDodecanese(includingRhodes),the
Ionianislands(includingCorcyra),theisleofCrete,andthesouthernpeninsulaknownasthe
Peloponnese.
ThegeographyofGreecegreatlyinfluencedthecultureinthat,withfewnaturalresources
andsurroundedbywater,thepeopleeventuallytooktotheseafortheirlivelihood.
MountainscovereightypercentofGreeceandonlysmallriversrunthrougharocky
landscapewhich,forthemostpart,provideslittleencouragementforagriculture.
Consequently,theearlyGreekscolonizedneighboringislandsandfoundedsettlementsalong
thecoastofAnatolia(alsoknownasAsiaMinor,moderndayTurkey).TheGreeksbecame
skilledseafaringpeopleandtraderswho,possessinganabundanceofrawmaterialsfor
constructioninstone,andgreatskill,builtsomeofthemostimpressivestructuresinantiquity.

GREECEREACHEDTHEHEIGHTSINALMOSTEVERY
AREAOFHUMANLEARNING.

ETYMOLOGYOFHELLAS
ThedesignationHellasderivesfromHellen,thesonofDeucalionandPyrrhawhofeature
prominentlyinOvid'staleoftheGreatFloodinhisMetamorphoses.ThemythicalDeucalion
(sonofthefire-bringingtitanPrometheus)wasthesaviorofthehumanracefromtheGreat
Flood,inthesamewayNoahispresentedinthebiblicalversionorUtnapishtiminthe
Mesopotamianone.DeucalionandPyrrharepopulatethelandoncethefloodwatershave
recededbycastingstoneswhichbecomepeople,thefirstbeingHellen.Contrarytopopular
opinion,HellasandElladahavenothingtodowithHelenofTroyfromHomer'sIliad.Ovid,
however,didnotcointhedesignation.Thucydideswrites,inBookIofhisHistories:
Iaminclinedtothinkthattheverynamewasnotasyetgiventothe
wholecountry,andinfactdidnotexistatallbeforethetimeofHellen,
thesonofDeucalionthedifferenttribes,ofwhichthePelasgianwas
themostwidelyspread,gavetheirownnamestodifferentdistricts.But

whenHellenandhissonsbecamepowerfulinPhthiotis,theiraidwas
invokedbyothercities,andthosewhoassociatedwiththemgradually
begantobecalledHellenes,thoughalongtimeelapsedbeforethe
namewasprevalentoverthewholecountry.Ofthis,Homeraffordsthe
bestevidenceforhe,althoughhelivedlongaftertheTrojanWar,
nowhereusesthisnamecollectively,butconfinesittothefollowersof
AchillesfromPhthiotis,whoweretheoriginalHelleneswhen
speakingoftheentirehost,hecallsthemDanans,orArgives,or
Achaeans.

MINOANBULLLEAPING

EARLYHISTORYOFGREECE
Greekhistoryismosteasilyunderstoodbydividingitintotimeperiods.Theregionwas
alreadysettled,andagricultureinitiated,duringthePaleolithiceraasevidencedbyfindsat
PetralonaandFranchthicaves(twooftheoldesthumanhabitationsintheworld).The
NeolithicAge(c.6000-c.2900BCE)ischaracterizedbypermanentsettlements(primarilyin
northernGreece),domesticationofanimals,andthefurtherdevelopmentofagriculture.
ArchaeologicalfindsinnorthernGreece(Thessaly,Macedonia,andSesklo,amongothers)
suggestamigrationfromAnatoliainthattheceramiccupsandbowlsandfiguresfoundthere
sharequalitiesdistinctivetoNeolithicfindsinAnatolia.Theseinlandsettlerswereprimarily
farmers,asnorthernGreecewasmoreconducivetoagriculturethanelsewhereintheregion,
andlivedinone-roomstonehouseswitharoofoftimberandclaydaubing.

TheCycladicCivilization(c.3200-1100BCE)flourishedintheislandsoftheAegeanSea
(includingDelos,NaxosandParos)andprovidestheearliestevidenceofcontinualhuman
habitationinthatregion.DuringtheCycladicPeriod,housesandtempleswerebuiltof
finishedstoneandthepeoplemadetheirlivingthroughfishingandtrade.Thisperiodis
usuallydividedintothreephases:EarlyCycladic,MiddleCycladic,andLateCycladicwitha
steadydevelopmentinartandarchitecture.Thelattertwophasesoverlapandfinallymerge
withtheMinoanCivilization,anddifferencesbetweentheperiodsbecome
indistinguishable.
TheMinoanCivilization(2700-1500BCE)developedontheislandofCrete,andrapidly
becamethedominantseapowerintheregion.Theterm`Minoan'wascoinedbythe
archaeologistSirArthurEvans,whouncoveredtheMinoanpalaceofKnossosin1900CE
andnamedtheculturefortheancientCretankingMinos.Thenamebywhichthepeople
knewthemselvesisnotknown.TheMinoanCivilizationwasthriving,astheCycladic
Civilizationseemstohavebeen,longbeforetheacceptedmoderndateswhichmarkits
existenceandprobablyearlierthan6000BCE.
TheMinoansdevelopedawritingsystemknownasLinearA(whichhasnotyetbeen
deciphered)andmadeadvancesinshipbuilding,construction,ceramics,theartsand
sciences,andwarfare.KingMinoswascreditedbyancienthistorians(Thucydidesamong
them)asbeingthefirstpersontoestablishanavywithwhichhecolonized,orconquered,the
Cyclades.ArchaeologicalandgeologicalevidenceonCretesuggeststhiscivilizationfelldue
toanoveruseofthelandcausingdeforestationthough,traditionally,itisacceptedthatthey
wereconqueredbytheMycenaeans.Theeruptionofthevolcanoonthenearbyislandof
Thera(moderndaySantorini)between1650and1550BCE,andtheresultingtsunami,is
acknowledgedasthefinalcauseforthefalloftheMinoans.TheisleofCretewasdeluged
andthecitiesandvillagesdestroyed.ThiseventhasbeenfrequentlycitedasPlato's
inspirationincreatinghismythofAtlantisinhisdialoguesoftheCritiasandTimaeus.

DeathMaskofAgamemnon

THEMYCENAEANS&THEIRGODS
TheMycenaeanCivilization(approximately1900-1100BCE)iscommonlyacknowledged
asthebeginningofGreekculture,eventhoughweknowalmostnothingaboutthe
MycenaeanssavewhatcanbedeterminedthrougharchaeologicalfindsandthroughHomers
accountoftheirwarwithTroyasrecordedinTheIliad.Theyarecreditedwithestablishing
thecultureowingprimarilytotheirarchitecturaladvances,theirdevelopmentofawriting
system(knownasLinearB,anearlyformofGreekdescendedfromtheMinoanLinearA),and
theestablishment,orenhancementof,religiousrites.TheMycenaeansappeartohavebeen
greatlyinfluencedbytheMinoansofCreteintheirworshipofearthgoddessesandskygods,
which,intime,becometheclassicalpantheonofancientGreece.
ThegodsandgoddessesprovidedtheGreekswithasolidparadigmofthecreationofthe
universe,theworld,andhumanbeings.Anearlymythrelateshow,inthebeginning,therewas
nothingbutchaosintheformofunendingwaters.Fromthischaoscamethegoddess
Eurynomewhoseparatedthewaterfromtheairandbeganherdanceofcreationwiththe
serpentOphion.Fromtheirdance,allofcreationsprangandEurynomewas,originally,the
GreatMotherGoddessandCreatorofAllThings.
BythetimeHesiodandHomerwerewriting(8thcenturyBCE),thisstoryhadchangedinto
themorefamiliarmythconcerningthetitans,Zeus'waragainstthem,andthebirthofthe
OlympianGodswithZeusastheirchief.Thisshiftindicatesamovementfromamatriarchal
religiontoapatriarchalparadigm.Whichevermodelwasfollowed,however,thegodsclearly
interactedregularlywiththehumanswhoworshippedthemandwerealargepartofdailylife

inancientGreece.PriortothecomingoftheRomans,theonlyroadinmainlandGreecethat
wasnotacowpathwastheSacredWaywhichranbetweenthecityofAthensandtheholy
cityofEleusis,birthplaceoftheEleusinianMysteriescelebratingthegoddessDemeterand
herdaughterPersephone.
By1100BCEthegreatMycenaeancitiesofsouthwestGreecewereabandonedand,some
claim,theircivilizationdestroyedbyaninvasionofDoricGreeks.Archaeologicalevidenceis
inconclusiveastowhatledtothefalloftheMycenaeans.Asnowrittenrecordsofthisperiod
survive(orhaveyettobeunearthed)onemayonlyspeculateoncauses.Thetabletsof
LinearBscriptfoundthusfarcontainonlylistsofgoodsbarteredintradeorkeptinstock.
Nohistoryofthetimehasyetemerged.Itseemsclear,however,thatafterwhatisknownas
theGreekDarkAges(approximately1100-800BCE,sonamedbecauseoftheabsenceof
writtendocumentation)theGreeksfurthercolonizedmuchofAsiaMinor,andtheislands
surroundingmainlandGreeceandbegantomakesignificantculturaladvances.Beginninginc.
585BCEthefirstGreekphilosopher,Thales,wasengagedinwhat,today,wouldbe
recognisedasscientificinquiryinthesettlementofMiletusontheAsiaMinorcoastandthis
regionofIoniancolonieswouldmakesignificantbreakthroughsinthefieldsofphilosophy
andmathematics.

TheParthenon

FROMTHEARCHAICTOTHECLASSICALPERIODS
TheArchaicPeriod(800-500BCE)ischaracterizedbytheintroductionofRepublicsinstead
ofMonarchies(which,inAthens,movedtowardDemocraticrule)organisedasasinglecitystateorpolis,theinstitutionoflaws(DracosreformsinAthens),thegreatPanathenaeic
Festivalwasestablished,distinctiveGreekpotteryandGreeksculpturewereborn,andthe
firstcoinsmintedontheislandkingdomofAegina.This,then,setthestageforthe
flourishingoftheClassicalPeriodofGreecegivenas500-400BCEor,moreprecisely,as480323BCE,fromtheGreekvictoryatSalamistothedeathofAlexandertheGreat.Thiswas

theGoldenAgeofAthens,whenPericlesinitiatedthebuildingoftheAcropolisandspoke
hisfamouseulogyforthemenwhodieddefendingGreeceattheBattleofMarathonin490
BCE.Greecereachedtheheightsinalmosteveryareaofhumanlearningduringthistimeand
thegreatthinkersandartistsofantiquity(Phidias,Plato,Aristophanes,tomentiononlythree)
flourished.Leonidasandhis300SpartansfellatThermopylaeand,thesameyear(480
BCE),ThemistocleswonvictoryoverthesuperiorPersiannavalfleetatSalamisleadingto
thefinaldefeatofthePersiansatPlataeain379BCE.
Democracy(literallyDemos=peopleandKratos=power,sopowerofthepeople)was
establishedinAthensallowingallmalecitizensovertheageoftwentyavoiceingovernment.
ThePre-Socraticphilosophers,followingThales'lead,initiatedwhatwouldbecomethe
scientificmethodinexploringnaturalphenomena.MenlikeAnixamander,Anaximenes,
Pythagoras,Democritus,Xenophanes,andHeraclitusabandonedthetheisticmodelofthe
universeandstrovetouncovertheunderlying,firstcauseoflifeandtheuniverse.
Theirsuccessors,amongwhomwereEuclidandArchimedes,continuedphilosophicalinquiry
andfurtherestablishedmathematicsasaseriousdiscipline.TheexampleofSocrates,andthe
writingsofPlatoandAristotleafterhim,haveinfluencedwesterncultureandsocietyforover
twothousandyears.Thisperiodalsosawadvancesinarchitectureandartwithamovement
awayfromtheidealtotherealistic.FamousworksofGreeksculpturesuchastheParthenon
MarblesandDiscobolos(thediscusthrower)datefromthistimeandepitomizetheartist's
interestindepictinghumanemotion,beauty,andaccomplishmentrealistically,evenifthose
qualitiesarepresentedinworksfeaturingimmortals.
AllofthesedevelopmentsincultureweremadepossiblebytheascentofAthensfollowing
hervictoryoverthePersiansin480BCE.Thepeaceandprosperitywhichfollowedthe
Persiandefeatprovidedthefinancesandstabilityforculturetoflourish.Athensbecamethe
superpowerofherdayand,withthemostpowerfulnavy,wasabletodemandtributefrom
othercitystatesandenforceherwishes.AthensformedtheDelianLeague,adefensive
alliancewhosestatedpurposewastodeterthePersiansfromfurtherhostilities.
Thecity-stateofSparta,however,doubtedAtheniansincerityandformedtheirown
associationforprotectionagainsttheirenemies,thePeloponnesianLeague(sonamedforthe
PeloponnesusregionwhereSpartaandtheotherswerelocated).Thecity-stateswhichsided
withSpartaincreasinglyperceivedAthensasabullyandatyrant,whilethosecitieswhich
sidedwithAthensviewedSpartaandherallieswithgrowingdistrust.Thetensionbetween
thesetwopartieseventuallyeruptedinwhathasbecomeknownasthePeloponnesianWars.
Thefirstconflict(c.460-445BCE)endedinatruceandcontinuedprosperityforbothparties
whilethesecond(431-404BCE)leftAthensinruinsandSparta,thevictor,bankruptafterher
protractedwarwithThebes.

ThistimeisgenerallyreferredtoastheLateClassicalPeriod(c.400-330BCE).Thepower
vacuumleftbythefallofthesetwocitieswasfilledbyPhilipIIofMacedon(382-336BCE)
afterhisvictoryovertheAthenianforcesandtheiralliesattheBattleofChaeroneain338
BCE.PhilipunitedtheGreekcitystatesunderMacedonianruleand,uponhisassassinationin
336BCE,hissonAlexanderassumedthethrone.
AlexandertheGreat

ALEXANDERTHEGREAT&THECOMINGOFROME
AlexandertheGreat(356-323BCE)carriedonhisfather'splansforafullscaleinvasionof
PersiainretaliationfortheirinvasionofGreecein480BCE.Ashehadalmostthewholeof
Greeceunderhiscommand,astandingarmyofconsiderablesizeandstrength,andafull
treasury,Alexanderdidnotneedtobotherwithalliesnorwithconsultinganyoneregarding
hisplanforinvasionandsoledhisarmyintoEgypt,acrossAsiaMinor,throughPersia,and
finallytoIndia.TutoredinhisyouthbyPlatosgreatstudentAristotle,Alexanderwould
spreadtheidealsofGreekcivilizationthroughhisconquestsand,insodoing,transmitted
Greekphilosophy,culture,language,andarttoeveryregionhecameincontactwith.
In323BCEAlexanderdiedandhisvastempirewasdividedbetweenfourofhisgenerals.
ThisinitiatedwhathascometobeknowntohistoriansastheHellenisticAge(323-31BCE)
duringwhichGreekthoughtandculturebecamedominantinthevariousregionsunderthese
generals'influence.AfteraseriesofstrugglesbetweentheDiodachi(`thesuccessors'as
Alexander'sgeneralscametobeknown)GeneralAntigonusestablishedtheAntigonid
DynastyinGreecewhichhethenlost.Itwasregainedbyhisgrandson,AntigonusIIGonatus,
by276BCEwhoruledthecountryfromhispalaceatMacedon.
TheRomanRepublicbecameincreasinglyinvolvedintheaffairsofGreeceduringthistime
and,in168BCE,defeatedMacedonattheBattleofPydna.Afterthisdate,Greecesteadily
cameundertheinfluenceofRome.In146BCEtheregionwasdesignatedaProtectorateof
RomeandRomansbegantoemulateGreekfashion,philosophyand,toacertainextent,
sensibilities.In31BCEOctavianCaesarannexedthecountryasaprovinceofRome
followinghisvictoryoverMarkAntonyandCleopatraattheBattleofActium.Octavian
becameAugustusCaesarandGreeceapartoftheRomanEmpire.

Ancient Greece in a 3D travel

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR
JOSHUAJ.MARK
Afreelancewriterandpart-timeProfessorofPhilosophyatMarist
College,NewYork,JoshuaJ.MarkhaslivedinGreeceandGermanyand
traveledthroughEgypt.Heteachesancienthistory,writing,literature,
andphilosophy.

HELPUSWRITEMORE
We'reasmallnon-profitorganisationrunbyahandfulofvolunteers.Eacharticle
costsusabout$50inhistorybooksassourcematerial,pluseditingandserver
costs.Youcanhelpuscreateevenmorefreearticlesforaslittleas$5per
month,andwe'llgiveyouanad-freeexperiencetothankyou!
BECOMEAMEMBER

BIBLIOGRAPHY
TheInternetClassicsArchive|TheHistoryofHerodotusbyHerodotus
ThucydidesBookI
BrendanNagle,D,TheAncientWorld(Pearson,2009).

Durant,W,CaesarandChrist(SimonandSchuster,1972).
Durant,W,TheLifeofGreece(Simon&Schuster,2011).
Graves,R,TheGreekMyths(Penguin,NY,1993)
Waterfield,R,TheFirstPhilosophers(OxfordUniversityPress,USA,2009).
CITETHISWORK

LEGALNOTICE
WrittenbyJoshuaJ.Mark,publishedon13November2013underthefollowinglicense:Creative
Commons:Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike .Thislicenseletsothersremix,tweak,andbuild
uponthiscontentnon-commercially,aslongastheycredittheauthorandlicensetheirnewcreationsunder
theidenticalterms.

Map

GREEKCITY-STATES-1100BCE

1100BCE800BCE800BCE700BCE700BCE700BCE700BCE600BCE513BCE478BCE
403BCE377BCE361BCE337BCE

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REMOVEADS

ADDEVENT

Timeline

Timeline
c.6000BCE-2900BCE
NeolithicAgesettlementsinGreece,beginningofagriculture..
c.3200BCE-1100BCE
TheCycladicCivilizationinGreece.
2700BCE-1500BCE
TheMinoanCivilizationflourishesonCrete,Greece.KingMinosestablishesthefirst
navyintheregion.
2300BCE
BronzeisusedintheAegean.
2000BCE
EarlyGreekssettlethePeloponnese.
2000BCE-1450BCE
MinoancivilizationinCreteandtheAegean.
1900BCE-1100BCE
MycenaeancivilizationinGreeceandtheAegean.
1650BCE-1550BCE
EruptionofTheraandconsequenttidalwaves,destructionofAkrotiriandother
Aegeancentres.
1100BCE
DorianpeoplesoccupyGreece.
c.1100BCE
Greeksimplementuseofindividualtombsandgraves.
c.1000BCE
ThefirstdistinctiveGreekpotteryisproduced,theProto-geometricstyle.
c.900BCE
Spartaisfounded.

c.900BCE
TheGeometricstyleofGreekpotteryisfirstproduced.
c.800BCE-c.700BCE
HomerofGreecewriteshisIliadandOdyssey.
800BCE-500BCE
GreekcolonizationoftheMediterraneanandBlackSea.
c.800BCE-500BCE
ArchaicperiodofGreece.
c.740BCE-c.433BCE
Greekpoleisorcity-statesestablishcoloniesinMagnaGraecia.
733BCE
CorinthfoundsthecolonyofSyracuseinSicily.
683BCE-682BCE
ListofannualarchonsatAthensbegins.
c.660BCE
PheidonistyrantinArgos.
c.657BCE-585BCE
TheKypselidaiaretyrantsofCorinth.
c.650BCE
SpartacrushesMessenianrevolt.
650BCE
EarliestlargescaleGreekmarblesculpture.
650BCE-600BCE
Ageoflaw-giversinGreece.
c.625BCE
Black-figurepotterycreatedinCorinth.

c.625BCE-600BCE
TheorientalizingstyleofGreekpotterybecomespopularinCorinth.
594BCE-593BCE
InAthensthearchonSolonlaysthefoundationsfordemocracy.
580BCE-376BCE
CarthageandGreecefightfordominanceinSicily.
c.560BCE
PisistratosbecomestyrantinAthensforthefirsttime.
c.550BCE-c.366BCE
PeloponnesianLeaguealliancebetweenSparta,Corinth,ElisandTegeawhich
establishesSpartanhegemonyoverthePeloponnese.
546BCE-545BCE
PersianconquestofIonianGreekcity-states.
539BCE
Etruscan&CarthaginianallianceexpelstheGreeksfromCorsica.
535BCE-522BCE
PolycratesrulesastyrantofSamos.
c.530BCE
Red-figurepotterystyletakesprecedentoverblack-figure.
530BCE
TheAndokidesPainterinventsred-figurepottery.
c.525BCE-c.456BCE
LifeofGreektragedypoetAeschylus.
521BCE
DariusI(DariustheGreat)succeedstothethroneofPersiaafterthedeathof
Cambyses.

514BCE
FallofthePeisistratidtyrannyinAthens.
514BCE
ThetyrantofAthensHipparchosiskilledbyHarmodiosandAristogeiton-the
'tyrannicides'.
c.508BCE
ReformsbyCleisthenesestablishesdemocracyinAthens.
499BCE-494BCE
IoniancitiesrebelagainstPersianrule.
c.498BCE
IoniansandGreekalliesinvadeandburnSardis(capitalofLydia).
c.496BCE-c.406BCE
LifeofGreektragedypoetSophocles.
c.495BCE
BirthofPericles.
492BCE
DariusIofPersiainvadesGreece.
11Sep490BCE
AcombinedforceofGreekhoplitesdefeatthePersiansatMarathon.
487BCE-486BCE
ArchonsbegintobeappointedbylotinAthens.
486BCE
XerxessucceedstothethroneofPersiaafterthedeathofDariusI.
c.484BCE-407BCE
LifeofGreektragedypoetEuripides.
c.483BCE
ThemistoclespersuadestheAthenianstosignificantlyexpandtheirfleet,whichsaves

thematSalamisandbecomestheirsourceofpower.
480BCE-323BCE
TheClassicalPeriodinGreece.
Jul480BCE
XerxesImakesextensivepreparationstoinvademainlandGreecebybuildingdepots,
canalsandaboatbridgeacrosstheHellespont.
Aug480BCE
BattleofThermopylae.300SpartansunderKingLeonidasandotherGreekallies
holdbackthePersiansledbyXerxesIforthreedaysbutaredefeated.
Aug480BCE
TheindecisivebattleofArtemisionbetweentheGreekandPersianfleetsofXerxesI.
TheGreekswithdrawtoSalamis.
Sep480BCE
BattleofSalamiswheretheGreeknavalfleetledbyThemistoclesdefeatsthe
invadingarmadaofXerxesIofPersia.
479BCE
Xerxes'PersianforcesaredefeatedbyGreekforcesatPlataeaeffectivelyending
Persia'simperialambitionsinGreece.
479BCE-432CE
TheperiodofThucydides'PentecontaetiainancientGreece.
478BCE
SpartawithdrawsfromallianceagainstPersia.
478BCE-404BCE
TheDelianLeagueinGreece,ledbyAthens.
c.469BCE-399BCE
LifeofSocrates.
c.462BCE-458BCE
PericlesintroducesdemocraticinstitutionsinAthens.

460BCE-445BCE
FirstPeloponnesianWar.
c.460BCE-c.380BCE
LifeofGreekcomicpoetAristophanes.
c.460BCE-c.320CE
PeriodoffullanddirectcitizendemocracyinAthens.
457BCE
HegemonyofAthensovercentralGreece.
451BCE
ThirtyyearspeacebetweenArgosandSparta.
c.451BCE-c.403CE
LifeofAthenianstatesmanandgeneralAlcibiades.
449BCE-448BCE
PeacebetweenGreeceandPersia.
448BCE
IoniancitiesbecomeindependentfromPersia.
448BCE
ThePeaceofCalliaswithPersia.
447BCE-432BCE
TheconstructionoftheParthenoninAthensbythearchitectsIktinosandKallikrates
underthedirectionofPheidias.
446BCE-445BCE
ThirtyyearspeacebetweenAthensandPeloponnesians.
431BCE-404BCE
The2ndPeloponnesianWarbetweenAthensandSparta(theDelianLeagueand
thePeloponnesianLeague)whichinvolvedallofGreece.

427BCE-347BCE
LifeofPlato.
421BCE
PeaceofNicias,atrucebetweentheDelianandPeloponnesianLeagues.
420BCE
Democritosdevelopsanatomictheoryofmatter.
c.415BCE
TheHistoriesofHerodotusispublished.Theworkisdividedintoninechapters,each
dedicatedtooneoftheMuses.
412BCE
SpartaallieswithPersia.
404BCE
EndofthePeloponnesianwar,AthensdefeatedBySpartaatAigospotamoi,Ruleof
theThirtyTyrantsinAthens.
403BCE
Platoturnsawayfrompoliticstowardphilosophy.
400BCE
PepperisknowninGreece.
400BCE-330BCE
TheLateClassicalPeriodinGreece.
399BCE
TrialanddeathofthephilosopherSocrates,whotaughtinthecourtoftheAgora.
c.398BCE-c.380BCE
PlatotravelsinEgypt,Cyrene,Italy,SyracuseandSicily.
395BCE-386BCE
TheCorinthianWarsbetweenSpartaandanallianceofAthens,Corinth,Argos,
BoeotiaandThebes.

384BCE-322BCE
LifeofAristotle.
c.384BCE-322CE
LifeofAthenianstatesmanDemosthenes.
380BCE
PlatofoundshisAcademyoutsideofAthens.
371BCE
Thebes,ledbyEpaminondas,defeatsSpartaintheBattleofLeuctra.
371BCE-362BCE
Thebesisthedominantcity-stateinGreece.
359BCE-336BCE
ReignofPhilipIIofMacedon.
356BCE
ThirdSocialWarinGreece.
21Jul356BCE-11Jun323BCE
LifeofAlexandertheGreat.
350BCE
TheScythianshaveabsorbedalotofGreekculture,ScythianartefactsshowGreekstyledepictions.
347BCE
PlatodiesathisAcademy.
343BCE
AristotlebecomestutorofyoungAlexander.
336BCE-323BCE
ReignofAlexandertheGreat.
334BCE
AlexanderinvadesthePersianempire.

331BCE
EgyptisconqueredbyAlexandertheGreatwithoutresistance.
323BCE-31BCE
HellenisticcivilizationinGreece,theMediterraneanandAsia.
323BCE-31BCE
TheHellenisticAge.Greekthoughtandcultureinfuseswithindigenouspeople.
320BCE
LastrecordedexamplesofAtticRed-FigurePottery.
310BCE
AssassinationofRoxanneandAlexanderIV,wifeandsonofAlexandertheGreat.
c.280BCE
FoundingoftheAchaeanLeagueinthePeloponneseofGreece.
270BCE
AristarchusofSamosproposesaheliocentricworldview.
168BCE
RomedefeatsMacedonatBattleofPydna.
146BCE
RomesacksCorinthanddissolvestheAchaeanleague.GreeceisruledbyRome.
146BCE
RomaninfluenceoverGreecebeginstorise.
140BCE
VenusofMiloiscompleted.
88BCE-63BCE
MithridatesofPontusfightsthreewarstofreeGreecefromRome.
86BCE
TheRomangeneralSullasacksAthensandtheportofPiraeus.

31BCE
GreeceabsorbedintoRomanEmpire.
42CE-62CE
St.PaulgoesonmissionaryjourneysacrossAsiaMinor,Greece,andRome.
c.50CE-c.60CE
EstablishmentofvariousChristiancommunitiesintheEasternMediterranean,Greece,
Egypt,andatleastthecityofRome.
257CE-263CE
TheGothsraidGreece.
267CE
TheGothssackAthens,Corinth,Sparta,andArgos.

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